Context: Population issues are under discussion again with reports suggesting the possibility of the Census being carried out in 2025 and the delimitation exercise for Parliamentary seats is likely to be conducted thereafter. Differential population growth rates amongst states in India have political, economic and social consequences; the solutions for which need to be navigated.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains- How to navigate Demographic Changes and harness Demographic Dividend?
Trends of demographic transition in India:
Increased Share of Working Age Population: India has been witnessing a growing proportion of its population in the working-age group, which presents an opportunity for economic growth.
Variation among the states: States like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Kerala and Delhi achieved low TFR levels. whereas states like UP, Bihar, MP, Rajasthan are still experiencing TFR levels way above the replacement level (2.1).
Changing age composition: With low TFR levels and increased longevity, the country is expected to witness a declining share of young population (<15 years) and increasing share of elderly population (>60 years) over the next two decades.
Decennial census provides authentic data on demography, economic activity, literacy and education, housing and household amenities, urbanisation, fertility and mortality, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, language, religion, migration, disability and many other socio-cultural and demographic data for policy making purpose to Central and the State Governments.
However, in 2020, the census was postponed indefinitely due to the outbreak of COVID pandemic. Till then the government extended the timeline of census operations repeatedly.
Impact of delayed Census:
Delimitation: Unavailability of latest Census data halts the process of delimitation of constituencies and determining the quantum of reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Sample surveys: Census data are critical for other sample surveys conducted in the country as they use the Census data as a ‘frame’ or list from which a representative sample of the population is selected for surveys. For the latest edition of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) released last year, it was the 2011 data that served as the sampling frame.
Financial devolution: “Population” and “Demographic performance” are two criteria for financial devolution to states by the centre as suggested by the finance commission. But outdated census data impacts optimal financial devolution to states.
Policy Implications:
Investing in Human Capital: To harness the demographic dividend, it is crucial to invest in health, education, and skill development. This will enhance the productivity of the workforce and ensure sustainable economic growth.
Addressing the Increasing Share of the Elderly Population:
As the old age population grows, it is essential to establish a robust social security net that includes pensions, provident funds, and insurance to provide financial stability.
Develop geriatrics care infrastructure, including care homes and assisted living devices, to support the elderly population effectively.
Consider increasing the retirement age to align with changing demographics and ensure a sustainable workforce.
Facilitating Inter-State Migration: With variations in Total Fertility Rate (TFR) levels among states, mass inter-state migration may occur. To accommodate this, the government should:
Invest in mass transport infrastructure to facilitate easy movement.
Implement the three-language formula to ease integration.
Remove local quotas on jobs to promote equitable access to employment opportunities.
Delimitation of Constituencies: Adjusting the delimitation of constituencies and changing representation in Parliament according to shifting demographics will ensure fair representation and address the needs of diverse populations.
Adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI): Utilizing AI can help address labor shortages in certain states by automating processes and improving efficiency, thus complementing the existing workforce.
Consolidation of Primary Schools: In light of the declining share of the young population, consolidating or merging primary schools can enhance their viability.
By implementing these policies, the government can effectively navigate demographic changes, promote economic stability, and ensure that all citizens benefit from the evolving socio-economic landscape.
Context:Madhya Pradesh has notified Ratapani forest in Raisen district as a tiger reserve. It is the eighth tiger reserve in the state after Kanha, Satpura, Bandhavgarh, Pench, Sanjay Dubri, Panna and Veerangana Durgavati.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- Ratapani Tiger Reserve; Tiger Reserve; key facts about Tiger.
About Ratapani Tiger Reserve (RTR):
Location: Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh
Total area of RTR: 1,271.465 sq km
Key geographical features:
Located in the Vindhya Range in central India.
Dry deciduous and moist deciduous type forests, dominated by Teak trees.
Major water bodies inside RTR:Barna Reservoir and Ratapani Dam (Barrusot lake).
These rock shelters have rock paintings of the Stone Age that are more than 30,000 years old.
It has been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
What are Tiger Reserves?
Tiger reserves are legally declared protected areas designated to conserve tigers and their habitats.
The tiger reserves were set up as a part of Project Tiger initiated in 1973.
They are administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
As of December 2024, there are 57 tiger reserves in India.
The tiger reserves are constituted on a core/buffer strategy.
The core areas have the legal status of a National Park or a Sanctuary.
The buffer or peripheral areas are a mix of forest and non-forest land, managed as a multiple use area.
Who notifies Tiger Reserves?
Tiger Reserves are notified by State Governments as per provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 on advice of the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
The following steps are involved in the notification:
The State Government identifies potential areas and submits a proposal to NTCA.
NTCA reviews the proposal. After thorough evaluation, NTCA recommends the proposal.
The State Government notifies the area as a Tiger Reserve.
With the formation of the tiger reserve, NTCA provides funds for the management of Tiger Reserve.
Key Facts about Tiger:
Tiger is an umbrella species. Its conservation automatically ensures the conversation of a large number of flora and fauna and entire ecosystems.
India is home to 75% of the global tiger population.
The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts a tiger census across India every 4 years.
As per the latest Tiger Census Report (2022), India has 3682 tigers. (2967 in 2018)
Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers (785) in India, followed by Karnataka (563) and Uttarakhand (560).
Context: Recently, the U.S. President Joe Biden has granted an unconditional pardon to his son Hunter Biden who faced sentencing for federal tax and gun convictions. In this context, let us understand the pardoning powers of the President of India, and the comparison with the pardoning powers of the US President.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Article 72: Pardoning power of the President of India.
Mains: Comparison of Indian Constitution scheme with that of other Countries.
Historical background:
UK: The ‘royal prerogative of mercy’ is a historic prerogative of the British monarch to grant pardons to convicted persons. This was originally used by the monarch to withdraw or provide alternatives to death sentences, however, at present it is used to grant clemency for any sentence or penalty based on ministerial advice.
USA: In the U.S. Constitution under Article II Section 2(1) the President can grant pardon except in cases of impeachment. The U.S. President has absolute power of pardon for federal criminal offences. Such a pardon may be issued prior to the start of a legal case as well as prior to or after a conviction for a crime.
Once accepted, the pardon grants relief from punishment and associated disqualifications but does not erase the conviction record.
India: Section 295 of Government of India Act 1935 provided with the Governor-General discretionary powers of suspension, remission or commutation of sentence.
Pardoning power of the President of India:
Article 72 of the Constitution empowers the President to grant pardons to persons who have been tried and convicted of any offence in all cases where the:
Punishment or sentence is for an offence against a Union Law.
Punishment or sentence is by a court martial (military court).
Sentence is a sentence of death.
The pardoning power of the President is independent of the Judiciary. The President, while exercising this power, does not sit as a court of appeal. The object of conferring this judicial power on the President is two-fold:
to keep the door open for correcting any judicial errors in the operation of law; and,
to afford relief from a sentence, which the President regards as unduly harsh.
The pardoning power of the President includes the following:
Pardon: It removes both the sentence and the conviction and completely absolves the convict from all sentences, punishments, and disqualifications.
Commutation: It denotes the substitution of one form of punishment for a lighter form. For example, a death sentence may be commuted to rigorous imprisonment, which in turn may be commuted to a simple imprisonment.
Remission: It implies reducing the period of sentence without changing its character. For example, a sentence of rigorous imprisonment for two years may be remitted to rigorous imprisonment for one year.
Respite: It denotes awarding a lesser sentence in place of one originally awarded due to some special fact, such as the physical disability of a convict or the pregnancy of a woman offender.
Reprieve: It implies a stay of the execution of a sentence (especially that of death) for a temporary period. Its purpose is to enable the convict to have time to seek pardon or commutation from the President.
It is to be noted that under Article 161 of the Constitution, the Governor of a state also possesses the pardoning power. Hence, the governor can also grant pardons, reprieves, respites and remissions of punishment or suspend, remit and commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against a state law.
But the pardoning power of the Governor differs from that of the President in following two respects:
The President can pardon sentences inflicted by court martial (military courts) while the Governor cannot.
The President can pardon death sentences while the governor cannot. Even if a state law prescribes a death sentence, the power to grant pardon lies with the President and not the governor. However, the governor can suspend, remit or commute a death sentence. In other words, both the governor and the President have concurrent power in respect of suspension, remission and commutation of death sentences.
Landmark cases:
Maru Ram vs Union of India (1980): Supreme Court held that the pardoning power of the President (under Article 72) and the pardoning power of the Governors (under Article 161) are not subject to judicial review in its entirety. However, they have to exercise their powers on the advice of the Central Council of Ministers (CoM) and the State Council of Ministers (CoM) respectively, and not as per their discretion, thus, there is a guided discretion involved in the exercise of these powers.
Kehar Singh case (1988): The Supreme Court examined the pardoning power of the President and laid down the following principles:
The petitioner for mercy has no right to an oral hearing by the President.
The President can examine the evidence afresh and take a view different from the view taken by the court.
The power is to be exercised by the President on the advice of the union. cabinet.
There is no need for the Supreme Court to lay down specific guidelines for the exercise of power by the President.
The exercise of power by the President is not subject to judicial review except where the presidential decision is arbitrary, irrational, mala fide or discriminatory.
Erupu Shakdhar case (2006): The Supreme Court held that the exercise of pardoning power is subject to judicial review on the grounds of arbitrariness, mala fides or extraneous considerations.
Way Forward:
The pardoning power has its origins during the time of absolute monarchy when there was no separation of powers between the executive and the judiciary. Critics have argued that the pardoning power in modern times has been more often used for political considerations than to correct judicial errors.
Pardoning power today serves the functions in correcting miscarriages of justice and upholding Article 21 and mercy; however, its exercise must be carefully balanced to avoid its abuse, political interference, and the undermining of the judicial process.
There is a need to establish clear guidelines, enhance transparency, and strengthen accountability mechanisms to further retain the trust of people who are the source of all power in a democracy.
Context: Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA) is now taking centerstage in the complex field of cancer biology. Recent research studies explore how ecDNA is formed and it contributes to the progression of cancer and drug resistance.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA); Mitochondria (mtDNA); Cell-free DNA.
Background: Basics of Cell and DNA
Each cell in the human body has 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes). Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the nucleus of cells and are made up of DNA and proteins.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a molecule present in the nucleus of a cell that carries genetic information in the form of genes. Genes encode a complete set of instructions for building and maintaining an organism.
Majority of DNA is found in the chromosomes (nuclear DNA), however, DNA can also be found as:
extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA)
mitochondria (mtDNA)
cell-free DNA (cfDNA)
What is extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA)?
Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA) is any DNA that is found off the chromosomes (either inside or outside the nucleus of a cell).
Formation of ecDNA:
There are some natural processes that can damage DNA. For example, in some cancers, chromothripsis occurs (the chromosomes are broken and rearranged). Cells can also make mistakes when making new copies of DNA.
Such processes could cause a small part of the DNA to break away from the main chromosome and form a circular structure that floats freely inside the nucleus. This is ecDNA.
New Researchrelated to ecDNA:
Early observation: ecDNA was discovered in cancer cells around 50 years ago. At that time, it was believed to be present in only 1.4% of tumours, and so was ignored.
Later observations: More sophisticated genomic techniques later revealed that ecDNA is present in nearly 40% of cancer cell lines and in up to 90% in patient-derived brain tumour samples, revealing its pivotal role in cancer biology.
ecDNA and Cancer growth: (Gist: ecDNA may amplify oncogene expression and thus, lead to higher prevalence of Cancer)
ecDNA present in tumours often contains multiple copies of oncogenes (mutated genes capable of causing cancer) that are required to activate tumour growth.
Unlike chromosomal DNA (which is fixed), ecDNA moves freely and can interact with other ecDNA to form hubs (concentrated zones where oncogenes are highly expressed).
During the transcription process (when cells transcribe ecDNA to mRNA), ecDNA amplifies oncogene expression, making certainoncogenes become four-times more abundant in the cell, than if the DNA came from the chromosomes.
This anomaly can cause rapid evolution of tumours, onset & spread of cancer and cause drug-resistance.
Additionally, the prevalence of ecDNA rose after treatments like chemotherapy and could lead to cancer relapse.
1. Cell-free DNA:
Cell-free DNA (cfDNA) are the fragments of DNAfound in bodily fluids (such as blood, urine, saliva, and cerebrospinal fluid).
They are released into the bloodstream by cells that underwent programmed cell death or an unplanned cell death (due to any injury or disease).
These degraded (non-functional) fragments of nucleic acids do not possess the ability to replicate or carry out cellular processes.
However, cfDNA can carry genetic information from the cells they originated from, making them a valuable source for various applications.
Important applications of cfDNA:
Non-invasive prenatal testing to screen for chromosomal abnormalities in a developing foetus like Down syndrome, Edwards syndrome etc.
Aid in early-cancer detection by providing information about genetic mutations and alterations present in tumour cells.
Aid in diagnosis of infectious diseases and in forensics.
Used as a biomarker for neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s disease etc.
Provide an early indication of graft rejection in patients who underwent organ transplants.
2. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA):
Some DNA is also present in the mitochondria (mtDNA).
Mitochondria are cellular organelles found in the cytoplasm.
They are called powerhouse of the cell as they generate most of the cell's energy currency- ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
In humans, mtDNA is circular and much smaller (about 16,500 base pairs) compared to nuclear DNA.
mtDNA codes for a small number of genes, essential for the proper functioning of mitochondria.
Inheritance: mtDNA is inherited almost exclusively from the mother. (Nuclear DNA comes from both parents)
Mitochondrial DNA is more prone to mutations compared to nuclear DNA as it is exposed to free radicals generated during energy production, which can damage DNA.
When Mitochondria are impaired they do not produce sufficient energy. It causes inherited conditions like heart problems, liver failure, brain disorders, blindness and muscular dystrophy. There is no cure for mitochondrial DNA diseases at present.
Mitochondrial Donation Treatment (three parent baby): Mitochondrial donation involves replacing unhealthy mitochondria in the mother with healthy mitochondria from a donor through in-vitro fertilisation (IVF). This would avoid passing faulty mitochondria to the child.
Context: World Wildlife Conservation Day (December 4) serves as an occasion to not only celebrate India's rich biodiversity but also evaluate if enough is being done to protect the critically endangered species in the country.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- Key facts about Critically endangered species and Conservation efforts.
India’s Rich Biodiversity:
Despite having only about 2.4% of the world’s total land surface, India has 10 biogeographic zones and is home to 7-8% of all recorded species (45,000 species of plants and 91,000 of animals). They include-
8.58% of the documented mammalian species.
13.66% avian species
7.91% reptiles
4.66% amphibians
11.72% fish and
11.8% plants.
Four of the 34 globally identified biodiversity hotspots are located in Indianamely,
Himalayas
Indo-Burma
Western Ghats-Sri Lanka
Sundaland (Includes Nicobar group of Islands).
Need for Conservation of Species:
India requires vast natural resources (land, wood, timber, forest produce, precious metals, coal etc.) to sustain its population and growth trajectory. Anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, mining, urbanisation, and agriculture encroach upon the wildlife habitat. This makes many species susceptible to extinction, due to:
Habitat loss and fragmentation
Poaching and hunting
Human-wildlife conflict
Impact of climate change
Conservation of species is not only a moral obligation but also critical to restore ecological balance.
Critically endangered species in India:
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies species as critically endangered when they are at the highest risk of extinction in the wild.
As per the latest data (2022) from the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, India has 73 species listed as “critically endangered”. (The number has risen from 47 in 2011)
Important species listed as Critically endangered species:
1. Endemic Mammals:
Eight mammals listed as ‘critically endangered’ are endemic to India (their habitat is limited to a small geographic area within India). They include-
Kashmir Stag (Hangul): Found in Dachigam National Park, Jammu and Kashmir
Namdapha Flying Squirrel: Namdapha National Park at Arunachal Pradesh.
Large Rock Rat (Elvira Rat): Endemic toTamil Nadu
Malabar Large-Spotted Civet: Western Ghats
Jenkin’s Shrew (small mole like animal): Western Ghats
Nicobar Shrew: Nicobar islands
Andaman Shrew: Andaman Islands
Leafletted Leaf-Nosed Bat: Found in isolated forest patches within India.
2. Birds:
Great Indian Bustard: Rajasthan and Gujarat.
White-Bellied Heron: Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan foothills.
Sociable Lapwing: Found in parts of Rajasthan during migration.
Himalayan Quail: Last reported in Uttarakhand
3. Reptiles:
Gharial: River systems of Northern India (Chambal River).
Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle: Ganga River.
Golden Gecko: Eastern Ghats.
4. Fish:
Ganges Shark: Ganga and Brahmaputra river systems.
Deccan Mahseer: Endemic to the rivers of the Deccan plateau.
5. Plants:
Malabar Lily: Kerala and Tamil Nadu
Rafflesia: Arunachal Pradesh
Kashmir Valley Tulip: Jammu and Kashmir.
Government Initiatives for protection of species:
Key legislations:
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Prohibits hunting and provides the legal framework for wildlife conservation.
Wildlife reserves and sanctuaries in India are set up to conserve certain endangered species.
Ban on hunting as a recreational sport in India.
Environment Protection Act, 1986 is an umbrella legislation for environmental protection.
Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats: Supports the recovery of species such as the Hangul and Great Indian Bustard.
International Collaborations:
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species): Regulates international trade in endangered plants and animals. (India is a party to CITES)
UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992: global agreement on conservation of biodiversity.
Community involvement: Promotion of community led-conservation projects and eco-tourism to protect biodiversity.
Way Forward:
Effective implementation of existing laws (WPA 1972, CITES) and increased penalty for violations.
Increased the monitoring of species through satellite mapping and artificial intelligence surveillance systems to gather necessary data.
Habitat restoration, expanding protected areas in wildlife corridors.
Advocating for the planting of native tree species in the restoration of degraded ecosystems.
Enhanced community participation and increasing awareness campaigns about the endangered species in the society.
Global cooperation and cross border conservation agreements to conserve biodiversity.
Context: Recently COP 29 was concluded at Baku, Azerbaijan which focused on advancing the New Collective Quantified Goals (NCQG) for climate finance.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- New Collective Quantified Goals (NCQG)
The Climate Emergency:
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has highlighted the need for significantly stronger commitments to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. Current policies, if continued globally, are expected to lead to a temperature rise of up to 3.1°C.
Finance is a critical component in accelerating the adoption of cleaner alternatives, especially in developing countries.
As part of its commitment to global climate goals, India has launched a range of green energy schemes aimed at expanding renewable energy infrastructure, promoting energy efficiency and clean fuel and technology innovations.
What are NewCollective Quantified Goals (NCQG)?
Historical background:
At Cancun in 2010, developed countries had pledged to provide $100 billion annually to support climate action in developing countries up to 2020.
At COP 21 in Paris, 2015, the parties decided to establish a new climate finance framework (NCQG) before 2025, with the Cancun commitment as the base point.
Evolution of NCQG:
NCQG was intended to create a framework for shared climate goals, to establish clear and quantified objectives that nations could aim to achieve, with transparency and accountability at the forefront.
At COP 26 at Glasgow in 2021, an ad hoc work programme for NCQG discussions was established, scheduling discussions through 2022–2024, culminating at COP 29.
Outcome at COP 29:
The Standing Committee on Finance under the UNFCCC estimated that between $5 trillion to $7 trillion would be needed by 2030 to meet half the needs of 98 countries.
Developing countries put forward a conservative ask of $1.3 trillion annually at COP 29.
However, the developed countries committed mere $300 billion annually, till 2035.
Further, the mobilisation of funds is expected through all sources of finance including private capital. But developing countries laid down the stress on public finance.
Know more about NCQG:
At the 2009 CoP, the commitment of ‘$100 billion per year till 2020’ to developing nations from developed countries was set.
Therefore, under Article 9, the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement agreed to set a New Collective Quantified Goal (NCGQ) for climate financing before 2025.
The deliberations were aimed at strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty, including by making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.
The NCQG work programme runs from 2022–24 and includes four technical expert dialogues (TEDs) each year and a High-level Ministerial Dialogue.
The NCGQ is termed as the “most important climate goal” because,
It pulls up the ceiling on commitment from developed countries.
It is supposed to anchor the evolving needs and priorities of developing countries based on scientific evidence and
It should respond “to the ever-increasing sums of funding, necessary for Loss and Damage in response to failed and/or delayed financial support.
Why do we need a new financial goal?
The finance provided by developed countries may be inflated and misleading.
The $100 billion target set in 2009 was seen more as a political goal since there was no effort to clarify the definition or source of ‘climate finance’.
The economic growth of developed countries has come at the cost of high carbon emissions, and thus they are obligated to shoulder greater responsibility.
Funds available for climate finance have increased quantitatively, but they are inaccessible, privately sourced, delayed, and not reaching countries in need.
Context: The Government’s flagship Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme has been a mixed bag so far in terms of job creation.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key features of the PLI scheme
Mains: Significance of PLI Scheme; Challenges associated with PLI Scheme.
About the PLI Scheme:
The Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme refers to a rebate given to producers. This rebate is calculated as a certain percentage of sales of the producer (sales referred to in it can be total sales or incremental sales).
The incentive percentages vary across sectors calculated on the basis of incremental sales, ranging from as low as 1% for the electronics and technology products to as high as 20% for the manufacturing of critical key starting drugs and certain drug intermediaries.
Key Features of the PLI Scheme:
Outcome-based Incentives: Incentives will be disbursed only after the production has taken place.
Incremental Production Focus:
The calculation of incentives is based on incremental production at a high rate of growth.
In some sectors such as advanced chemistry cell batteries, textile products and the drone industry, the incentive will be calculated on the basis of sales, performance and local value addition done over the period of five years.
Emphasis on Scale: The scheme focuses on size and scale by selecting producers who can deliver high volumes.
Strategic Sectors: Sectors chosen include, those with:
Cutting-edge technology
Potential for integration with global value chains
High job-creation capacity
Sectors closely linked to the rural economy.
WTO Compliance: The scheme is designed to align with World Trade Organisation (WTO) commitments, as the quantum of support is not directly linked to exports or value-addition.
Coverage of the Scheme:
The PLI scheme has been rolled out for manufacturing in 14 sectors.
Key Starting Materials (KSMs)/Drug Intermediates (DIs) and Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs): Department of Pharmaceuticals
Manufacturing of Medical Devices: Department of Pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceuticals drugs: Department of Pharmaceuticals
Large Scale Electronics Manufacturing: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
Electronic/Technology Products: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
Telecom & Networking Products: Department of Telecommunications
Food Products: Ministry of Food Processing Industries
White Goods (ACs & LED): Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade
High-Efficiency Solar PV Modules: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
Automobiles & Auto Components: Department of Heavy Industry
Advance Chemistry Cell (ACC) Battery: Department of Heavy Industry
Textile Products: MMF segment and technical textiles: Ministry of Textiles
Specialty Steel: Ministry of Steel
Drones and Drone Components: Ministry of Civil Aviation
Significance of PLI Scheme:
Utilising the comparative advantage:In some sectors the domestic industry has comparative advantage over other countries, focusing on these sectors could generate higher returns. For instance The Indian pharmaceutical industry is the third largest in the world by volume and 14th largest in terms of value. It contributes 3.5% of the total drugs and medicines exported globally.
Increased ability to tap the high global and domestic demand: This will help satisfy the growing domestic demand in the respective sectors and also give a fillip to exports.
Developing the nascent but high-potential sectors:These sectors may not be significant but in the present socio-economic context, present high potential. The growth of the processed food industry leads to better prices for farmers and reduces high levels of wastage.
Attract Global Manufacturers: The renewed scheme could attract big global IT hardware manufacturers to shift their production base to India and give a boost to local production of laptops, servers and personal computers among others.
Generate Employment: The expected incremental production value could touch Rs 3.35 lakh crore, and the scheme could generate 75,000 direct jobs – in total, the employment figure could touch 2 lakh when accounted for indirect jobs.
Increase Exports: The IT hardware industry is targeted to reach a production of $24 billion by 2025-26, with exports anticipated to be in the range of $12-17 billion during the same period. This revised PLI is expected to serve as a major catalyst for both global and domestic companies aiming to establish or expand their IT hardware manufacturing operations in India,
Potential Issues with the Scheme:
Absence of Common Parameters: DPIIT has raised concerns there were no common set of parameters to understand the value addition by companies that have received or are likely to receive incentives under the PLI scheme. At present, different ministries monitor the value addition of their respective PLI schemes. There is no way to compare two different schemes.
Multiple Deliverables: Also, there are various deliverables such as the number of jobs created, the rise in exports and quality improvement. There is no centralised database to gauge all these.
Steep Targets: Departments and ministries which interact with companies operating in their sector also face certain specific issues. For instance, at times, the target for companies to qualify for incentives are too steep. As for the Information Technology hardware sector, until last fiscal, only 3-4 companies managed to achieve the incremental sales targets to qualify for the PLI scheme out of the 14 companies that had been approved.
Designing sector specific incentives: The implementation of PLI scheme in the Electronics sector and Pharmaceutical sector has highlighted that every sector has to have different eligibility thresholds. Given the large range of activities covered in the 10 sectors, effectively determining the thresholds for each could become a difficult task.
Interfering with natural economic processes: In the long run, an economy can become competitive only when sectors can die and be born. Resources get reallocated to sectors that see higher productivity growth. External interference may hinder optimised allocation of resources.
Relative disadvantage for sectors with no incentives: The limited resources of the economy in the form of Capital and human resources will be nudged towards incentivized sectors thus indirectly disincentivizing other sectors.
What can be done to further Improve the Scheme?
Pre-defined Sunset clause on scheme: It will not only be beneficial for the sector in the long-term, it will also encourage the individual players to see it as a one-time opportunity for capacity building.
Improve technological competence: The breathing room created by these incentives could be used by the industry players to increase their technological competence and transition towards becoming globally competitive.
Improve business environment: It can be done by improving transparency and predictability in the policy framework. For example, simplification of the taxation regime or easing the land acquisition process etc. This becomes even more important for industries which are outside the purview PLI Scheme.
Managing the real exchange rate better to strengthen the export regime: The real exchange rate (adjusted for inflation) in India has appreciated 19% in the last decade on account of both Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI). This appreciation negatively affects the overall exports.
Augment industrial infrastructure and connectivity by increasing expenditure on infra creation for improved competitiveness.
Regular scheme review to keep track of progress and address concerns over raw materials, funds, skilled workforce, payments etc
Increased investments in innovation, research and skill development is necessary to build talent for PLI success.
Conclusion:
The scheme and its associated ecosystem have ensured that India is well-positioned to develop resilient GVCs, which will continue to provide national security in the evolving global scenario.
However, the incentives should be well-crafted and temporary so that the industries receiving support can mature and become economically viable without protection. Keeping them in place for too long may slow down, rather than accelerate growth in these sectors.
Context: DNA Profiling has been an important tool in solving cases involving forensic science, medical investigations and familial disputes. However, the technology also raises some concerns about its ethical implications and privacy breaches.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- DNA Profiling: Applications & Challenges
What is DNA Profiling?
DNA profiling/DNA Fingerprinting is the technique used to identify individuals by analysing the unique patterns in their DNA.
The process involves analysing the Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) which are highly specific to each individual (except identical twins).
The Basics of Cell and DNA:
Each cell in the human body has 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes).
Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA and proteins, found in the nucleus of cells.
One chromosome of each pair is inherited via the mother’s egg and the other via the father’s sperm.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a molecule that carries genetic information. It is composed of four chemical bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymidine (T).
Base-pairing: A pairs with T, and G pairs with C, to form a double-helical structure.
The human genome consists of 3.2 billion base-pairs across 23 pairs of chromosomes.At several locations in the genome, some short DNA sequences are repeated multiple times, called short tandem repeats (STRs).
For example, one strand of an STR locus might have multiple repeats of GGCCA (GGCCAGGCCAGGCCA…).
The DNA profile of a person is simply the number of times these sequences are repeated. The number or pattern of repetition is unique to each individual, which can be analysed by DNA profiling.
How is a DNA Fingerprint produced?
Isolation: Extraction of DNA from a biological sample (E.g., blood, hair, saliva, semen etc.)
Fragmentation: Break the DNA into smaller pieces using enzymes.
Amplification: Make multiple copies of the DNA fragments by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).
Separation: Arrange DNA fragments by size using techniques such as gel electrophoresis.
Comparison: Match the DNA profile to reference samples of DNA for identification.
Applications of DNA Profilling:
Paternity determination.
Criminal forensics (help solve crimes using DNA present at crime scene).
Identification of victims in mass disasters.
Establishing donor-recipient compatibility in organ transplants.
Identification of alleles associated with particular genetic disorders (E.g., cystic fibrosis)
Compare different species for classification purposes.
Challenges associated with DNA Profilling:
Cannot be used to identify identical twins.
Reliability of DNA profiling depends on quality of the sample, expertise in laboratory analysis. The process is not infallible and various factors (like sample contamination, degradation, or mishandling) can impact the results.
Storage of DNA profiles can be an invasion of privacy, and risk of theft of DNA profiles from a database.
Context: The US President elect Donald Trump has threatened to impose 100% tariffs on BRICS countries, if they adopt a common currency and move away from the US Dollar.
Background:
In the Johannesburg Summit (2023), the President of Brazil proposed a BRICS common currency, asserting that nations that do not use the dollar should not be forced to trade in the currency.
He has also advocated for a common currency in the Mercosur bloc of South American countries.
The BRICS countries have discussed the possibility of reducing their reliance on the dollar.
E.g., India and China have increasingly used alternative currencies to settle oil transactions with Russia, bypassing the dollar.
In the Kazan summit 2024, a symbolic BRICS banknote was revealed.
Benefits of BRICS common currency:
Reduced reliance on the U.S. dollar, which dominates global trade and finance in the era of sanctions.
Economic sovereignty to BRICS, as it reduces vulnerability to currency fluctuations and enhances BRICS' influence in global financial governance.
Facilitate trade amongst BRICS Nations, as a common currencysimplifies transactions and reduces transaction costs.
Common currency could further strengthen funding by the New Development Bank (NDB).
Challenges associated with BRICS common currency:
Complications in currency integration: The varied economic systems and levels of development which member states of BRICS could complicate currency integration. E.g., adoption of common currency was feasible in the European Union (EU) because of similar levels of development in Europe.
Political coordination: A global shift away from the US dollar is a complex process. Aligning the monetary and fiscal policies of countries with different political systems and priorities would be complicated.
Requires coordination among Central banks: Establishing a stable common currency requires robust economic and monetary framework and coordination of Central banks of member states.
Dollar’s dominance & role as Reserve Currency:
Since the end of World War II, the dollar has been the most widely used currency for international trade.
The U.S. wields a vast geopolitical leverage by controlling the global financial system, through mechanisms like SWIFT (the system banks use to facilitate international payments).
Foreign exchange reserves and international trade (particularly trade in oil and oil industry related commodities) are primarily dominated in US dollars.
A reserve currency is a foreign currency which the Central banks keep as part of their official reserves.
Countries prefer to hold reserves in currencies which possess larger and more liquid markets, so that such reserves can be easily tapped.
The US Treasury market, which is the largest and the most liquid bond market in the world, plays a significant role in supporting the dollar's dominance.
Countries that hold dollar reserves can borrow at lower costs and this also helps to keep the borrowing rates low for the US.
Drive for de-dollarisation: The world is seeing an increasing push for de-dollarisation, despite the dominance of the dollar, due to both economic and geopolitical reasons.
The global movement toward de-dollarisation is a complex, gradual process driven by geopolitical and economic realities.
About BRICS:
The acronym ‘BRIC’ was coined by economist Jim O'Neill in 2001.
First formal BRIC summit: Held in 2009 in Yekaterinburg, Russia.
South Africa joined BRICS in 2010, transforming BRIC to BRICS.
In 2024, four new members- Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, and the United Arab Emirates - joined BRICS as full-time permanent members.
Objectives:
To promote economic growth, strengthen cooperation in areas like trade, investment, and infrastructure.
Coordination in global governance and advocating for reforms in institutions like the UN and IMF.
Cultural and social exchange by enhancing people-to-people connections.
Economic Importance:
Represents about 40% of the world's population.
Accounts for over 25% of global GDP.
Growing influence in global trade and investment through the New Development Bank (NDB).
Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) under BRICS USD 100 billion CRA is established to provide financial support to member countries in times of balance of payments crises.
Russia has signed currency swap agreements with China, India, Brazil and South Africa and China is even pushing for currency swap agreements with other developing countries to facilitate trade and commerce.
Context: India has recently contributed $2 billion to the New Development Bank, formerly known as BRICS New Development Bank.
Relevance of the Topic Prelims: New Development Bank
About New Development Bank:
The New Development Bank (NDB) is a multilateral development bank established by Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS).
The idea for setting up the bank was proposed by India at the 4th BRICS summit in 2012 held in Delhi.
In 2014, the first day of the 6th BRICS summit held in Fortaleza, Brazil, the BRICS states signed the Agreement on the New Development Bank.
Objective: To mobilise resources for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in emerging markets and developing countries (EMDCs).
Initial authorised capital: $100 billion.
Headquarters: Shanghai, China.
India’s contribution to NDB:
India’s contribution to the New Development Bank (NDB) stands at $2 billion from the fiscal year 2015-16 to 2021-22.
As of now, 20 externally aided projects (in areas transportation, water conservation, food management, and connectivity in rural areas) with loan amounts of $4,867 million funded by the NDB are ongoing in India.
Context: The International Day of Persons with Disabilities, observed on December 3rd, serves as a reminder of the ongoing challenges faced by persons with disabilities (PwDs) in India and around the world.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains- Challenges faced by PwDs, National Policy for Persons with Disabilities, Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016.
Challenges faced by Persons with Disabilities:
Inadequate data: The figure of total PwDs population (2.68 crore) is based on the 2011 census and is not reflective of the current status of disabled population.
Denial of Disability:
Fear of stigma often forces the family members to hide the disability or refer to it as a mere physical illness.
PwDs often face harassment in acquiring the disability certificate due to bureaucratic apathy.
Problem in accessing govt benefits/entitlements:
The government arbitrarily exempted certain establishments from giving job quota to the disabled. E.g., Blanket ban on all disabled persons, including acid attack victims, in all categories of police forces.
Posts which are reserved for disabled remain unfilled due to mismatch of skillset requirements.
Government initiatives like Digital India are increasingly delivering basic government functions through information technologies, but many of these are still inaccessible for users with visual or other disabilities.
Exclusion from the economic sphere: Many PWDs have been denied or kept away from wage labour due to the wrong notion that disabled could not work and even if they work, output would not be worth the payment made. PwDs are also denied property rights.
Harassment: Superstitions prevailing in the communities also play a big role in subjecting the people with disabilities to various harmful treatments. Women with disabilities face more discrimination but no special reservation for women within the disabled category.
National Policy for Persons with Disabilities, 2006:
The Government of India has formulated the National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (PWD) in 2006 which deals with Physical, Educational & Economic Rehabilitation of persons with disabilities.
The policy majorly focuses on following:
Prevention of Disabilities: The policy lays strong emphasis on prevention of disabilities through routine immunisation, awareness measures and appropriate mother and childcare.
Childhood vaccinations against diseases such as polio, measles, mumps, rubella, and hepatitis B can prevent certain conditions that may lead to disabilities. Immunization programs, when widely implemented, contribute to reducing the incidence of preventable disabilities.
Adequate intake of folic acid before and during early pregnancy significantly reduces the risk of neural tube defects (such as spina bifida) in newborns. Folic acid supplementation is a simple and effective preventive measure.
Rehabilitation measures: Physical rehabilitation, which includes early detection and intervention, counselling & medical interventions, and provision of aids & appliances. Educational rehabilitation including vocational education.
Economic rehabilitation by providing reservation in public employment and promoting wage employment in the private sector and self-employment.
Barrier-free environment: Make buildings, transportation systems and other public facilities barrier-free to enable PwDs to participate in everyday activities without assistance.
Identity: Ensure that the PwDs obtain the disability certificates in the shortest possible time by adoption of simple, transparent and client- friendly procedures.
Social Security: Governments will be encouraged to develop a comprehensive social security policy for disabled.
Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016:
The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 was enacted to fulfil the obligations to the United National Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD).
Types of disabilities covered under the Act increased from 7 to 21. It includes various physical and mental disabilities like acid attack victims, Dwarfism and Autism Spectrum Disorder.
Rights & entitlements:
Reservation in higher education (>5%), government jobs (>4 %), poverty alleviation schemes (5%).
Right to free education from 6 to 18 years.
Ensure accessibility in public buildings (both Government and private) in a prescribed time-frame.
Central & State Advisory Boards on Disability are to be set up to serve as apex policy making bodies at the Central and State level.
Penalties for offences committed against PwDs and also violation of the provisions of the new law.
Special Courts will be designated in each district to handle cases concerning violation of rights of PwDs.
However, lack of sensitisation of government functionaries and citizens became limitations to the effective implementation of the Act. Laws are as good as their implementation. Thus, sensitisation of Bureaucracy and community at large is important in ensuring full participation and inclusion of PwDs in the society.
Initiatives taken for Persons with Disabilities:Accessible India Campaign: Creation of Accessible Environment for PwDs. A nation-wide flagship campaign for achieving universal accessibility that will enable persons with disabilities to gain access for equal opportunity and live independently and participate fully in all aspects of life in an inclusive society.
Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme: Financial assistance is provided to NGOs for providing various services to Persons with Disabilities, like special schools, vocational training centres, community- based rehabilitation, pre-school and early intervention etc.
Context: Recently, President Droupadi Murmu released a report titled “Prisons in India: Mapping Prison Manuals and Measures for Reformation and Decongestion”. One of the significant recommendations in the report was electronic tracking of prisoners to prevent overcrowding of prisons. In this context, let us understand about prison reforms in India.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains- Criminal Justice delivery system, Prison reforms
“What should our jails be like in free India? All criminals should be treated as patients and the jails should be hospitals admitting this class of patients for treatment and cure. No one commits crime for the fun of it. It is a sign of a diseased mind. The causes of a particular disease should be investigated and removed. -- Mahatma Gandhi
Prisons in India:
The Prisons Act 1894 defines Prison as:
“Prison” means any jail or place used permanently or temporarily under the general or special orders of a State Government for the detention of prisoners, and includes all lands and buildings appurtenant thereto, but does not include:
any place for the confinement of prisoners who are exclusively in the custody of the police.
any place specially appointed by the State Government
any place which has been declared by the State Government, by general or special order, to be a subsidiary jail.
Prisons in India exist at three levels:
Taluk level
Sub jail
District level
District jail
Zonal/Range level
Central jail
Issues faced by the prisons in India:
1. Overcrowding: Occupancy rate means number of inmates staying in jails against the authorised capacity for 100 inmates.
The overall occupancy rate of Indian prisons has decreased from 140% in 2007 to 131% in 2022. However, despite such a decline, even today the Indian prisons are overcrowded.
Occupancy Rate for transgenders is the highest at 636.4%.
The average occupancy rate of 118%, close to 21 states and UT have an occupancy rate of more than 100% out of which there are 9 states & UT whose occupancy rates hover above 120%.
2. Prisons Dominated by the Undertrials: As per Prison Statistics India 2020 Report, 75% of the prisoners are undertrials, the number of undertrial prisoners has increased by 11.7% from 2019. Highest Number of Undertrials lodged in District Jail (50%), followed by Central Jails (36.1%) and Sub Jails (11.9%)
3. Unnatural deaths in prison: Increased instances of unnatural deaths, including suicide, murder by inmates, death due to assault by outside elements, due to firing, due to negligence, accidental deaths inside prison, etc.
Prison Statistics Report 2020 - Among 189 unnatural deaths in prisons, Suicide (156) was the predominant cause followed by Accidental Deaths (8), Murder by Inmates (8) etc.
4. Understaffing of the Prisons: As per Prison Statistics Report 2020, sanctioned strength of jail-staff was 87,961 while the actual strength was 61,296 as on 31st December 2020, due to vacancies not being filled up.
5. Judicial Backlogs: As of May 2022, over 4.7 crore cases are pending in courts, across different levels of the judiciary (maximum of them in subordinate courts, followed by High Courts). So, there is a need to reduce Disposal time for cases and better Case Clearance Rate (CCR). Both Disposal Time and CCR can be bettered by appointing more Judges in District & Subordinate Courts, High Courts, and Supreme Court.
6. Systemic Discrimination: There is rampant corruption in the prison system which results in discrimination based on the economic situation of a prisoner. Socio-economically disadvantaged prisoners are deprived of basic human dignity and often subject to cruel torture.
7. Poor physical and mental Health: In prison the problem of overcrowding, poor sanitary facilities, lack of physical and mental activities, lack of decent health care, increase the likelihood of health problems. Further, mental health care has negligible focus in Indian prisons.
8. Lack of reformative approach: Absence of reformative approach in the Indian prison system has not only resulted in ineffective integration with society, but also has failed to provide them productive engagement opportunities after their release.
Steps to be taken to improve Conditions of Prisons:
1. Effective implementation of New Prison Manual 2016:
MHA has approved the New Prison Manual 2016 based on Article 39A of the Constitution which calls for free legal aid to the poor and weaker sections and seeks to ensure justice for all.
It aims at uniformity in laws, rules and regulations governing administration of prisons and management of prisoners across India.
Guidelines to be followed as per Prison Manual 2016 includes:
Under Trial Review Committee to be set up in each district
Earliest release of under trials as per the provision of law
Empaneling competent lawyers for the under trials and appointment of jail visiting advocates
Setting up a legal aid clinic in every prison
Improvement in the living conditions of jails specially for women
Management Information System to be in place in all jails
Legal literacy classes in prisons
Annual review of the implementation of the Model Prison Manual 2016.
2. Modernisation of Prisons scheme:
Launched in 2002-03 with the objective of improving the condition of prisons, prisoners, and prison personnel. Various components included construction of new jails, repair and renovation of existing jails, improvement in sanitation and water supply etc.
3. Implement E-Prisons Project:
Prison is a State subject and modernisation of prisons is undertaken by respective State Governments.
MHA supports the States/UTs in implementing the E-Prisons project that aims to introduce efficiency in prison management through digitisation.
The E-prisons project supplements the Prisoner Information Management system (PIMS), developed by National Informatics Centre, which provides a centralized approach for recording and managing prisoner information and generating different kinds of reports.
The PIMS records Prisoner’s Basic Details, Family Details, Biometrics (fingerprint), Photograph, Medical Details, Prisoner Case History, Prisoner Movements, Punishment details etc. The availability of these details on an electronic platform will be useful to track the status of prisoners and smooth functioning of the prison system.
National Legal Services Authority had launched a web application in 2017 to facilitate undertrial prisoners for providing them free legal services.
4. Some Under-trials should be released on Bail:
In 2017, 268th the Law Commission of India had recommended that under trials who have completed one third of their maximum sentence for offences attracting up to seven years of imprisonment be released on bail.
5. Set up Special Courts:
Special fast-track courts should be set up to deal exclusively with petty offences which have been pending for more than five years. Such fast-track Courts can hear petty offences where imprisonment for an offence does not exceed 3 years.
6. Capacity building of Prison staff:
The Supreme Court, in September 2017, has directed that there should be proper training for senior prison staff on how to treat and deal with inmates.
7. Skill development of the prisoners:
Skill Development will ensure the livelihood of prisoners once they are released and facilitate their integration with society.
Wages that are paid to prisoners who are serving sentences should be increased and should be on par with global benchmarks.
8. Open prisons should be encouraged: (special Jails that exclusively confine only convicted prisoners)
Convicted Prisoners with good behaviour who satisfy certain norms prescribed in the prison rules are lodged in open prisons. Minimum security is kept in such prisons and prisoners are engaged in agricultural activities.
9. Implement recommendations of All India Jail Reforms Committee - Mulla committee:
National Prison Commission to oversee the modernisation of the prisons in India.
Putting a ban on clubbing together juvenile offenders with the hardened criminals in prison and enacting a comprehensive and protective legislation for the security and protective care of delinquent juveniles.
10. Using Information and Communication Technology:
Trials through video conferencing should be encouraged.
FASTER (Fast and Secured Transmission of Electronic Records) system introduced by Supreme Court to resolve delay in communication of bail orders from courts to prison.
11. Implement ‘Model Prisons Act, 2023’: It aims at reforming prison management and ensuring the transformation of inmates into law-abiding citizens and their rehabilitation in society.
It also lays emphasis on the safety of women & transgender prisoners and brings about transparency in prison management.
It focuses on vocational training and skill development of prisoners and their reintegration into the society.
12. Caste-based division of labour in prisons ‘unconstitutional’:
In 2024, Chief Justice DY Chandrachud led bench said that assigning the work of cleaning and sweeping to marginalised castes and “allowing the high castes to do cooking directly discriminates... an instance of direct discrimination under Article 15(1)” of the Constitution.
13. Electronic tracking of Prisoners:
Model Prison and Correctional Services Act, 2023 has introduced the use of electronic monitoring technology as a condition for granting prison leaves for prisoners, it will further ensure:
Decongestion of prisons: Reduced incarceration numbers while ensuring oversight.
Cost-effectiveness: It will cut expenses associated with maintaining high incarceration rates. (E.g., Odisha spends roughly 1 lakh/year/undertrial prisoner)
Rehabilitation incentives: It will encourage good conduct by linking it with parole or furlough opportunities.
International best practice: Used by countries like the US and UK.
Concerns:
There are concerns associated with electronic tracking like social stigma, creating an oppressive environment outside the prison especially for SC/ST communities which constitute 68% of prisoners.
In one of such cases, SC has stated that “The investigating agency cannot be permitted to continuously peep into the private life of the accused enlarged on bail”.
The Parliamentary Standing Committee in 2023, while advocating for the cost benefits of electronic monitoring, has noted that such measures must only be taken with the consent of the inmate in question.
Conclusion: Prison administration is an important component of the criminal justice system. Continuous steps should be taken by prison administration to improve the conditions of prisons in India and to work towards behavioral change of convicts and undertrials.
