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Gene Therapy for Haemophilia

Context: The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) along with the Centre for Stem Cell Research (CSCR) at Christian Medical College (CMC), Vellore, Tamil Nadu has successfully executed a first-in-human gene therapy using lentiviral vectors to treat Haemophilia-A. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Haemophilia; Gene Therapy Products; National Guidelines For Gene Therapy

Mains: Gene Therapy: Mechanism; Applications, Challenges 

What is Haemophilia? 

  • Haemophilia is a rare genetic severe bleeding disorder caused by the deficiency of clotting Factor VIII, leading to spontaneous internal and external bleeding episodes.
    • People with Haemophilia have lower levels of clotting factors (proteins in blood that help it clot). This can lead to excessive bleeding, even after a minor injury.
  • It is an X-chromosome linked recessive disorder, which means that it is more common in males than in females. Females can carry the haemophilia gene, but they usually do not have symptoms unless they have two copies of the gene, one from each parent. 
  • India bears the world’s second-largest burden of Haemophilia.
    • It is a lifelong condition with no permanent cure. 
    • Current treatments involve frequent Factor VIII replacement therapy (to replace the deficient clotting factor through infusions). 
image 58

What is Gene Therapy?

  • Gene therapy is a technique that seeks to modify or manipulate the expression of a gene or to alter the biological properties of living cells for therapeutic use (treat or cure disease). 
  • Gene therapies can work by several mechanisms:
    • Inactivating a disease-causing gene that is not functioning properly.
    • Replacing a disease-causing gene with a healthy copy of the gene. 
    • Introducing a new or modified gene into the body to help treat a disease.

Modes of Gene Therapy:

  • Germline Gene Therapy:
    • This involves modifying genes in reproductive cells (sperm or egg), which means the changes would be passed onto future generations.
    • Gene editing of embryonic cells is banned across the world (and in India by ICMR Guidelines 2019)
  • Somatic Gene Therapy:
    • This involves modifying genes in any cell other than a reproductive cell. Changes made through somatic gene therapy affect only the treated individual and are not inherited by their offspring. This is the primary focus of current gene therapy research due to its safety and ethical considerations.
modes of gene therapy

Gene Therapy Products:

  • Gene Therapy Products (GTP) are biological substances designed to introduce genetic material into a patient's cells to treat or prevent a disease.

Key Components of GTP:

  • Therapeutic Gene: This is the specific genetic material intended to treat the disease.
  • Vector: A carrier that delivers the therapeutic gene into the target cells. This can be a virus (viral vector) or a synthetic carrier (non-viral vector).   
  • Other Components: Depending on the specific product, additional components may be included, such as promoters, enhancers, or markers to optimise gene expression.

Types of Gene Therapy Products: 

  • Plasmid DNA: Circular DNA molecules can be genetically engineered to carry therapeutic genes into human cells.
  • Viral vectors:
    • Viruses have a natural ability to deliver genetic material into cells, and therefore some gene therapy products are derived from viruses. 
    • Once viruses have been modified to remove their ability to cause infectious disease, these modified viruses can be used as vectors/vehicles to carry therapeutic genes into human cells.
  • Bacterial vectors: Bacteria can be modified to prevent them from causing infectious disease and then used as vectors (vehicles) to carry therapeutic genes into human tissues.
  • Patient-derived cellular gene therapy products: Cells are removed from the patient, genetically modified (often using a viral vector) and then returned to the patient. 
gene therapy

Applications of Gene Therapy:

  • Cardiovascular Diseases: Gene therapy is being explored to treat conditions like heart failure, coronary artery disease, and arrhythmias.
  • Cancer: This is a major focus area for gene therapy, with various approaches being investigated, including CAR T-cell therapy, tumour suppressor gene therapy, and oncolytic viruses.
  • Genetic Disorders: Gene therapy holds great promise for treating genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy by correcting the underlying genetic defect.
  • Neurological Disorders: Conditions like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and spinal cord injuries are being targeted with gene therapy to restore neuronal function.
  • Infectious Diseases: Gene therapy is being explored as a potential treatment for HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases by enhancing the immune response.

 Challenges involved in Gene Therapy:

  • Delivery of genes: Effectively getting the genetic material to the target cells can be difficult.   
  • Immune response: The body might reject the introduced genetic material.
  • Long-term effects: The long-term consequences of gene therapy are still being studied.
  • Ethical Concerns: Germline Gene Therapy raises significant ethical concerns (designer babies, unintended consequences on future generations) and is currently banned in many countries.

 National Guidelines For Gene Therapy: 

  • The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) released National Guidelines for Gene Therapy Product Development and Clinical Trials in 2019. The guidelines are a crucial framework for the advancement of gene therapy in India. 
  • Purpose: To ensure the ethical, scientific, and safe conduct of gene therapy clinical trials and promote the development of gene therapies for treating genetic and rare diseases.
  • Scope: Covers all aspects of gene therapy product development, from preclinical testing to clinical trials and post-market surveillance.
  • Ethical Emphasis: Strong focus on patient safety, informed consent, and ethical considerations.
  • GTAEC: Establishes the Gene Therapy Advisory and Evaluation Committee (GTAEC) to oversee gene therapy activities.
  • Focus on Rare Diseases: Aims to address the unmet needs of patients with rare genetic disorders. 

Mechanism used in the latest Gene Therapy to treat Haemophilia:

  • The gene therapy approach uses a lentiviral vector to introduce a normal copy of the Factor VIII gene into autologous haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs).
    • Lentiviral vectors are a type of viral vector that can be used to transfer genetic material into cells for gene therapy.
  • These modified HSCs generate blood cells capable of producing functional Factor VIII over extended periods, thus terminating the need for repeated infusions. 

World Solar Report 2024

Context: The World Solar Report 2024 by the International Solar Alliance (ISA) was released in November. 

Relevance of the Topic Prelims: Key understanding of broad trends in the Solar Energy Sector; International Solar Alliance. 

Major Highlights of the Report:

  • Surge in global solar capacity: Solar capacity represents three-quarters of all renewable capacity additions worldwide. From 1.22 GW in 2000, the world’s solar capacity has surged to 1,419 GW in 2023. 
  • Increasing Investments: The report highlights the global shift toward sustainable energy, with energy investments rising from $2.4 trillion in 2018 to $3.1 trillion by 2024. 
  • Increased Installed capacity: As of 2023, China dominates solar PV as 43% (609 GW) of the cumulative capacity of solar panels installed globally is from China. The U.S. contributes 10% (137.73 GW). Japan, Germany, and India each captured a 5-6% share. 
  • Solar Manufacturing: Solar PV manufacturing has nearly doubled in capacity for wafers, cells, and modules in 2023. China maintained the highest share in component manufacturing in 2023, with 97% in wafers, 89% in cells, and 83% in module installation capacity.
  • Employment generation: Employment in the solar PV sector rose to 7.1 million jobs in 2023, up from 4.9 million in 2022 worldwide.
  • Advancement in Solar Technology: There is 24.9% efficiency in solar PV modules, an 88% reduction in silicon usage since 2004, and a 90% drop in utility-scale solar PV costs, fostering resilient, cost-effective energy solutions.

New Solar Technologies:

  • Quantum dot solar cells have achieved an efficiency of 18.1%, offering a promising approach to enhance solar energy capture and power atmospheric water harvesting technologies. 
  • Self-healing solar panels (presently under development) to extend the lifespan and reduce the maintenance of existing solar cell technologies. 
  • Solar-powered phyto-mining uses solar energy to power the extraction of valuable metals from soil-using plants, offering a sustainable alternative to traditional mining practices.
  • Solar paver blocks integrated with building infrastructure and BIPV (Building Integrated PV), like transparent solar panels, allow light transmission and visibility. 
  • The solar sector is also prioritising recycling panels and implementing circular economy practices to minimise environmental impact.
New Solar Technologies:

About  International Solar Alliance: 

  • The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris in 2015 by India and France, and came into force in 2017.
  • Aim: Global deployment of over 1,000 GW of solar generation capacity and mobilisation of investment of over US$ 1000 billion into solar energy by 2030.
  • It seeks to bring together the countries which lie either completely or partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn for harnessing solar energy. 
  • The membership of the ISA has now been extended to UN member countries as well (presently 120+ members). 
  • Initiatives by ISA: 
    • Global Solar Facility (GSF): A fund formed by ISA to stimulate investments into solar power projects. 
    • One Sun One World One Grid: OSOWOG envisions building and scaling a transnational electricity grid to share solar energy across the globe, leveraging the differences of time zones, seasons, resources, and prices between countries and regions.
  • Secretariat: Gurugram, Haryana, India.  

Merchant Shipping Bill 2024

Context: India unveils new Merchant Shipping Bill 2024 which seeks to repeal Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 to streamline vessel ownership, registration, and environmental regulations.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key provisions of Merchant Shipping Bill 2024. 

Mains: Provisions and significance of the Merchant Shipping Bill 2024. 

Background: 

  • The Merchant Shipping Act, 1958, restricts seafarers’ welfare provisions to Indian-flagged ships, despite 85% of the 2,80,000 active Indian seafarers working on foreign-flagged vessels. Additionally, the Act lacks enabling provisions for implementing certain international conventions that India has signed or plans to ratify.
  • The Merchant Shipping Bill introduces significant changes to modernise India’s maritime framework, drawing upon the best practices of leading maritime jurisdictions like the U.K., Norway, and Singapore.
maritime map

Key Provisions of Merchant Shipping Bill 2024:

  • Simplified ownership criteria: 
    • The existing law restricts vessel registration to entities with 100% Indian ownership. The new Bill proposes significant reforms to attract foreign investment. 
    • It also reduces the ownership threshold for Indian citizens/entities from 100% to 51%, enabling more flexibility.
  • Expanded eligibility for vessel ownership.
    • Ownership allowed for Indian citizens, Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs) and companies established under Central Act or State Act having its registered office of business in India.
  • Registration of vessels: 
    • The Bill allows the registration of vessels chartered by Indian entities under the bareboat charter-cum-demise, enabling entrepreneurs to acquire ownership of vessels at the end of the charter period. 
  • Enlarging the scope of vessels:
    • The existing Act regulates only mechanised ships (engine-fitted vessels) above a certain size, leaving smaller mechanised vessels and all non-mechanised vessels outside its ambit. This regulatory gap has allowed many vessels to operate without adequate oversight.
    • The new Bill seeks to address this issue by expanding the definition of ‘vessels’ to uniformly include a wide range of crafts, including submersibles, semi-submersibles, hydrofoils, non-displacement crafts, amphibious crafts, wing-in-ground crafts, pleasure crafts, barges, lighters, Mobile Offshore Drilling Units (MODUs), and Mobile Offshore Units (MOUs), whether mechanised or not. 
  • Regulation on wrecked or abandoned vessels:
    • Vessels that have ceased registration due to wreckage or abandonment must be surveyed and certified seaworthy before re-registration.
  • Mortgage Rights: 
    • Establishes clear rules on mortgaged vessels, enabling debt recovery through vessel sales without court intervention for single mortgages. Multiple mortgages require High Court involvement for debt recovery.
  • Provisions for Recycling:
    • Legislation encourages vessel recycling within India. Abandoned non-Indian vessels in Indian waters can be recycled under temporary registration.
  • Establishment of National Shipping Board: 
    • The central regulatory body will oversee vessel security and port facilities.
  • Stricter regulations on Marine Casualties:
  • Addressing Marine Pollution: 
    • Sulphur content in marine fuel reduced to less than 0.5%.
    • Ban on single-use plastics aboard Indian ships.
    • Launch of 'Swachh Sagar' portal for waste disposal at ports.
    • Incorporates IMO conventions such as MARPOL, CLC (International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969), and Bunker Convention.
    • Aligns India’s framework with international standards for sustainable shipping.

Significance of the bill:

  • Boosts maritime trade by expanding ownership and registration options and promoting ease of doing business.
  • Encourages sustainability in the maritime sector through recycling initiatives.
  • Provides clarity on mortgage rights, expediting financial processes for shipowners and creditors.
  • Vessel definition is expected to enhance transparency and ensure comprehensive regulatory oversight in the offshore sector.
  • Registration of vessels will be beneficial for capital-deficient entrepreneurs, facilitating entry into the shipping industry without upfront investment.

By fostering investment, enhancing safety, combating marine pollution, and supporting seafarers’ welfare, the proposed reforms promise to unlock the true potential of India’s maritime sector.

Code of Conduct Judges Need to Follow

Context: The recent comments made by Allahabad High Court judge, Justice Shekhar Kumar Yadav, against the Muslim community at an event organised by the legal cell of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad in the High Court premises, has drawn public flak. In this context, let us discuss the code of conduct for the judiciary.

Relevance of the Topic Mains: Issues related to judicial accountability, reforms, and ethical governance.

Constitutional position of Judges in the context of Judicial Independence and Discipline:

  • Security of Tenure: The only way to remove a judge is through the impeachment by Parliament, as stated in Article 124(4) of the Constitution.
  • Article 215 declares the High Court to be a court of record with contempt power which the judges could invoke.
  • Paragraph VIII of the Third Schedule of the Constitution mandates a judge-designate to swear to perform duties without fear or favor, affection, or ill-will.
  • Judges are expected to conduct themselves in a manner consistent with the dignity of the judicial office.
  • Further, the courtroom reflects the image of the presiding judge, thus judicial demeanor becomes important to uphold the stature of office.

Source of Powers of Judiciary: 

  • Judiciary draws its power from two fountains, public acceptance of the authority of the judiciary and the integrity of the judiciary. 
  • Over the time, the judiciary has codified the best conventions of judicial conduct in and out of court. The ‘Restatement of Values of Judicial Life’ is the primary code of ethics governing judicial behaviour adopted by the Supreme Court on May 7, 1997.

Need for Integrity and Code of Conduct in Judiciary:

  • Rule of Law: To uphold the rule of law which is part of basic structure doctrine.
  • Institutional integrity: To dispel the notion of favoritism, bias or interference and increased institutional responsibility.
  • Independence and accountability walk hand in hand in a democratic setup.
  • Increase public confidence: Necessary to increase public confidence in the public institutions.
  • Increase Trust: Upholding trust in the institution of judiciary, independence must not become an alibi for arbitrariness.

Concerns related to Judicial Transparency and Accountability:

  • Collegium system: Appointment, promotion, and transfer of judges of higher judiciary is carried out by the collegium system with lack of transparency.
  • Allocation of cases: Chief Justice allocates cases to different benches of the Court and picks judges to form Constitution Benches, which decide substantial questions of law. Since CJI has the full control over this, there are apprehensions that judges with similar school of thought are appointed in a bench to get a favourable judgement.
  • Power to list: The Chief also enjoys the power to list cases. It means that if CJI wish to do so, they may never list a Constitution Bench case at all in their tenure.
  • Corruption: Many cases in recent times have come to the notice regarding corruption in the Judiciary.
  • Passing remarks prejudicial to certain communities: Present case of Justice Shekhar Yadav.

These issues have led to overall decline in the trust with respect to the judiciary.

Steps taken so far to arrest the decline of Judicial Standards:

  • RTI: Office of CJI has been brought under the ambit of Right To Information Act. 
  • Live streaming: Live streaming of Cases has been proactively taken up by Supreme Court and High Courts.
  • National Judicial Data Grid: Disclosure of pending cases with help of National Judicial Data Grid.
  • Declaration of Assets: Supreme Court judges declare their property to the CJI.
  • The Restatement of Values of Judicial Life which lays down certain judicial standards and principles to be observed and followed by the Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts.
  • In-house procedure: An in-house procedure for taking suitable remedial action against judges who do not follow universally accepted values of Judicial life including those included in the Restatement of Values of Judicial life.
  • Bangalore principle of Judicial Conduct: A judge must “reaffirm the people’s faith in the impartiality of the judiciary”. Principles underscore that “any act of a judge of the Supreme Court or a High Court, whether in official or personal capacity, which erodes the credibility of this perception has to be avoided”.
    • Furthermore, a judge must always conduct himself or herself in such a manner as to preserve the dignity of the judicial office and the impartiality and independence of the judiciary”. More importantly, the charter requires a judge to be “aware of and understand” the diversity in society and treat all equally.
bangalore principle of judicial conduct

Further measures to be taken for Increased Accountability:

  • Code of Conduct for Judges: As recommended by 2nd ARC, there should be a formal and comprehensive code of conduct for judiciary which is legally enforceable.
  • Amendment of the Contempt of Court Act with specific provisions:
    • Contempt cases to be tried by an independent commission instead of courts.
    • Removal of the words 'scandalizing the court or lowering the authority of the court' from the definition of criminal contempt.
  • Imposition of stringent punishment for the misuse of contempt laws, especially in cases involving false and malicious allegations against honest judges.
  • Establishment of a two-level judicial discipline model:
    • First level: Disciplinary system capable of reprimanding, fining, or suspending judges for misdemeanors, along with limited immunity measures.
    • Second level: Removal system for judges engaged in serious misconduct, including corruption.
  • Enhanced transparency in court proceedings: Live streaming of cases argued in High courts and Supreme Courts.
  • Some administrative mechanism to keep check on the probity of higher judiciary as the removal process is stringent under Judges (Inquiry) Act 1968.
  • Establishment of an independent judicial Lokpal with the authority to:
    • Receive complaints against judges.
    • Initiate action to ensure accountability.
    • Operate independently from both the judiciary and the government.
  • Greater Internal Regulation: Establishing a National Judicial Oversight Committee.
    • To implement prompt disciplinary actions at the first instance of misconduct.
    • Establish a National Judicial Oversight Committee through parliamentary intervention.
    • The committee should develop independent procedures to scrutinize complaints and conduct investigations.
    • Ensure that the committee's composition should not compromise judicial independence.
  • Enacting a Revised Judicial Standards and Accountability Bill:
    • Introduce a new Judicial Standards and Accountability bill inspired by the lapsed Judicial Standards and Accountability Bill 2010.

Removal process of a Judge of High Court

  • A judge of a High Court can be removed from his/her office by an order of the President. The President can issue the removal order only after an address by the Parliament has been presented to him/her in the same session for such removal. 
  • The address must be supported by a special majority of each House of Parliament (i.e., a majority of the total membership of that House and majority of not less than two-'thirds of the members of that House present and voting). 
  • The grounds for removal are two-proved misbehaviour or incapacity. Thus, a judge of a high court can be removed in the same manner and on the same grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court. 

The Judges Enquiry Act (1968) regulates the procedure relating to the removal of a judge of a High Court by the process of impeachment:

  1. A removal motion signed by 100 members (in the case of Lok Sabha) or 50 members (in the case of Rajya Sabha) is to be given to the Speaker/Chairman. 
  2. The Speaker/Chairman may admit the motion or refuse to admit it. 
  3. If it is admitted, then the Speaker/chairman is to constitute a three-member committee to investigate the charges. 
  4. The committee should consist of:
    • the chief justice or a judge of the Supreme Court
    • chief justice of a High Court
    • a distinguished Jurist. 
  5. If the committee finds the judge to be guilty of misbehaviour or suffering from an incapacity, the House can take up the consideration of the motion. 
  6. After the motion is passed by each House of Parliament by a special majority, an address is presented to the President for removal of the judge. 
  7. Finally, the President passes an order removing the judge. 
  • The procedure for the impeachment of a judge of a High Court is the same as that for a judge of the Supreme Court. 
  • No judge of a High Court has been impeached so far.

India Skills Report 2025 

Context: Kerala continues to shine as one of the most employable States in India, as indicated by the recently launched India Skills Report 2025.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- Key facts about India Skills Report and their findings.

Key Findings of India Skills Report 2025:

image 54
  • India’s National Employability stands at 54.8% indicating a significant pool of talent scoring above 60% on the Wheebox Global Employability Test (GET) with Maharashtra leading with 84% employability followed by Delhi (78%), Karnataka (75%), Andhra Pradesh (72%), Kerala (71%) and Uttar Pradesh (70%).
  • Male employability is slightly higher (53.47%) than female (46.53%) with Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh emerging as top states with male employable resources while Rajasthan leads in female employability followed by Gujarat and Kerala.
  • Kerala is one of the top States favoured for employment, alongside Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh.
  • 93.22% of users expressed strong interest in internships with Tamil Nadu showing the highest preference for internships, followed by Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, and Karnataka. 
  • The report highlights that over half of Indian graduates are now employable, a significant rise from 33% a decade ago.
    • This 17% increase over ten years underscores India's dedication to developing a future-ready workforce equipped to meet the demands of a rapidly changing global economy.
    • This transformation is further driven by India's emphasis on emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), cloud computing, and automation, which are redefining traditional job roles and generating new opportunities.

Key Facts about India Skills Report:

  • Published by: Wheebox in association with the All India Council for Technical Education, Confederation of Indian Industry and Association of Indian Universities.
  • It is the culmination of an exhaustive evaluation of candidates who participated in the Global Employability Test (GET) conducted across India. 
  • This comprehensive assessment is designed to benchmark employability skills against global standards, and provides deep insights into the readiness of India's talent pool for emerging job markets. 
  • Significance: 
    • By evaluating candidates across diverse domains, the report captures critical trends in skills demand, sectoral employability, and regional talent distribution. 
    • This will serve as a vital resource for policymakers, academia, and industries.

Privacy Rights Vs Security

Context: While the government maintains that collection of individual data is necessary to streamline services delivery, however, the explosion of data generation, coupled with the rise of cyber threats, underscores the importance of safeguarding personal information. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: GS-IV- Ethical concerns and dilemmas in government and private institutions; Accountability and ethical governance. 

1. Utilitarian Perspective on Privacy vs Security focuses on maximising overall Societal Welfare.

Moral Consequences:

  • Lives saved through prevented terrorism/crime
  • Reduced criminal activity through deterrence
  • Enhanced investigation capabilities
  • More efficient law enforcement resource allocation

Moral Considerations:

  • Erosion of public trust
  • Violation of moral authority. 
  • Potential data misuse for political gain
  • Reduced innovation due to privacy concerns
  • Psychological burden of constant surveillance
  • Discouragement to alternative security measures' effectiveness

Quantitative Analysis:

  • Cost-benefit calculations of surveillance programs
  • Statistical likelihood of preventing attacks
  • Economic impacts of privacy loss
  • Healthcare costs from surveillance-induced stress

The utilitarian approach requires gathering empirical evidence about outcomes while acknowledging measurement challenges for intangible costs like lost privacy.

2. Social Contract Theory analysis of Surveillance vs Privacy:

Core Principles:

  • Citizens come together to surrender certain rights for collective security.
  • Government's power derives from consent of the governed.
  • Mutual obligations between state (moral authority) and citizens (civic duty).
  • Transparency and accountability requirements for trustworthiness.

Key Questions:

  • Have citizens meaningfully consented to surveillance?
  • Is the social contract being upheld by both parties?
  • Are surveillance powers being used as agreed?
  • Do citizens have adequate oversight mechanisms?

Institutional Requirements:

  • Clear legal frameworks limiting state power
  • Independent oversight bodies
  • Protections of the due process
  • Regular public reporting
  • Democratic discussion on surveillance policies

Legitimacy Conditions:

  • Proportional measures only
  • Equal application across society
  • Protection of fundamental rights
  • Redress mechanisms for abuse
  • Regular review and reform of surveillance authority

The social contract approach emphasises procedural safeguards and democratic consent rather than just outcomes.

PM to release collected works of Subramania Bharti

Context: The Prime Minister of India will release the compendium of complete works of great Tamil poet and freedom fighter C. Subramania Bharati (a prominent leader of the independent movement and a prolific writer and poet). 

Relevance of the Topic Prelims: Key facts about Subramania Bharti and his contributions. 

Who is Subramania Bharti?

Subramania Bharti
  • Born on the 11th of December 1882, S. Bharti was a Tamil author, poet, journalist, Indian independence activist, social reformer and polyglot. Subramania Bharati was given the title of “Mahakavi Bharati”. 
  • Early Career: 
    • He worked as a journalist in Swadesamitran (a Tamil daily) in 1904. 
    • In 1906, he also started working for Tamil weekly India and the English newspaper Bala Bharatham.
  • Themes in his writing: 
    • Emancipation of women, standing against child marriage, reforming Brahminism and religion.
    • Idea of patriotism for India and the independence movement against the British Empire.
  • He participated in the Indian Independence Movement. On account of his arrest orders, he escaped to the French ruled Pondicherry. While there, Bharati edited and published the weekly Journal India and Vijaya, which the British banned to suppress his nationalist outputs.

Literary works of Bharti:

  • Bharathi used simple words and rhythms, unlike the previous century works in Tamil, which had complex vocabulary. He also proposed novel ideas and techniques in his poems. 
  • His noted works include Panjali Sabatham, Kannan Paatu, Kuyil Paatu, Paapa Paatu, Chinnanchriu Kiliye and Vinayagar Nanmanimalai. 
  • He also translated Patanjali's Yoga Sutra and Bhagavad Gita to Tamil.

President's power to issue Pardon in the US and in India  

Context: Recently, the United States President Joe Biden has issued “A Full and Unconditional Pardon” for his son Hunter Biden, who was awaiting sentences in two cases related to tax evasion and lying about drug use while buying a handgun. 

The President is now considering a series of ‘pre-emptive’ pardons for allies, including the Vice-President, former Chief Medical Officer etc. The idea is that a pardon would shield allies from arrest and prosecution when President-elect Donald Trump assumes office.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Article 72: Pardoning power of the President of India. 

Mains: Comparison of President's power to issue Pardon in the US and in India. 

The US President’s power to Pardon: 

  • In the U.S. Constitution, under Article II Section 2(1) the President can grant pardon except in cases of impeachment. 
  • The U.S. President has absolute power of pardon for federal criminal offences. Such a pardon may be issued prior to the start of a legal case as well as prior to or after a conviction for a crime.
  • Origin: The power to pardon has roots in English history and can be traced back to the reign of King Ine of Wessex in the 7th century.
  • The Office of the Pardon Attorney under the Department of Justice (DoJ) assists the President by processing thousands of petitions for pardons received annually.
    • The process involves an initial review and an FBI background check before the recommendation is made to the President.  
    • The recommendation is non-binding on the President who makes the final decision. 

Limits of the US President’s power to pardon: 

  • Under Article 2 of the US Constitution:
    • The President can only pardon “Offences against the United States”, which refers to criminal offences under federal law (applicable in multiple states and investigated by federal agencies such as the FBI). The President cannot pardon an action that is an offence under the law of a specific state. 
    • The President cannot grant pardons in cases of impeachment.
  • Implied limitation under Article 2: A crime must first be committed for a President to then pardon it. However, once a federal crime is committed, the power to pardon could be exercised at any stage including before charges have been filed, during their pendency, or after conviction and judgment.

The Indian President’s power to pardon: 

  • The President of India under Article 72 of the Constitution is empowered “to grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence:
    • in all cases where the punishment or sentence is by a Court Martial
    • in all cases where the punishment or sentence is for an offence against any law. relating to a matter to which the executive power of the Union extends. 
    • in all cases where the sentence is a sentence of death.
  • The Supreme Court has weighed in on the President’s power to grant pardons.
    • In Maru Ram v. Union of India (1980):
      • The SC held that the President cannot grant a pardon on her own and must act upon the advice of the Centre.
      • It also held that the court would only hear a challenge to the exercise of power under Article 72 in the ‘rare’ situation where the decision is wholly irrelevant, irrational, discriminatory or mala fide.

Also Read: Pardoning powers of President of India 

Key Differences between Pardoning powers of the Indian President and the US President: 

S.No. AspectsPardoning Powers of the US President Pardoning Powers of the Indian President 
1. Authority Absolute power to pardon federal crimes.Acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers. 
2. Jurisdiction Only pardon crimes committed under Federal law; excludes impeachment and state crime.  Wide-jurisdiction: For any offence against any Union laws, Military laws (Court-Martial) and death sentences. 
3. Pre-emptive Pardon The U.S. President can issue pardons for past crimes that have not been prosecuted. Limited to post-conviction or specific cases like death penalties. 
4. Judicial Review No Judicial Review of the President’s decision  Limited review by the Supreme Court for irrational, discriminatory or mala fide actions. 

Removal of Rajya Sabha Chairman

Context: Nearly 60 Opposition MPs of the INDIA bloc have submitted a notice at the office of the Rajya Sabha Secretary-General, P.C. Mody, seeking the removal of the Chairperson of the Upper House, Vice-President Jagdeep Dhankhar.

Relevance: Prelims- Key facts about the office, role, duties, removal process of the Vice President.

About the office of Vice President: 

  • The Vice-President occupies the second highest office in the country. He/she is accorded a rank next to the President in the official warrant of precedence. 
  • His office is modeled on the lines after the American Vice-President. 

Qualifications: 

To be eligible for election as Vice-President, a person should fulfil the following qualifications: 

  1. He/she should be a citizen of India.
  2. He/ she should have completed 35 years of age.
  3. He/ she should be qualified for election as a member of the Rajya Sabha.
  4. He/she should not hold any office of profit under the Union government or any state government or any local authority or any other public authority. 
  • It is to be noted that a sitting President or Vice-President of the Union, the governor of any state and a minister for the Union or any state is not deemed to hold any office of profit and hence qualified for being a candidate for Vice-President. 
  • Further, the nomination of a candidate for election to the office of Vice-President must be subscribed by at least 20 electors as proposers and 20 electors as seconders. Every candidate has to make a security deposit of Rs 15,000 in the Reserve Bank of India.

Powers and Functions: 

  • The functions of the Vice-President are two-fold:
    • He/she acts as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha. In this capacity, his/her powers and functions are similar to those of the Speaker of Lok Sabha. In this respect, he/she resembles the American vice-president, who also acts as the Chairman of the Senate-the Upper House of the American legislature.
    • He/ she acts as President when a vacancy occurs in the office of the President due to his/her resignation, impeachment, death or otherwise. He/ she can act as President only for a maximum period of six months within which a new President has to be elected. Further, when the sitting President is unable to discharge his/her functions due to absence, illness or any other cause, the Vice-President discharges his/ her functions until the President resumes his/her office.
  • While acting as President or discharging the functions of President, the Vice-President does not perform the duties of the office of the chairman of Rajya Sabha. During this period, those duties are performed by the Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha.  The Constitution has not fixed any emoluments for the Vice-President in that capacity. He/ she draws his/ her regular salary in his/ her capacity as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. In 2018, the Parliament increased the salary of the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha from Rs. 1.25 lakh to Rs. 4 lakh per month. 
  • In addition, he/she is entitled to daily allowance, free furnished residence, medical, travel and other facilities.  During any period when the Vice-President acts as President or discharges the functions of the President, he/ she is not entitled to the salary or allowance payable to the Chairman of Rajya Sabha, but the salary and allowance of the President. 

Removal of Vice-President

Article 67 of the Constitution prescribes terms of office of the Vice President.

  • Article 67:
    • The Vice-President holds office for a term of five years from the date on which he/she enters upon his/ her office. 
  • Article 67(a): He/ she can resign from his/her office at any time by addressing the resignation letter to the President.
    • He/she can also be removed from the office before completion of his/ her term. 
    • A formal impeachment is not required for his/her removal. 
  • Article 67(b): He/ she can be removed by a resolution passed by a majority of all the then members of the Rajya Sabha and agreed to by the Lok Sabha.
    • This means that this resolution should be passed in the Rajya Sabha by an effective majority and in the Lok Sabha by a simple majority. 
    • Further, this resolution can be introduced only in the Rajya Sabha and not in the Lok Sabha.
    • No such resolution can be moved unless at least 14 days' advance notice has been given. Notably, no ground has been mentioned in the Constitution for his/her removal.
  • The Vice-President can hold office beyond his/her term of five years until his/ her successor assumes charge. He/she is also eligible for reelection to that office. He/she may be elected for any number of terms.
article 67 of constitution


Why Centre wants states to make snakebites notifiable disease?

Context: The Union Health Ministry has urged states to make snakebites a notifiable disease. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- Notifiable diseases; Some basic facts about Snakebites. 

Major Highlights: 

  • Snakebites are a major public health challenge in the country. Some three to four million cases of snakebites are reported every year, and an estimated 58,000 persons die because of them annually. 
  • Earlier in 2024, the Central government launched the National Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming (NAPSE) with the aim of halving snakebite deaths by 2030. NAPSE recommended that snakebites should be made a notifiable disease.

Which types of diseases are considered notifiable?

  • Notifiable disease is a disease that is legally required to be reported to the government by both private and public hospitals.
  • State governments are responsible to declare a disease as a notifiable disease, and the list of notifiable diseases differs from state to state.
    • Registered medical practitioners must notify such diseases, typically in a standard form within three days, or notify verbally via phone within 24 hours if urgent. 
    • Every government hospital, private hospital, laboratory, and clinic will have to report cases of the disease to the local government authorities.
    • Any failure to report a notifiable disease is a criminal offence and the state government can take necessary actions against defaulters.
  • Usually, diseases are declared notifiable if they:
    • Have the potential to cause an outbreak
    • Leads to significant mortality
    • Require rapid investigation and public health action. 
  • Notifiable diseases in India: Cholera, diphtheria, encephalitis, leprosy, meningitis, pertussis (whooping cough), plague, tuberculosis, AIDS, hepatitis, measles, yellow fever, malaria, dengue.

Why is snakebite considered a ‘disease’?

  • Snakebites can lead to acute medical emergencies that require immediate care. They can cause severe paralysis that can prevent breathing, can lead to a fatal haemorrhage, and damage different tissues.
  • Snakebites need to be treated with antivenoms to prevent death and severe symptoms.

Which snakes can be fatal?

  • There are more than 310 species of snakes in India — 66 of them are venomous and 42 are mildly venomous. 
  • Almost 90% of snakebites in the country are caused by the ‘Big Four’ — the Indian cobra, common krait, Russell’s viper, and saw-scaled viper.
    • The commercially available polyvalent antivenom contains venom from all four species, and is effective against 80% of snakebites.
  • Most snakebites happen in densely populated, low-altitude, agricultural areas in states including Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.

Why does the Centre want snakebites to be made notifiable?

  • To strengthen snakebite surveillance:
    • Making snakebites notifiable is expected to lead to proper surveillance, and to help determine the precise numbers of snakebite cases and deaths across India.
    • The government can then use this information to effectively manage, prevent, and control cases of snakebites. 
    • Adequate antivenoms can be provided to various regions, and proper training can be imparted in areas where snakebites are frequent.

What are the challenges of treating snakebites?

  • Inadequate Treatment: 
    • Snakebite victims either do not reach a healthcare centre in time or many reach out to faith-based healers instead. 
    • In many cases, staff at healthcare centres are not adequately trained in treating snakebites. 
    • Tests for confirming snakebites are also not available.
  • Limitations of Anti-venoms: 
    • The venom used to make the antivenom in India mostly comes from snakes caught by the Irula tribe, who live in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala. However, venom from the same type of snake can vary depending on the region, making the antivenom less effective in other areas. 
    • Commercially available antivenom does not work against some local snake species. E.g., green pit viper in the Northeast.  
    • Antivenoms themselves can cause various reactions. 
  • Challenges in Venom collection:
    • Experts have suggested setting up zonal venom collection banks across the country to develop antivenoms that can cover the regional differences. However, The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, limits access to snakes, making it difficult to set up such banks.

Note: 

Researchers are now developing artificially produced antibodies that can help neutralise the toxins across various snake species. They are also looking at artificially designed peptides to fight the toxin.

Reservation must not be based on Religion: SC

Context: The Supreme Court of India has recently emphasised that reservations must not be granted solely on religion. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Constitutional and Legal Framework for Reservations. 

Background: The Calcutta High Court had concluded that religion was the “sole criterion for declaring certain castes among the Muslim community as OBC”. The judgment arose a debate around the issue and prompted a review on how reservations are determined. 

Present Constitutional and Legal Framework: 

  • Article 15(4): Enables the State to make special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
  • Article 16(4): Provides that the State can enact legislation for the reservation of posts in the government sector or jobs in favour of the backward classes of citizens, which the State considers to have not been adequately represented in the services of the State.
  • Indira Sawhney Judgment: The Supreme Court in Indira Sawhney v. The Union of India upheld the constitutionality of reservations for Other Backward Classes (OBScs) in public employment, capping the reservation at 50%. The court emphasised that identification of backwardness should be based on social and educational criteria rather than religion.

Previous rulings in this Context: 

  • MR Balaji case (1962): The SC held that Muslims/Christians/Sikhs are not excluded for the purpose of conferring reservations under Article 15(4) or 16(4).
    • The court further held that it is not unlikely that these communities can be socially backward, so even though caste is considered to be the relevant criteria for determining backwardness in Hindu community, it cannot be made the sole criteria.
  • Indira Sawhney case: The SC held that in certain states, Muslim communities as a whole can be identified as backwards (based on their social and educational conditions). (E.g., Karnataka, Kerala)
  • T Muralidhar Rao vs State of AP, 2004: The State while discharging its constitutional obligation cannot make any distinction between one group of citizens and others on the ground of religion, faith or belief.
  • B Archana Reddy vs State of AP (2005): HC struck down the ordinance for extending the benefits of reservation on the ground that the benefit could not be extended to the whole community without proper identification of social backwardness of Muslims by the Commission.
  • Telangana tried to pass 12% reservation for OBC Muslims based on G Sudhir Commission report. However, this was struck down, since it breached the 50% limit set by Indra Sawhney judgement (1992) and the Central Government denied its inclusion in the Ninth schedule.
reservation for muslim communities in India

Various Committees recommendations in this context:

  • Justice Rajinder Sachar Committee, 2006: The Muslim community was almost as backward as SCs and STs and more backward than non-Muslim OBCs.
  • Justice Ranganath Misra Committee, 2007: It suggested a 15% reservation for minorities, with 10% specifically for Muslims.
  • Executive Order, 2012: The GOI issued an order providing a 4.5% reservation for minorities within the existing 27% OBC quota.

The Supreme Court’s stand reinforces that social and educational backwardness must be the basis for reservations, not religious identity.

Bima Sakhi Yojana

Context: The Prime Minister of India launched the ‘Bima Sakhi Yojana’ of Life Insurance Corporation, in line with his commitment to women empowerment and financial inclusion.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Bima Sakhi Yojana

Key facts about Bima Sakhi Yojana:

  • Initiative of: Life Insurance Corporation (LIC)
  • Aim: To empower women through financial literacy and insurance awareness.
  • Target: Enrol 100,000 Bima Sakhi in 12 months to financially empower women and 200,000  over a period of three years as part of women empowerment drive.
  • Beneficiaries: Women in the age group of 18-70 years, who are Class-10 pass. 
  • Key features:  Under the scheme, women will receive specialised training and a stipend for the first three years.
    • Women will get a monthly stipend during the training: ₹7,000 in the first year, ₹6,000 in the second year, and ₹5,000 in the third year.
    • Following the completion of the training, women can serve as LIC agents and the graduate Bima Sakhis would have the opportunity to qualify for development officer roles in LIC.
    • Each Bima Sakhi will have a target of insuring 2 individuals every month or 24 individuals in a year to earn the commission.

Significance of the scheme: 

  • Helps to bridge the gap in insurance penetration in rural and semi-urban areas.
  • Foster financial independence among women while expanding LIC’s outreach in promoting insurance as a tool for economic security. 

The Yojana underscores the government’s commitment to women’s empowerment and aligns with its broader goals of enhancing financial literacy and employment opportunities for women in India.

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