Context: NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has spotted a distant galaxy which can give insights on how the Milky Way might have looked like in its early stage of evolution.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: James Webb Space Telescope
Major Highlights:
The James Webb Space Telescope has observed the evolutionary stage of the distant galaxy Firefly Sparkle located ~13 billion light years away from Earth.
The light which is received by JWST took light 13 billion years to travel from the galaxy to the telescope. So, as we observe the light from Firefly Sparkle today, it is an infant galaxy formed in the immediate aftermath of the Big Bang.
Big Bang (the cosmic event that initiated the cosmos) occurred approximately 13.8 billion years ago.
The galaxy (which as per the observations is still in the process of assembling) can give a direct look at what galaxies like our Milky Way might have looked like in their infancy.
Note:
The Milky Way (our galaxy) began forming very early in the universe’s history, likely around the same time as Firefly Sparkle.
About James Webb Space Telescope:
JWST is the world’s most advanced telescope launched in 2021, designed to conduct infrared astronomy.
It is the largest infrared telescope ever built (6.5 metre primary mirror). It detects near-infrared and mid-infrared wavelengths to observe faint and distant objects.
Location: It is orbiting the Sun at the L2 Lagrange point (1.5 million km from Earth)
It is equipped with high-resolution and high-sensitivity instruments, enabling investigations such as:
observation of the first stars and the formation of the first galaxies (almost to the beginning of the universe
detailed atmospheric characterisation of potentially habitable exoplanets.
JWST can see further than Hubble Telescope and is considered as its successor.
It is a collaboration between: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA) and Canadian Space Agency.
Context: The United Nations has designated 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology. India has launched a National Quantum Mission to develop technologies for the future, however, it has to overcome a significantly large gap between its capabilities and those of the United States and China.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Basics of Quantum Computing; National Quantum Mission
Mains: Applications of Quantum Technology; Challenges in India’s Quantum Approach.
Basics of Quantum Computing:
Quantum technology leverages the principles of quantum mechanics to develop advanced systems that harness the unique properties of quantum particles/qubits.
Quantum computers run on the laws of quantum physics as opposed to the classical computers (i.e., phones and laptops), which run on classical physics like Newton’s laws of motion and utilising the flow of electricity.
Quantum computers are based on Qubits, as compared to classical computers which are based on Bits (transistors).
Qubits can stay in three states (1,0 and intermediate undefined stage) while traditional bits are based on two states (0,1). This allows Quantum computers to solve complex problems which traditional computers have failed.
Classical computers use familiar silicon-based chips, whereas qubits can be made from trapped ions, photons, artificial or real atoms, or quasiparticles.
Quantum Mechanical Properties:
Quantum computing harnesses the laws of quantum mechanics, such as entanglement and superposition, to perform computation or solve problems.
1. Quantum Superposition:
Superposition is a phenomenon in quantum computing that allows quantum objects to simultaneously exist in more than one state or location. This means that an object can be in two states at one time while remaining a single object.
Superposition enables the qubits of the quantum computer to perform multiple operations simultaneously, making them faster than conventional computers.
2. Quantum Entanglement:
When two or more particles become entangled, the state of one particle becomes linked with the state of the other(s), regardless of the distance between them. Changes to the state of one particle instantaneously affect the state of the other.
Quantum entanglement is a crucial element in quantum computing algorithms. Entangled qubits in a quantum computer can be manipulated collectively, allowing for the parallel processing of information in a way that classical bits cannot achieve.
The Challenge
Qubits are very fragile and susceptible to decoherence (slight disturbances in the surroundings may result in a change of the quantum state of the particle and can result in a change of the information). Thus, maintaining quantum coherence is difficult.
Decoherence can be caused by various factors, such as noise, heat, and measurement. It causes qubits to collapse into one of the two states and lose quantum information.
Quantum coherence could only be achieved at extremely low temperatures, around -196°C (liquid nitrogen temperature). This makes building practical quantum computers challenging.
Quantum Supremacy
When a quantum computer outperforms a classical supercomputer on a well-defined computer science problem, this achievement is known as quantum supremacy. E.g., Google’s quantum computer, named Sycamore, claimed ‘supremacy’ because it reportedly did the task in 200 seconds that would have apparently taken a supercomputer 10,000 years to complete.
Superposition allows qubits to carry more information: Because of quantum superposition, a quantum computer can mimic several classical computers working in parallel. This capacity of doing several computations in parallel gives quantum computers an advantage over classical computers, allowing them to perform a disproportionately greater number of operations.
Applications of Quantum Technology
Quantum computers: Quantum computers can solve complex mathematical problems exponentially faster than classical computers, particularly used for cryptography, optimization, and quantum simulation.
Quantum cryptography and communication:
Quantum key distribution ensures theoretically unbreakable encryption, making communications secure against any computational attack.
Quantum internet: A network leveraging quantum entanglement could enable ultra-secure data transmission and quantum internet development.
Quantum sensing: Quantum sensors can measure physical quantities, like magnetic fields, gravity, time and biological processes with unprecedented precision. This presents advancements in navigation, geological exploration, medical diagnostics, brain-computer interfaces, and neuroimaging.
Quantum simulators: Quantum simulators can accurately model behaviour of complex systems like climate models, financial markets, molecular interactions at quantum level. This can be used to accelerate drug development and designing novel-materials with specific properties.
Thus, quantum technology can revolutionise various sectors like health, meteorology, telecommunications, environment, logistics & finance etc.
National Quantum Mission:
India formally joined the race to quantum computing by establishing the National Mission for Quantum Technology and Applications in 2020.
The mission is approved with a budget of Rs 6003 crore (for 5 years), with defined milestones to be achieved in eight years (2023-24 to 2030-31).
The mission aims to develop:
Intermediate-scale quantum computers with 50-1000 physical qubits in 8 years.
Satellite-based secure quantum communications between ground stations over 2000 kilometres range within India. Long-distance secure quantum communications with other countries.
Inter-city quantum key distribution over 2000 km range.
Multi-node quantum network with quantum memories.
Other Targets:
Help develop magnetometers with high sensitivity in atomic systems, and atomic clocks for precision timing, communications and navigation.
Support the design and synthesis of quantum materials such as superconductors, novel semiconductor structures and topological materials for the fabrication of quantum devices.
Four Thematic Hubs (T-Hubs) would be set up in top academic and National R&D institutes on the domains of ‘quantum computing’, ‘quantum communication’, ‘quantum sensing and metrology’ and ‘quantum materials and devices’.
Key gaps in India’s approach in Quantum Computing:
Policy gaps: India has loosely built a quantum ecosystem where metrics to assess outcomes of its quantum efforts are not clearly defined. Merely achieving quantum supremacy will not necessarily safeguard India’s national interests.
Fund constraints: Indian quantum computing startups struggle with funds for product development and scaling due to low venture capital investment.
India’s Rs 6,000 crore translates to about USD 0.75 billion over five years.
This is very less compared to China (USD 15 billion), United Kingdom (USD 4.3 billion), the United States (USD 3.75 billion), Germany (USD 3.3 billion) etc.
R&D in silos: India lacks a common platform for quantum research and development. At present research is carried out in silos, and lacks industry connect.
Fewer Patents: India is far behind the United States and China in terms of patents obtained in quantum technologies till now, and in publications in top journals.
Insufficient talent pool: India has a small pool of researchers, industry professionals and entrepreneurs as compared to China or the US.
Poor-infrastructure: India lacks in hardware manufacturing and still imports critical quantum components. India lacks sufficient superconducting materials, semiconductor chips, processors, and fabrication labs.
Way Forward:
Rework Indian technology policy objectives, frameworks, and deliverables to move from importer of quantum technology to exporter.
Developing knowledge ecosystem by inculcating entrepreneurship, innovation, university courses, training programmes in quantum technology.
Develop metrics to assess success of strategy and short & long-term action plan.
Periodic feedback system to map progress of Quantum-Enabled Science and Technology initiatives.
Boost to the investor ecosystem to amplify production of hardware components of quantum computers plus simultaneous push to the semiconductor industry.
India needs to address policy-level and implementation gaps timely to benefit from quantum technologies and emerge as global leaders in the quantum technology space.
Context: India became the first country globally to define “green steel.”
Green Steel Detailed:
As per the Steel Ministry, green steel has been defined in terms of “percentage of greenness of the steel”, which is produced from the plant with carbon dioxide equivalent emission intensity of less than 2.2 tonnes of carbon dioxide emission (CO2) per tonne of finished steel (tfs).
The greenness of steel shall be expressed as a percentage based on how much the steel plant’s emission is lower than the 2.2tCO2e/ tfs threshold.
Rating (Star)
Emission Intensity
Five
Lower than 1.6tCO2e/tfs
Four
Between 1.6 and 2.0t-CO2e/tfs
Three
Between 2.0 and 2.2 t-CO2e/tfs.
** Any steel having an emission higher than 2.2 t-CO2e/ tfs will not be considered asgreen steel.
Present Emission Scenarios:
The average emission for India’s steel industry at present stands at around 2.5–2.6 t-CO2e/tfs. Different steel companies have different emission numbers depending on the method of steel production.
The steel industry accounts for 7% of the global carbon dioxide emissions.
Future Policy Framework:
The Ministry of Steel is working on a ₹15,000-crore Green Steel Mission, which will include a public procurement policy for such decarbonised offerings.
The Ministry will continue to explore financing options to support technology switchover for companies.
At least 37% public procurement is being proposed if the green steel is of five-star grade and about 30% for products of lower star rating for any green steel offering.
The Ministry is looking at financing or support from multilateral agencies like the World Bank and Asian Development Bank.
Context: According to Sri Lanka’s Minister of Fisheries the enduring fisheries conflict in the Palk Bay can be decisively resolved only if the Indian side stops using the destructive bottom-trawling method.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: - Bottom Trawling Method
Bottom Trawling Method
Bottom trawling is a method of fishing that involves dragging heavy weighted nets across the sea floor, in an effort to herd and capture the target species, like ground fish or crabs.
It is a favoured method by commercial fishing companies because it can catch large quantities of product in one go.
Ecological Impacts of Bottom Trawling:
Habitat Destruction: Trawling can cause physical damage to the seabed and the structures that support marine life. The heavy gear used in trawling can crush or remove vulnerable habitats such as deep-sea corals, sponges, and other benthic organisms.
Biodiversity Loss: The indiscriminate nature of trawling nets can lead to the capture of non-target species, including various marine organisms. This bycatch often includes species that are not commercially valuable and can result in the depletion of non-targeted populations, leading to biodiversity loss.
Altered Ecosystem Dynamics: The removal of large quantities of marine organisms through trawling can disrupt the balance within ecosystems. Targeted species and their predators may experience declines, leading to cascading effects throughout the food web.
Slow Recovery: Deep-sea ecosystems have limited resilience, and the slow growth rates of many deep-sea species mean that recovery from trawling impacts can take decades or even centuries. Some species may struggle to rebuild their populations, if at all.
Carbon Sequestration: Deep-sea ecosystems play a crucial role in carbon sequestration. Trawling can disturb sediments and release stored carbon, contributing to climate change. Additionally, the destruction of deep-sea habitats reduces their ability to sequester carbon effectively.
India - Sri Lanka:
Demarcation of Boundary:
India and Sri Lanka share a maritime border of more than 400 kilometres, which cuts through three different seas - the Bay of Bengal in the north, the Palk Bay in the center, and the Gulf of Mannar (which opens to the Indian Ocean) in the south.
Even before the Law of the Sea was negotiated at the United Nations, and India declared its 200-nautical-mile EEZ, India and Sri Lanka signed the maritime agreements of 1974 and 1976.
The 1974 agreement demarcated the maritime boundary in the Palk Strait and ceded Kachchatheevu to Sri Lanka.
The 1976 agreement demarcated the boundary in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal and barred either country's fishermen from fishing in the other's waters.
Maritime Conflict:
Sri Lanka is under pressure from its Northern province fishermen to act against Tamil Nadu fishermen, who they accuse of resorting to destructive bottom trawling. Notably Sri Lanka has banned bottom trawling since July 2017.
While India promised to end bottom trawling in the Palk Bay and incentivise fishermen to take to deep-sea fishing under the Blue Revolution Scheme, bottom trawlers are still active.
Fishermen also face a practical problem as under the Tamil Nadu Marine Fishing Regulation Act 1983. The Act, aimed to protect fishing rights of traditional fishermen near the coast, permits mechanised fishing boats to only fish three nautical miles away from the coast. Since the distance between Dhanush Kodi (Tamil Nadu) and the International Maritime Boundary Line is just nine nautical miles, breaches do occur (i.e., mechanised boats might cross into Sri Lankan waters).
Context: The ongoing discourse around ‘one nation one election’ can serve as the right opportunity to streamline the Elections in Urban Local Government structures (ULGs) which face the problem of neglect and delays in elections.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Constitutional Provisions regarding Urban Local Government structures.
Mains: Issues associated with ULGs.
Importance of timely elections in ULGs:
India has over 4,800 ULGs that oversee nearly 40% of the population, which is estimated to cross 50% by 2050.
Well administered cities are the backbone of the country’s economy, contributing over 60% to India’s GDP.
Ensuring regular elections to install democratically-elected governments in our cities is not just constitutionally mandated but also important for economic and social development.
Constitutional Provisions regarding elections to ULGs:
The system of Urban Government was constitutionalised through the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992.
Article 243ZA: Article 243ZA of the Constitution of India provided that the superintendence, direction, and control of electoral rolls, and the conduct of all elections to the municipalities should be vested in the State Election Commission.
The State Election Commission consists of a state election commissioner to be appointed by the governor.
The state legislature may make provision with respect to all matters relating to elections to the municipalities.
Article 243R: Article 243R provided that all the seats in the municipality should be filled by persons chosen by direct election from the territorial constituency in the municipal area, known as "Ward".
Issues associated with ULGs:
Despite the constitutional mandate, there are various issues:
Uncertainty and Delays in Elections: Elections for ULGs are frequently delayed, with over 60% of ULGs in India experiencing such delays, violating the constitutional mandate to hold elections every five years. This undermines the principle of decentralization and limits citizen representation and accountability.
Delay in Council Formation: Even after elections are held, it is seen that there are significant delays in constituting councils. For example, in Karnataka, councils took an average of 11 months to form post-election results, leaving elected representatives unable to address local development needs effectively.
Disempowerment of State Election Commissions (SECs): The SECs, responsible for conducting ULG elections, are often disempowered. Only 4 out of 15 states have granted them authority for ward delimitation. The state government inaction in ward delimitation leads to delay in elections or legal disputes over reservations (highlighted in CAG report).
Political influence and discretion: There is a concern regarding the undue influence of state governments on election schedules. Government officials have the discretion to delay elections, which compromises the integrity of the electoral process as highlighted in the Supreme Court ruling in Suresh Mahajan v. State of Madhya Pradesh (2022).
Regional disparities in election timeliness: The extent of delays varies across regions. For example, while some municipalities like those in Chandigarh faced minimal delays, others such as Bengaluru and Mumbai have been awaiting elections for over one year after their previous councils' terms expired.
Challenges with women's reservation: In Nagaland, the government's attempt to hold ULG elections with a 33% reservation for women faced backlash from tribal organizations opposed to this mandate. Thus, there is a broader struggle between constitutional requirements and local customs.
Impact on citizen participation: Delays in conducting timely elections negatively affect public participation and trust in local governance. A survey indicated that about 61% of ULGs experienced delayed council elections, which leads to disillusionment among citizens regarding their local governance.
Past efforts to resolve the issue of elections to local bodies:
The 79th report of the Parliament Standing Committee on Law and Justice: Presented report on the ‘Feasibility of Simultaneous Elections,’ submitted in 2015, while advocating simultaneous elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies, was silent on elections to ULGs.
NITI Aayog discussion paper (2017): on ‘Analysis of Simultaneous Elections’, kept ULGs out of its purview, arguing that the third-tier institutions are State subjects and that the sheer number of such institutions across the country makes it “impractical, and possibly impossible, to synchronise elections”.
Similar reasoning is put forward in the 2018 draft report of the Law Commission of India on simultaneous elections.
High Level Committee (2024): High Level Committee constituted by the Government of India to provide a road map for implementation of simultaneous elections, deliberated on local body elections and recommended synchronising them within 100 days of simultaneous elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
Way Forward:
Empowering State Election Commissions (SECs): Grant SECs the authority to manage ward delimitation independently, ensuring that state governments do not interfere in the electoral process. This would help prevent delays caused by political factors.
Timely Elections: Establish a legal framework that mandates ULG elections to be conducted within six months of the term expiration of existing councils, ensuring adherence to democratic principles and timely representation.
The HLC report, which was accepted by the Union government in September 2024, has touched upon the procedure of elections to local governments which can be synchronized within 100 days of simultaneous elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies after taking consultation with stakeholders.
Context: The NITI Aayog in its inaugural quarterly report ‘Trade Watch’ has highlighted that India’s has seen limited success in seizing ‘China plus one’ opportunity. Recently, the Chairman of the 16th Finance Commission has pointed out that India’s internal policies have acted as a significant constraint, hindering its ability to fully leverage the opportunity.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: - Challenges in India hindering its ability to fully leverage China-plus-one opportunity.
What is the China Plus One Strategy?
China Plus One is the business strategy to avoid investing only in China and diversify business or channel investments into manufacturing in other developing economies such as India, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia etc.
Shift from China:
For the last 20 years, Western companies have heavily invested in China, drawn in by its low production costs, and vast domestic consumer market.
However the companies are looking to diversify due to-
US-China Trade disputes: Escalating trade disputes and reciprocal trade restrictions have disrupted global supply chains.
Higher Tariffs and Trade restrictions: The cost of doing business in China is increasing due to higher tariffs on Chinese imports and export restrictions on essential resources.
COVID-19 Pandemic: The pandemic exposed the supply-chain vulnerabilities of over-reliance on one country and the need to find alternative supply chains.
Emerging competitors: ASEAN and other developing countries are presenting attractive alternatives to China owing to their lower tariffs, simpler tax systems, cheaper labor, and proactive free trade agreements (FTAs).
Why is India lagging behind Competitors?
In contrast to Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, and Malaysia, India has had very modest success utilising the China Plus One strategy. The reasons include-
Internal Policy challenges:
Policy uncertainty: Poor ease of doing business and greater amount of policy uncertaintydeters foreign investors.
Cumbersome land acquisition procedure and unavailability of cheap land.
Delays in receiving permits, licenses, and approvals due to the involvement of multiple government agencies.
Complex tax laws and limited Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with major trade blocs.
Infrastructure challenges: Deficient infrastructure including transportation, power supply shortages impacts the reliability of India’s manufacturing sector/prospects.
Fragmented Labour laws: Variation of labour laws across different states and delayed implementation of New Labour Codes.
Higher Logistics Cost: India’s logistics cost is 14% of India’s GDP, which is high when compared to developed nations (where it ranges 8-10%). This reduces overall competitiveness.
Low R&D and Innovation: India spends hardly around 0.7% of its GDP on R&D, quite lower in comparison to the USA (2.1%), China (2.8%), Israel (4.3%) etc.
Skilled Human Resources: Despite having almost 53% of the population in the working-age group, there is a lack of availability of skilled human resources, adept in complex manufacturing processes.
Trade Facilitation Issues: In India, Trade facilitation as measured by "Trading Across Borders" is quite poor. Complex documentation processes and high export costs hinder trade facilitation.
Way Forward:
Improve Trade Competitiveness by improving access to factors of production (Land, Labour, Capital), Reduce Logistics costs (14% of GDP) to global benchmarks (8% of GDP), improving Ease of Doing Business by streamlining regulations etc.
Fast-track development of infrastructure projects under the National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP). Leverage PM Gati Shakti Master Plan to integrate infrastructure planning and bring down logistics cost.
Focus on large-scale skills development, leveraging Skill India Program and Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana.
Expedite signing of Free Trade agreements with key markets such as the European Union, United Kingdom & ASEAN.
Protect domestic markets from the import of cheap foreign goods through (a) strong and effective technical regulations (b) trade safeguards such as Anti-dumping duties.
Enhance digital governance and increase public and private spending on R&D to at least 1.5% of GDP by 2030.
Hence, to fully leverage the China Plus One strategy, India should improve the ease of doing business, enhance manufacturing capabilities and actively engage in global trade agreements.
Context: Every year, seasonal illnesses keep doctors and public health authorities busy. The outbreak of respiratory illnesses in children and adults caused by Influenza A ((H1N1), (H3N2), and Influenza B viruses, becomes more pronounced in winter in India.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: - Influenza; Types of Influenza Viruses
What is Influenza?
Influenza (flu) is a highly-contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses that impacts the nose, throat and lungs.
Symptoms: Seasonal influenza is characterised by a sudden onset of fever, cough (usually dry), headache, muscle and joint pain, severe malaise (feeling unwell), sore throat and a runny nose.
Risks:
Most people recover from fever and other symptoms within a week without requiring medical attention.
But influenza can cause severe illness or deaths, especially in people at high risk. They include- young children and people with co-morbidities like asthma, diabetes, heart disease, weakened immune systems and neurological or neurodevelopmental conditions.
Types of Influenza Viruses:
Influenza viruses are of four different types: A, B, C and D.
Type A:
Influenza A is associated with severe respiratory illness and deaths in humans. Only influenza type A viruses are known to have caused pandemics.
They are further classified into subtypes according to the combinations of the proteins on the surface of the virus. E.g.,
H3N2 (HongKong Flu) and H1N1 (Swine Flu) viruses are subtypes of Influenza A virus.
H5N1 (Avian influenza/ Bird Flu) is also a subtype of the Influenza A virus that primarily infects birds but can also infect humans and other mammals.
Type B:
Influenza B almost exclusively infects humans, and is less common than influenza A.
Type C:
Detected less frequently and usually causes mild infections, thus does not present public health importance.
Type D:
Primarily affects cattle and are not known to infect or cause illness in people.
Influenza viruses are constantly evolving, the factors include:
High population density, poor hygiene practices, weather conducive to the survival and spread of the virus increase the risk of flu transmission.
Indiscriminate antimicrobial use due tothe absence of definitive diagnosis and influenza symptoms coinciding with other acute respiratory infections.
Low Vaccination rates as strategies for influenza prevention and control have not been prioritised by the Indian Medical Association. Influenza vaccine is not includedinto the government’s Universal Immunisation Programme.
Due to climate change, seasonal epidemics of influenza may shift spatially and temporally, with rising temperatures and abnormal rainfall patterns being contributing factors.
Way Forward:
Adult immunisation programmes in India must be leveraged for making Influeza vaccines available in the country. E.g., National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) has recommended the prudent use of the Southern Hemisphere’s 2024 quadrivalent influenza vaccine.
Expansion of the Universal Immunisation Programme to include influenza vaccines can reduce community transmission, unnecessary antimicrobial prescriptions and superimposed bacterial infections that can complicate influenza.
Context: Disease X represents an unpredictable, novel threat that requires rapid global response and adaptation. This becomes significant due to increased interconnectedness of our world (with frequent international travel and trade), making it easier for localised outbreaks to escalate into pandemics, as seen with COVID-19.
Disease X?
Disease X is not a specific disease but is the name given to a potential novel infectious agent. It represents an illness which is currently unknown but could pose a serious microbial threat to humans in the future.
In 2018, the World Health Organisation (WHO) added Disease X to the ‘list of pathogens’ to prioritise preparation on the emerging diseases that do not yet have vaccines or drug treatments, and could give rise to a severe epidemic.
It could originate from Pathogen X, which could be a virus, a bacterium, a parasite, fungi, helminths, or even a prion (a misfolded protein capable of causing severe neurological diseases).
WHO’s priority list of Pathogens:
The list of pathogens is a strategic tool published by WHO in 2018 to focus global attention and resources on the most serious infectious disease threats.
This list identifies diseases that have:
High mortality rates
Epidemic or pandemic potential
Lack of adequate preventive (vaccine) or therapeutic options.
The current list (not exhaustive ) includes: Ebola virus disease, Marburg virus disease, Lassa fever, Nipah virus, Rift Valley fever, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, Zika virus, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Disease X.
Significance: It helps policymakers, researchers, and health organisations prioritise efforts toward controlling the diseases (to guide research and development, allocate funding, and enhance preparedness).
Risk Factors for Disease X:
Zoonotic Spillover: Increased risk of zoonotic spillover due to human encroachment on wildlife habitats, deforestation, and the intensification of agriculture.
Since 1940, researchers have identified more than 300 emerging infectious diseases, about 70% of which have zoonotic origins (transmitted from animals to humans).
Increasing Antimicrobial Resistance: Resistance acquired by any microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasite) against antimicrobial drugs or treatments to which they were previously susceptible.
Incomplete doses of medication, self-medication, inappropriate disposal of unused or expired medication in the environment.
Using antibiotics in farm animals, herbicides may enrich AMR genes (ARGs) and Mobile genetic elements (MGEs) by altering soil microbiomes.
Biofilms on microplastics and untreated solid and liquid waste can act as a reservoir of AMR microbes.
Risk of Bioterrorism and Accidental lab leaks. Beyond the WHO’s guidelines, there is no universal law, regulation or international oversight mandating even basic requirements, such as external independent inspections of biosafety laboratories (which host a range of pathogens).
Climate Change:
Climate change is expanding the burden of infectious diseases (transmitted by insect vectors and through contaminated water). It is also pushing pathogens to adapt to new hosts and environments.
With global warming there is a risk of thawing permafrost which harbours viruses up to a million years old (older than the human species).
Way Forward:
Need for robust surveillance systems to detect new outbreaks early and global alliance for developing its treatment. E.g., Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) has set a target of 100 days to develop, test and produce a new vaccine against pathogen X (COVID-19 vaccine took 326 days).
Investing in Research and Innovation: Utilising advances in genomic sequencing, artificial intelligence, and real-time data sharing as essential tools for developing diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines.
Strengthening healthcare infrastructure particularly in low- and middle-income countries.
Global Collaboration: Frameworks like the Nagoya Protocol (which ensure equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources) could be expanded to include biological materials like pathogens. It would promote global collaboration, ensuring fair access to research and medical countermeasures during outbreaks.
Conclusion: While epidemiology cannot predict the exact moment or source of Disease X, it can help identify high-risk regions and behaviours. Governments must work together to share data, pool resources, and ensure equitable access to diagnostics, treatments, and vaccines.
Context: Recently, Chief Justices were appointed to eight High Courts across India. However, all of them, with the exception of one, will have very short tenures which is becoming a persistent problem that calls for urgent remedial action since it affects the institutional effectiveness of the judiciary. In this context, let us understand the process of appointment, tenure and functions of Chief Justice and judges of High Courts in India.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- Key facts about appointment of Judges of High Court.
Appointment of Judges:
Article 217 of Constitution of India deals with appointment of Judges of High Court.
The judges of a High Court are appointed by the President. The Chief Justice is appointed by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the governor of the state concerned.
For appointment of other judges, the chief justice of the concerned high court is also consulted. In case of a common high court for two or more states, the governors of all the states concerned are consulted by the President.
In the Second Judges case (1993), the Supreme Court ruled that no appointment of a judge of the high court can be made, unless it is in conformity with the opinion of the chief justice of India.
In the Third Judges case (1998), the Supreme Court opined that in case of the appointment of high court judges, the chief justice of India should consult a collegium of two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court. Thus, the sole opinion of the chief justice of India alone does not constitute the 'consultation' process.
The 99th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2014 and the National Judicial Appointments Commission Act of 2014 have replaced the Collegium System of appointing judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts with a new body called the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC).
However, in 2015, the Supreme Court declared both the 99th Constitutional Amendment as well as the NJAC Act as unconstitutional and void. Consequently, the earlier collegium system became operative again. This verdict was delivered by the Supreme Court in the Fourth Judges case (2015). The Court opined that the new system (i.e., NJAC) would affect the independence of the judiciary.
Tenure of Judges:
The Constitution has not fixed the tenure of a judge of a high court. However, it makes the following four provisions in this regard:
He/she holds office until he/she attains the age of 62 years. Any questions regarding his/ her age are to be decided by the President after consultation with the chief justice of India and the decision of the President is final.
He/she can resign his/her office by writing to the President.
He/she can be removed from his/her office by the President on the recommendation of the Parliament.
He/she vacates his/her office when he/she is appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court or when he/ she is transferred to another high court.
Role of the Chief Justice of a High Court:
The Chief Justice is the senior-most sitting judge of a High Court in a State. Besides performing judicial functions, he also exercises administrative powers, as provided under Article 229 of the Constitution of India.
Administrative Responsibilities: Oversees the overall administration of the High Court. And constitutes various committees for smooth functioning.
Judicial Appointments: Plays a key role in recommending names for judgeship.
Financial Oversight: Tracks and ensures the financial health of the institution.
Staff Welfare and discipline: Attends to the welfare and needs of High Court staff, takes disciplinary action against erring trial court judges and staff.
Defends such disciplinary actions before appropriate authorities if challenged.
Public Engagements: Accepts invitations to and participates in seminars, symposia, and functions beyond legal matters. Engages with Bar Councils and advocate associations across the State.
Legal Education and aid: Addresses issues related to legal education in the State. The Chief Justice is also usually the patron in chief of the State's Legal service Authority.
Judicial Role: Discharges duties as the highest judicial authority in the State.
Thus, keeping in mind the diverse role and functions carried out by the Chief Justice of High Courts, it is suggested that they are provided with either a longer tenure or a fixed tenure when elevated to the position of Chief Justice after undertaking deliberations from all stakeholders.
Context: The world is increasing its reliance on space technology for vital functions like climate monitoring. However, it gives rise to the concerns about satellite interference and the accumulation of orbital debris.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains - Environmental consequences of space activities and what are the barriers in achieving space sustainability.
Key Environmental Consequences of Space Activities:
Exacerbating Global Warming:
Every rocket launch releases carbon dioxide, black carbon, and water vapour into the atmosphere. Black carbon absorbs sunlight 500-times more effectively than carbon dioxide.
Satellites also use propulsion systems to adjust their location and orientation in orbit, and their emissions amplify global warming. As commercial space ventures become more common, the cumulative impact of these emissions will worsen.
Depletion of Ozone:
Rocket propellants (especially those using chlorine-based chemicals) deplete the ozone layer at high altitudes.
This increases the exposure to ultraviolet radiation on the ground as well as disrupts atmospheric circulation, both of which affect the global climate.
Metallic Ash:
When satellites burn up in the atmosphere at the end of their missions, they release "satellite ash" into the middle layers of Earth's atmosphere. This metallic ash can harm the atmosphere and potentially alter the climate.
Energy Intensive Processes:
The production of satellites demands energy-intensive processes involving metals and composite materials, whose extraction and preparation have large carbon footprints.
The rise of extracting valuable (on the earth) minerals from asteroids could lead to increased industrial activity both in space and on the ground.
Dangers of Orbital Debris:
As of September 2024, over 19,590 satellites have been launched, with 13,230 still in orbit of which 10,200 are functional. Non-functional objects in Earth's orbit contribute to pollution and can disrupt scientific research by interfering with data collection and radio waves.
These risks significantly impact mission costs and pose severe threats to human-crewed missions (such as the International Space Station).
Barriers to Space Sustainability:
No specific international regulations: Space activities currently fall outside international sustainability instruments like the Paris Agreement. Without clear guidelines, the unchecked growth of emissions and debris will harm Earth's climate and increase barriers to future space exploration.
Lack of regulation for Space Debris: Currently, there are no international space laws pertaining to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) debris.
Lack of binding provisions: The principles of the Outer Space Treaty lack binding provisions to regulate countries' exploration and use of outer space (including the Moon and other celestial bodies), thus limiting its effectiveness.
Way Forward:
Establish Enforceable Standards:
The UN Office for Outer Space Affairs should set standards for governing activities in outer space.
Governments should set domestic standards for emissions from rockets and satellites.
International cooperation through bodies like the Committee on the Peaceful Use of Outer Space (COPUOS) is necessary to create enforceable standards for emissions and debris management.
Reusable Rockets: Such as developed by SpaceX and Blue Origin reduce manufacturing waste and lower costs by allowing engineers to reuse rocket components in multiple missions.
But the reusable parts are often heavier, which increases fuel consumption. These also have limited applicability for high-orbit missions, requiring costly refurbishments.
Cleaner fuels: Such as liquid hydrogen or biofuels can minimise harmful emissions during lift-offs.
However, hydrogen is currently produced using non-renewable energy, which negates its environmental benefits.
Designing satellites with Biodegradable materials: That naturally disintegrate during re-entry can prevent long-term debris accumulation.
These materials currently lack the durability required for the extreme conditions of space. High development costs and limited adoption further slow progress.
Autonomous Debris Removal (ADR) technologies: Such as robotic arms and laser systems also offer hope for cleaning up orbital debris.
They are currently expensive as well as need more legal clarity before they can begin to operate safely.
Global Traffic System: To monitor satellites and debris in real time could reduce collisions and optimise orbit use.
Resistance to data sharing, including due to security and commercial concerns, and the lack of a unified international authority hinder its development.
Policy and technical measures on a global scale are necessary to ensure that space is a safe, sustainable, and accessible domain for all.
Context: As per the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), La-Nina weather, which brings heavy rain and floods to India, may develop in the next three months but it is expected to be relatively weak and short-lived.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: La-Nina; Impact of La Nina (India & Globally)
La Nina
It basically refers to an abnormal cooling of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean waters off the coasts of Ecuador and Peru.
Such cooling (sea surface temperatures i.e. SSTs falling) is a result of strong trade winds blowing west along the equator, taking warm water from South America towards Asia.
The warming of the western equatorial Pacific, then, leads to increased evaporation and concentrated cloud-formation activity around that region, whose effects may spread to India as well.
Normal Condition:
Winds along the equator push warm water westward (from South America to Indonesia). As the warm water moves west, cold water from the deep rises up to the surface (on the coast of South America).
La Niña year:
Stronger than usual winds makes the water in the Pacific Ocean near the equator a few degrees colder. La Niña blows warm water to the western Pacific. This means that places like Indonesia and Australia can get much more rain than usual.
Impact of La Nina in India:
La Nina events usually lead to warming of the Indian Ocean, particularly the Western Indian Ocean region due to changes in wind patterns. This also leads to reduced upwelling in the region leading to reduced fisheries catch.
Monsoon Enhancement: Usually La Niña events lead to strengthening of monsoons in India leading to more rainfalls.
Boost for Agriculture: An enhanced monsoon can benefit agriculture, especially in regions where rainfed agriculture is practiced.
Flood Risks: Increased rainfall can also result in flooding events in low-lying areas leading to damage to life & property.
Winter Temperatures: During La Niña years, northern India may experience colder winters. This is due to a stronger high-pressure system over Central Asia, which can bring cold winds down into the northern plains of India.
Drought Mitigation: La Niña conditions can help alleviate drought situations in regions experiencing water scarcity, as the increased rainfall can replenish reservoirs, rivers, and groundwater levels.
Impact of La Nina (Globally)
Global Variations:
Regions lying in western pacific (Australia, Indonesia,Philippines etc) experiences wetter than average conditions, leading to increased rainfall and sometimes flooding in parts of the country.
La Niña can bring variable impacts to different parts of South America. In countries like Argentina and Brazil, it can lead to wetter conditions in some regions, benefiting agriculture with increased crop yields. However, in other areas such as parts of Bolivia and Paraguay, drought conditions may prevail, negatively impacting crop production.
In North America it often results in a more active winter storm track across the northern United States and Canada, leading to increased snowfall and colder temperatures. Conversely, the southern United States tends to experience warmer and drier conditions, which can increase droughts risks in already arid regions like the southwestern states.
Economic Impact:
Energy Sector: La Niña can influence energy markets globally. For instance, in regions where La Niña results in increased hurricane activity, such as the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, disruptions to oil and gas production can occur, leading to fluctuations in energy prices.
Upwelling along the Pacific Coast of South America during La Nina brings cold deep nutrient rich water to the surface, promoting phytoplankton growth leading to boom in fish population in eastern Pacific.
Commodities: Agricultural commodities such as grains (corn, soybeans) and soft commodities (coffee, cocoa) can see price volatility due to changes in production caused by La Nina induced weather patterns.
Social and Environmental consequence:
Small island nations in the Pacific can be particularly vulnerable to the impacts of La Niña, including increased storm surges, coastal erosion, and damage to infrastructure due to Intensified tropical cyclones.
Ecological Effects:
La Niña alters ocean temperatures and currents, affecting marine life distribution and productivity
Health Implications:
La Niña can influence the spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Increased rainfall can create breeding grounds for mosquitoes, potentially leading to outbreaks in affected regions.
Context: The Lok Sabha passed the Railways (Amendment) Bill, 2024. The Bill was passed five months after it was introduced on the Floor of the House.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key aspects of the Railways (Amendment) Bill, 2024.
Background:
The Bill aims to repeal the Indian Railway Board Act, 1905 and incorporates its provisions into the Railways Act, 1989.
The Indian Railway Board Act, 1905 enabled the central government to invest in the Railway Board with powers and functions under Indian Railways Act, 1989.
Key provisions of the Bill:
Powers of Union Government: The Central Government will prescribe:
the number of members of the Board
the qualifications, experience, terms and conditions of service, and manner of appointment for the Chairman and members of the Board.
Statutory Status: The Bill proposes to amend the Railways Act, 1989, to provide statutory backing to the Railway Board.
Independent Regulator: The Bill proposes to establish an independent regulator to oversee tariffs, safety, and the participation of the private sector in the Railways.
Autonomy to Zones: The Bill proposes to improve operational efficiencies and decentralise powers, granting greater autonomy to railway zones.
Key Impact:
The current Bill proposes to simplify the legal framework by incorporating the proposals of the Indian Railway Board Act, 1905 in the Railways Act, 1989. This will reduce the need to refer to two laws. Instead reference will be required only to one law.
Establishment of an independent regulator would give encouragement to private participation by protecting the interests of stakeholders and promoting competition. This in turn would attract investment, increase efficiency in operations, and improve service standards.
Autonomy to zones would grant them flexibility and space to make decisions on project tenders for their zones without approaching the Board.
Statutory backing to the board would streamline its functioning with better efficiency and autonomy.
The amendment is expected to speed up the approval process for train services that will help meet pending demands from various regions.
The Bill will allow the government to fast-track infrastructure and superfast train operations.
Why was the amendment needed?
Indian Railways was envisioned as a commercial undertaking of the government, with an additional social responsibility to make transport services accessible and affordable to the public. Over the years, Railways has faced persistent challenges such as:
High operating costs due to significant salary and pension expenditure
Continued losses from its passenger business due to underpricing
Under-investment in capacity augmentation (infrastructure development) due to poor surplus generation and limited private participation
Network congestion and cross-subsidy for passenger services reducing its freight competitiveness.
The opposition alleges that through this bill the government is trying to take away the autonomy and has an aim to privatize the railways. Whereas the government argues that these steps are essential to make railways modernize and financially viable as the proposed amendments are in line with the recommendations made by various committees like The Committee on Restructuring of Railways (2015) and The Sreedharan Committee (2014).
