Geography & Environment & Disaster management

All (4049)Current Affairs (4038)Mains Practice (126)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

Master Plan for Urban Areas

Context: India’s G20 Sherpa, stressed at a recent Urban-20 City Sherpas’ meet that a master plan is crucial for any city to manage urbanisation. 

Master Plan for Urban Areas

About Master Planning

  • It is an instrument of governance for urban local bodies (ULBs).
  • It is a statutory plan document, prepared for stream-lining the land use within the delineated planning area. 
  • It is a long-term plan that provides a conceptual layout for future urban growth and development.
  • It includes analysis, recommendations, and proposals for a site’s population, economy, housing, transportation, community facilities, and land use. 
  • It is based on public input, surveys, planning initiatives, existing development, physical characteristics, and social and economic conditions.
  • The validity of a Master Plan is for a specific period and after the expiry of the period it needs revision and modifications. 
  • During the 11th Five-Year Plan, it was proposed to prepare Master Plan for priority towns and growth centers.
  • Recently, most States/UTs have revised their respective bye-laws based on the Model Building Bye Laws 2016 (MoHUA, 2016). It is imperative that the city governments adapt the model regulations and as per their context and economic growth drivers.
  • The powers to prepare master plans remain with State governments.

Significance of Master Planning

  • Growth & development of the city: It helps ULBs in achieving integrated development by considering various aspects such as land use, transportation, infrastructure, housing, environment, and social amenities.
  • Efficient land utilisation: It enables efficient land utilisation by identifying suitable areas for different purposes, and preventing haphazard development.
  • Infrastructure planning: It assists ULBs in identifying the infrastructure requirements of the city or town, such as roads, water supply, sewage systems, etc. to support the growing needs of the population and economic activities.
  • Environmental Sustainability: It incorporates environmental considerations and sustainability principles into the development process to foster a greener and more resilient urban landscape.
  • Disaster Resilience: It helps ULBs in incorporating measures to enhance the resilience of cities and towns to natural disasters, such as floods, earthquakes, and cyclones by identifying vulnerable areas, designing appropriate infrastructure, and implementing disaster risk reduction strategies.
  • Social equity: It takes into account the social aspects of urban development for the economically disadvantaged, provision of basic services to marginalized communities, and accessibility for people with disabilities to create inclusive cities where all residents have access to essential services and opportunities.

Challenges

  • Rapid Urbanisation: Many cities and towns are experiencing rapid population growth and urbanization, which can strain existing infrastructure and resources. Managing this rapid growth and ensuring that the master plan can accommodate future needs is a significant challenge.
  • Limited Resources: ULBs often face financial and resource constraints, making it challenging to implement comprehensive master plans.
  • Inconsistencies in decision-making: Frequent changes in political leadership, lack of continuity in governance, and bureaucratic challenges can hinder the execution of the master plan and result in inconsistencies in decision-making.
  • Data and Information Management: Limited capacity for data collection, data quality issues, and inadequate technology infrastructure can hinder the planning process.
  • Informal Settlements and Slums: Integrating these areas into the master plan and providing adequate housing, basic services, and infrastructure to these marginalized communities can be a complex and challenging task.
  • Environmental Concerns: Balancing urban development with environmental sustainability is a critical challenge.
  • Implementation and Monitoring: Monitoring progress, assessing the impact of implemented projects, and adapting the plan as needed are important but often challenging tasks due to limited capacity, coordination issues, and institutional barriers as per the NITI Aayog Report 2021.
  • No statutory backing: Some city governments lack much authority while some city administrations have developed mitigation plans without statutory backing. For example Bengaluru has not had a master plan to control its development and the Mumbai plan lacks any statutory backing and does not prescribe any regulatory controls.
  • Urban Planning: It is the State subject and as per the 12th schedule of the Constitution and the function of Urban Local Bodies / Urban Development Authorities but the state government has powers to prepare master plans.

Way forward

  • The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has recommended that master plans in cities should be revisited for the improved governance of cities. The National Mission for Clean Ganga has been advocating such a step to protect urban water bodies.
  • Many plans to improve sanitation, infrastructure, and social inclusion are dependent on particular programmes, but these are at best ephemeral and incremental as they are centrally funded. 
  • It is simply a spatial plan of land-use allocation supported by bye-laws and development control regulations. Thus, it essentially embodies a spatial vision for cities.
  • The era of planetary urbanisation brings spatial planning into sharp focus, and calls for reimaging the spatial planning framework in India.
  • Recent moves such as Gati Shakti and Model Rural Transformation Acts are a reflection of this growing demand. The Centre must work with the States to reconsider the spatial planning framework in India.

The Advisory Committee of Niti Aayog recommends a National Council of Town and Country Planners to be constituted as a statutory body of the Government of India.

Debrigarh Sanctuary

Context: Debrigarh, a wildlife sanctuary in Odisha’s Bargarh district, has been made completely free from any human settlement following one of the country’s largest ‘peaceful’ relocations of forest-dwellers.

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About Debrigarh wildlife sanctuary:

  • As per the Odisha Forest and Environment department, Debrigarh Sanctuary, which is proposed to be a tiger reserve, has high prey base (46 animals per sq. km).
  • It is located in the Bargarh district in the Indian state of Odisha, covering a total area of 346.91 km2
  • The sanctuary is flanked by Hirakud Reservoir which is a Ramsar Site and International Bird Area.
  •  It boasts of having 82 leopards and one Royal Bengal Tiger, besides wild animals such as Bison, Leopard, Sambar, wild boar, spotted deer, wild dog, porcupine and Nilgai. 
  • The sanctuary is home to more than 40 species of mammals, 234 species of birds, 41 species of reptiles, 12 species of amphibians, 65 species of fishes and 85 species of butterflies
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About Hirakud Reservoir

  • It is one of the largest man-made reservoirs in India, built across the Mahanadi River.
  • The reservoir helps regulate the water level of the river and moderates the impact of floods in the Mahanadi Delta.

The complete removal of human settlements from Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary in Odisha's Bargarh district has several positive impacts on the sanctuary and its inhabitants:

  • Conservation of biodiversity: By removing human settlements, the sanctuary can now be better protected and conserved as a natural habitat for various wildlife species. It allows for the restoration and preservation of the ecological balance, ensuring the survival and well-being of the flora and fauna in the area.
  • Habitat restoration: The removal of human settlements enables the natural habitats within the sanctuary to recover and regenerate. The absence of human activities such as agriculture, grazing, and infrastructure development allows the ecosystem to rejuvenate, promoting the growth of native plant species and enhancing the overall health of the habitat.
  • Wildlife protection: The relocation of forest-dwellers helps reduce human-wildlife conflict significantly. It provides a safer environment for wildlife by minimizing the chances of poaching, illegal hunting, and encroachments. Animals can roam freely without disturbance, ensuring their natural behaviour and population growth.

Example- The positive impact of this relocation was immediately evident when a tiger from the neighbouring Chhattisgarh crossed over into Debrigarh which is spread over 353.81 sq. km area and there was visible drop in incidences of man-animal conflict.

  • Ecotourism and research opportunities: The transformation of Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary into a human-free zone creates opportunities for ecotourism and scientific research. The sanctuary's pristine state and undisturbed ecosystems attract nature enthusiasts, researchers, and wildlife experts, who can study the unique flora and fauna, contributing to scientific knowledge and eco-consciousness.
  • Water conservation: The absence of human settlements reduces anthropogenic activities that may impact water sources such as rivers, streams, and wetlands. This can help in maintaining the water quality, preserving water bodies, and sustaining the overall hydrological balance within the sanctuary.
  • Carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation: The restoration of the sanctuary allows for the growth and preservation of forests, which act as crucial carbon sinks. By maintaining and expanding the forest cover, Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary contributes to mitigating climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
  • Education and awareness: The successful relocation of forest-dwellers from Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary serves as an example of sustainable conservation practices. It raises awareness about the importance of preserving natural habitats and encourages people to adopt similar measures in other regions, promoting a culture of environmental stewardship and wildlife conservation.

Green Credit Scheme

Context: The government's proposed ‘market’ scheme seeks to foster sustainable living by offering incentives for a range of activities such as afforestation, water conservation, and waste management. This will be achieved by generating ‘green credits’ as a means of encouragement.

Green Credit Scheme

About the scheme

  • The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has issued the draft 'Green Credit Programme Implementation Rules 2023' under the Environment Protection Act of 1986, marking a significant step towards integrating environmental conservation with economic incentives.
  • This draft proposes the generation and trading of green credits, a key component of the Mission LiFE initiative.

Highlights of the Green Credit Scheme

Green Credits: Green Credit means a singular unit of an incentive provided for a specified activity, delivering a positive impact on the environment

Generating Green Credits for Environmental Actions

  • Individuals and organizations can generate "green credits" by actively participating in various initiatives. These initiatives include afforestation programs, water conservation efforts, etc. 
  • By engaging in these activities, individuals and organizations not only contribute to environmental sustainability but also earn credits that can be traded for monetary value.

A Market-Based Approach

  • It adopts a competitive market-based approach, aiming to motivate not only individuals and communities but also private sector industries, companies, and other entities to fulfill their environmental obligations and acquire Green Credits.
  • Creating Demand for Green Credits
  • To ensure the effectiveness of the Green Credit Scheme, the government plans to enact laws or regulations that incentivize companies and organizations to purchase green credits for trading.

Diverse Sectors for Green Credit Generation

  • The draft identifies eight sectors for green credit generation, each playing a vital role in environmental sustainability.
  • The eight sectors are: increasing the country's green cover through tree plantation and related activities, promoting water conservation and harvesting, implementing water-use efficiency measures, adopting natural and regenerative agricultural practices, undertaking land restoration, improving soil health and nutritional value of food produced, managing waste effectively, and reducing air pollution.

Special Provisions for Conservation and Restoration

  • The draft also includes specific provisions for mangrove conservation and restoration-based green credits.
  • Recognizing the significance of mangroves in protecting coastal ecosystems, the inclusion aims to promote measures for their conservation and restoration.
  • The eco-mark-based green credits encourage manufacturers to obtain eco-mark labels for their goods and services and sustainable building and infrastructure-based green credits promote the construction of environmentally-friendly structures using sustainable technologies and materials.

Establishing the Trading Platform

  • The establishment and operation of the trading platform for green credits will be guided by the guidelines issued by the green Credits administrator, with the approval of a steering committee.
  • A trading service provider accredited by the administrator will be responsible for establishing the trading platform in accordance with the approved guidelines.
  • This ensures a transparent and efficient mechanism for trading green credits.
  • Incentivizing Individual and Community Actions
  • Inclusion of regulatory provisions to account for individual and community actions alongside corporate and business actions. This move aims to incentivize and reward individual and community efforts toward environmental conservation.

Phased Implementation

  • The mechanism will be implemented in phases. Initially, 2-3 activities from eight sectors are being considered for piloting the Programme. Later, more activities will be added from the selected sectors. 

Conclusion

The proposed Green Credit Scheme introduced by the Environment Ministry represents a significant step towards promoting sustainable living and environmental stewardship. By incentivizing a range of activities through the generation and trading of green credits, the government aims to encourage individuals, communities, and private sector entities to actively participate in environmental initiatives. 

National Workshop On Integrated Management Of Sediments In River Basins And Reservoirs For Sustainable Development

Context: The Central Water Commission under Ministry of Jal Shakti organized a one-day national workshop on ‘Integrated Management of Sediments in River Basins and Reservoirs for Sustainable Development” at India International Centre in New Delhi. It was largely agreed that short and long term action plans need to be prepared along with measures to control silt deposition in Reservoir which may be implemented in phases.

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What are sediments?

  • Sediment is a naturally occurring material, organic and inorganic, that is moved and deposited in a new location by water, wind or ice. 
  • It is broken down and transported by processes of weathering and erosion. 
  • They can consist of rocks, minerals, remains of plants and animals. 
  • It can be as small as a grain of sand or as large as a boulder.
  • Sediment that is light enough to be carried by water without touching the stream bed is called suspended sediment.
  • Sediment created and deposited by glaciers is called moraine.

What is siltation and sedimentation?

  • Rivers flowing in the alluvial plains tend towards a stable flow condition. In other words, they try and maintain a balance between the silt load carried and the volume and velocities achieved by the flow. This is usually called a stable sediment regime for the river. 
  • When the core parameters of volume and velocities are disturbed, either due to a low gradient (while it enters the plains) or encroachment in flood plain, widening of the channel (braiding of river streams) suspended silt particles in the river water settle down. This is called siltation. 
  • This phenomenon is normally called sedimentation when it occurs in a reservoir.

Why sediments are important? 

  • Source of nutrients: Sediment is important because it usually enriches the soil with nutrients forming large fertile plains. Areas rich in sediments are often also rich in biodiversity. The rivers lacking in sediments (mostly downstream rivers of dams,) are known as ‘hungry waters’. 
  • Landform development: Sediment deposition create several landforms like natural levees, embankments, deltas and river banks, flood plains beaches, spits and sand bars etc.
  • Ecological functions: Sediment processes are an extremely important part of many ecosystems as well as of primary importance to particular species. For example, various organisms in both marine and freshwater environments rely on replenishment of sediment for their reproductive habitat. 
  • Natural water filtration: When water passes through soil, it is cleaned via physical, chemical and biological processes. In addition to soil's physical filtration capacity, soil contains important biota that helps transform and decompose certain chemicals and other contaminants from soil, thus helping filter them out of the water.
  • Disaster management: Sediment is one of the main tools in coastal zone management. Huge amounts of sediment are being used for flood protection (e.g. beach nourishment), and habitat and wetland protection.
  • Following chart can help us to analyse the role of sediments in various spheres;
What are sediments

What is the effect of sand mining on sedimentation in rivers?

Mining of sand, if done at an optimum level, removes excessive sediment deposit in rivers. 

  • Unscientific and excessive sand mining depletes the mineral at rates at which the river system cannot replenish it. 
  • Excessive mining creates high over banks with steep slopes, which are not stable due to the limited shear strength of the constituent soil materials. 
  • Continued collapse of such banks leads the river course to deviate towards developed lands and poses an ever-increasing threat to them.

What are the causes of reservoir sedimentation ? 

Generally, soil erosion is the major cause of reservoir sedimentation and subsequent sedimentation of reservoirs is a complex process dependent upon a number of natural and anthropogenic factors. 

The causes are classified into two with respect to the factors, namely; 

  1. Natural Causes 
    1. Geomorphology - configuration of the land surface including the location, size and shape of such physical features as hills, ridges, valleys, streams and lakes.
    2. Hydrology - To be successful, a dam and reservoir project must have an adequate and continuous supply of water. The annual rainfall, the ratio of watershed area to reservoir area, and the volume of stream of the year must be known.
    3. Hydrogeology - to determine whether groundwater would contribute to the reservoir or whether the reservoir would lose water to the groundwater system is also essential.
    4. Soil characteristics - The type of soil and its properties such as porosity and permeability can cause or lead to erosion within and around the reservoir.
  2. Anthropogenic Causes 
    1. Tillage practices: Wrong tillage practices can cause loose soil thereby leading to washing away of top soil. 
    2. Overgrazing: Too much grazing of vegetation by animals can lead to exposure of the soil in an area thereby causing erosion. 
    3. Mining and logging: Mining activities can lead to erosion due to wearing off of the surface through surveys and excavation as well. 

What are the problems with sedimentation in dams?

  • Reduction of storage capacity: When a river is put to halt behind a dam, the sediment it contains settles at the bottom of the reservoir. Reservoirs have become settling tanks for the sediment in most cases. This means the dam has less and less space for water, which it was supposed to hold. 
  • Impact on stability: Higher siltation of reservoirs exerts pressure on the reservoir thereby compromising the dam stability.
  • Reduced efficiency of power generation: The high rate of reservoir sedimentation pose a challenge to dam operators due to the abrasion of turbines and other dam components. The cracking of the tips of turbine blades by waterborne sand and silt considerably reduce their generating efficiency and needs costly repairs.
  • Reduced discharge capabilities: Sediments will often block low-level outlets designed to allow for reservoir drawdown. Reduction of spillway capacity can occur as a result of the loss of approach depth when the sediment front reaches the dam.
  • Environmental impacts: Plant and animal species are sensitive to alteration of both the sediment supply and flow regime. Increases in sediment concentration in upstream areas can create turbid waters with a smaller euphotic zone. This decreases plant productivity, negatively impacting fish and bird species and can also cause visual impairment for predatory fish, affecting their feeding habits. Finally, sediment is a primary carrier of suspended pollutants such as nitrogen, phosphorous and heavy metals. Sediments released as a result of sediment management or a dam breach may have environmental effects that can persist for decades.

In India, government statistics on 11 of the country’s reservoirs with capacities greater than one cubic kilometre show that all are filling with sediment faster than expected, with increases over assumed rates ranging from 130 percent (Bhakra) to 1,650 percent (Nizamsagar). A 1990 World Bank paper on watershed development concluded that in India, "erosion and reservoir sedimentation are not only severe and costly but accelerating. It is now obvious that the original project estimates of expected sedimentation rates were faulty, based on too few reliable data over too short a period”.

What steps can be taken in this regard?

  • Reducing sediment inflow: Sediment delivery to reservoir can be reduced by techniques such as erosion control and upstream sediment trapping.
  • Routing the sediments: Some or the entire inflowing sediment load may be hydraulically routed beyond the storage pool by techniques such as drawdown during sediment-laden floods, off stream reservoirs, sediment bypass etc
  • Sediment removal: Deposited sediments may be periodically removed by hydraulic flushing, hydraulic dredging or dry excavation.

Adopting Erosion Control and Soil Conservation Measures:This includes all those general methods which are adopted to reduce erosion of soil and to make it more and more stable. They may include: plantation, control grazing, terracing benching, cover cropping like grassing and contour binding, etc.

What is summer solstice and what causes it?

Context: The longest day of the year, for anyone living north of the Equator, is June 21. The day is referred to as the summer solstice, and it occurs when the sun is directly over the Tropic of Cancer, or more specifically right over 23.5 degrees north latitude.

image 128

Understanding solstice, equinoxes and seasons?

  • Earth’s axis is tilted at 23.5 degrees.
  • Earth makes a complete revolution around the sun once every 365 days, following an orbit that is elliptical in shape.  This means that the distance between the Earth and Sun varies throughout the year.
  • During the first week in January, the Earth is about 1.6 million miles closer to the sun. This is referred to as the perihelion.  The aphelion, or the point at which the Earth is about 1.6 million miles farther away from the sun, occurs during the first week in July.
  • Since Earth rotates on its axis, the Northern Hemisphere gets more direct sunlight between March and September over the course of a day, which also means people living in the Northern Hemisphere experience summer during this time. The rest of the year, the Southern Hemisphere gets more sunlight.
  • During the solstice, the Earth’s axis — around which the planet spins, completing one turn each day — is tilted in a way that the North Pole is tipped towards the Sun and the South Pole is away from it.
  • It should be noted that summer solstice for northern and southern hemisphere will be on different dates different.

Seasons are not caused due to this variation in distance rather they are caused due to tilted axis of Earth. 

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There are two times of the year when the Earth's axis is tilted neither toward nor away from the sun, resulting in an equal amount of daylight and darkness at all latitudes.  These events are referred to as equinoxes and occur near March 21st (Vernal Equinox) and near September 22nd (Autumnal Equinox).  At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon on the two equinoxes.

June 20th – 22nd   – summer solstice in northern hemisphere and winter solstice in southern hemisphere.

December 21st - 22nd – Winter solstice for Northern hemisphere and Summer solstice for Southern hemisphere.

March 20th  – 21st  – Vernal equinox

September 22nd – 23rd  – Autumnal equinox

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  • The amount of light received by a specific area in the Northern Hemisphere during the summer solstice depends on the latitudinal location of the place. The further north one moves from the equator, the more light one receives during the summer solstice. At the Arctic Circle, the sun does not set during the solstice.
  • Summer solstice, however, does not necessarily mean the earliest sunrise or latest sunset. That depends on the latitudinal location of the country.

Climate breakdown: the Arctic Ocean could be ice-free by the 2030s

Context: The Arctic Ocean could be ice-free in summer by the 2030s, even if we do a good job of reducing emissions between now and then. That’s the worrying conclusion of a new study in Nature Communications.

Over the past 30 years, the Arctic has warmed at roughly twice the rate as the entire globe, a phenomenon known as Arctic amplification. Most scientists agree that this rapid warming is a signal of human-caused climate change.

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This map shows trends in mean surface air temperature over the period 1960 to 2019. Notice that the Arctic is red, indicating that the trend over this 60-year period is for an increase in air temperature of nearly 4° C (7.2° F) across much of the Arctic, which is larger than for other parts of the globe.

Multiyear ice:

The ice which remains at the end of summer is called multiyear sea ice and is considerably thicker than its seasonal counterpart. It acts as barrier to the transfer of both moisture and heat between the ocean and atmosphere. Over the past 40 years this multiyear sea ice has shrunk from around 7 million sq. km to 4 million.

Blue ocean event:

“Blue ocean event” is defined as when the sea ice area drops below 1 million sq. km. This threshold is used mainly because older, thicker ice along parts of Canada and northern Greenland is expected to remain long after the rest of the Arctic Ocean is ice-free. We can’t put an exact date on the last blue ocean event, but one in the near future would likely mean open water at the North Pole for the first time in thousands of years.

Reasons behind Arctic Amplification: 

Change in Albedo:

  • When bright and reflective ice (with more albedo) melts, it gives way to a darker ocean (lowering albedo); this amplifies the warming trend because the ocean surface absorbs more heat from the Sun than the surface of snow and ice.

Changing Ocean currents:

  • Currents are changing because more melting ice is injecting the Arctic Ocean with freshwater. The missing ice also exposes the surface waters to more wind. This mixes up colder freshwater at the surface and warmer saltwater below, raising surface temperatures and further melting ice.

Changing Weather

  • Ocean currents drive the powerful polar jet stream, which moves hot and cold air masses around the Northern Hemisphere. This is a product of the temperature differences between the Arctic and the tropics.
  • But as the Arctic warms, the jet stream now undulates wildly north and south. This has been injecting the Arctic with warm air.
  • The abundance of thunderstorms in tropics creates a near-constant flow of heat away from the tropics towards the Arctic.

Change in nature of Ice Cover

  • Quality of ice cover in the Arctic region is changing. New ice is replacing old ice. 
  • Old ice is more resilient than new ice, which melts faster. New ice contains more salty water and is more subject to melting, whereas old ice has a higher share of water coming from snow precipitations and is a source of freshwater. 

Impacts of Arctic Melting:

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  • Coastal erosion: Over the Arctic Ocean, sea ice absorbs the impacts of waves and limits shoreline wave erosion. As sea ice retreats farther away from surrounding landmasses, late-summer and autumn storms stir up strong waves that crash onto shore.
  • Increase in sea level: Increased wave action caused due to sea ice melt can bend the ice shelves increasing the possibility of glacial retreat. Glaciers that have lost their ice fronts tend to flow faster, and because this process introduces a body of ice into the ocean that was not there previously, it raises sea level which further can lead to coastal flooding. 
  • Global warming: Sea ice loss leads to increased permafrost thaw, which drives the release of carbon dioxide and methane—an even more potent greenhouse gas. The retreat of sea ice exposes greater expanses of darker ocean water, which absorbs more solar radiation than white sea ice, perpetuating the global warming effect.
  • Alteration of ocean current: Massive amounts of very cold glacial-melt water entering warmer ocean waters reduces the thermal contrast between cold and warm waters. It further alters the density differences also thereby leading to slowing down of ocean currents. 
  • Changes in weather systems: accelerating sea ice melt could be linked to the intensification of Central Pacific trade winds, the emergence of El Niño events, and a weakening of the North Pacific Aleutian Low Circulation — a semi-permanent low pressure system that drives post-tropical cyclones and generates strong storms.
  • Loss of biodiversity: Arctic melting is disrupting the behavior of marine mammals and ice-obligate species including polar bears, walruses, and bearded and ringed seals. Restructured food webs, changes in prey populations, the arrival of new marine mammal species (including new predators and competitors), and pathogens from more temperate seas will challenge Arctic species. 
  • Higher human interference: The loss of Arctic Sea ice could open up new regions to shipping, tourism, and oil extraction. More people living, working, and extracting resources in the Arctic will likely require more infrastructure, and may raise the risk of emergencies needing cleanup or rescue.

New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG)

Context: The recently concluded Bonn climate conference in Germany, expected to outline the political agenda for the crucial end-of-year Conference of Parties 28 (COP28) in Dubai, was critical for reviewing and reforming the climate finance architecture. The conference has exposed a gaping hole in the funding needed to pay for climate action.

What is NCQG?

  • At the 2009 CoP, the commitment of ‘$100 billion per year till 2020’ to developing nations from developed countries was set.
  • Therefore, under Article 9, the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement agreed to set a New Collective Quantified Goal (NCGQ) for climate financing before 2025.
  • The deliberations were aimed at strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty, including by making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.
  • The NCQG work programme runs from 2022–24 and includes four technical expert dialogues (TEDs) each year and a High-level Ministerial Dialogue.
  • The NCGQ is termed as the “most important climate goal” because,
    • It pulls up the ceiling on commitment from developed countries.
    • It is supposed to anchor the evolving needs and priorities of developing countries based on scientific evidence and
    • It should respond “to the ever-increasing sums of funding, necessary for Loss and Damage in response to failed and/or delayed financial support.

Why do we need a new financial goal?

  • The finance provided by developed countries may be inflated and misleading.
  • The $100 billion target set in 2009 was seen more as a political goal since there was no effort to clarify the definition or source of ‘climate finance’.
  • The economic growth of developed countries has come at the cost of high carbon emissions, and thus they are obligated to shoulder greater responsibility.
  • Funds available for climate finance have increased quantitatively, but they are inaccessible, privately sourced, delayed, and not reaching countries in need.

Challenges to NCQG:

  • Developed countries argue that NCQG must be viewed as a “collective goal” for all developed and developing countries. 
  • This argument pushes the “net zero” pathways onto developing countries, which cannot feasibly pay for mitigation, adaptation, loss and damage, along with sustainably developing key elements of infrastructure.
  • The technical expert dialogues (TEDs) didn't establish a clear roadmap for reaching an agreement by 2024.
  • In 2021, the standing committee on finance of UNFCCC concluded in its first needs determination report (PDF) that developing countries will need $5.8–5.9 trillion up to 2030 to finance actions listed in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
    • However, instead of identifying a single aggregate figure, the NCQG could also set separate targets (or subgoals) for focus areas such as mitigation, adaptation, and loss and damage.

Bonn climate meet takeaways: Old conflicts, some forward movement

Context: The Bonn climate change conference that finished last week was built up as an opportunity for course correction. Bonn was expected to act as the springboard for accelerated action. But just like the more famous year-ending climate conferences, Bonn underperformed. Developed and developing countries bickered on issues old and new, and could not even agree on the agenda of one of the meetings till the penultimate day.

image 121

With current global efforts to keep rising temperatures in check abysmally inadequate, a massive and immediate scale-up in climate action is essential to keep alive any realistic chance of meeting the 1.5 degree or 2 degree Celsius targets.

Issues Discussed 

Global Stocktake

One thing that the countries did manage to wrap up, however, was the third and final round of technical discussions on global stocktake, or GST. 

The technical discussions just produced a short ‘framework’ on the elements to be included in the stocktake exercise. Even this saw repeated squabbling between the developed and developing countries, mainly over provisions related to finance and ‘historical responsibility’ of the rich countries.

GLOBAL STOCKTAKEMandated by the 2015 Paris Agreement, GST is an exercise aimed at assessing the progress in the fight against climate change, and deciding ways and means to enhance global action to bridge the adequacy gap (see box). The Paris Agreement says GST must be conducted every five years, starting in 2023.jezR9S643OI3Owp 18NZSbBF3wkn4d3Jczi3oG3WQSVuS C0EFi8W2LpCaVrCw9m0Uy0x6FM63arKOhNiX19J4Wa qvllUT9uO8XPihHi5EW 1LK SNbJ9nVdu7cztsR8ZMEqH3b1MKvqXzsDx w1A

Historical Responsibility 

Things riled the developing countries the most was a statement from Australia seeking to downplay the ‘historical responsibility’ of the developed countries in causing global warming. 

A bulk of the accumulated greenhouse gas emissions, the reason for global warming, have come from a group of about 40 rich and industrialised countries, usually referred to as Annex I countries because they were mentioned in Annexure I of the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, or UNFCCC. This historical responsibility has been the basis for the differentiated burden-sharing on developed and developing countries in the climate change framework.

  • Australia argued that the historical emissions happened at a time “when there was no alternative to fossil fuel based energy sources”, and when there was little understanding or consensus on the harm caused by greenhouse gases.
  • It pointed out that since 1992, about 57% of the carbon dioxide emissions had come from non-Annex I countries. It said that 70% of the incremental warming since 1992 due to emissions from carbon dioxide, methane and sulphur dioxide had come from non-Annex I countries.
  • While maintaining that developed countries would take the lead in climate action, Australia said it did not believe there was “an unambiguous debt” owed by the developed countries for past actions.
  • The stand was similar to the one taken by the US at the start of the Bonn meeting, which said bridging the adequacy gap was not the sole responsibility of the developed nations and that it would not agree to references to pre-2020 commitments in the GST.
  • Erasure of historical responsibility is the most sensitive red line for developing countries. This issue would likely come back at COP28 and has the potential to result in major fireworks.

Money matters

  • Discussions at the Mitigation Work Programme (MWP) ran into trouble after developing countries complained that while they were being asked to strengthen their climate actions, developed countries were yet to offer the enabling finance and technology transfers. 

Mitigation Work Programme (MWP)

It is a temporary emergency exercise focused only on increasing emission cuts. It was set up at COP26 in Glasgow in 2021 for climate action.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change says global emissions have to come down by 43% from 2019 levels by 2030 to keep alive hopes of meeting the 1.5 degree target. As of now, emissions are still growing and, in 2021, were higher than 2019 levels.

  • Most developing countries, including India, have said they would be able to act more if international support in the form of money and technology transfer was made available.
  • According to one assessment, developing countries need as much as US$ 6 trillion between now and 2030 just to implement their climate action plans. The loss and damage needs of developing countries are assessed to be about US$ 400 billion every year. More funds are needed for all kinds of other purposes, the total estimated to be running in several trillions of dollars every year. Against this, even a minuscule-looking US$ 100 billion per year that the developed countries had committed to raise from 2020 is not fully available.

PUSA1885: New Variety of Basmati

Context: PUSA1121, a popular variety of basmati rice known for its aroma and long grains, and favoured by exporters, will no longer be recommended by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, a top official said. The unit of the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) would instead promote a new and improved variety of aromatic rice labelled PUSA1885.

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About PUSA1885

  • It is the new alternative to PUSA1121 as all its characteristics such as aroma, grain length, off-white colour and best cooking results have been retained while adding resistance to pest attacks.
  • This variety has been developed through molecular marker-assisted breeding incorporation of two genes each for bacterial blight resistance namely, xa13 and Xa21; and blast resistance genes Pi2 and Pi54.
  • It has semi-tall plant stature with extra-long slender grains.
  • It will require much fewer agrochemicals and will save farmers as much as ₹3,000 per acre on pesticides, while the yield will be four to seven quintals more.
  • India exports some ₹40,000 crore worth of basmati every year to North America, Europe and the Middle East. 
  • Two other basmati varieties, PUSA1509 and PUSA1401, have also been replaced by PUSA1847 and PUSA1886.
  • All three new varieties are resistant to pests and give 20% more yield than their older versions.

About PUSA1847

  • It is an improvement of the popular Basmati rice variety, Pusa Basmati 1509 with inbuilt resistance to bacterial blight and blast disease developed through molecular marker-assisted breeding.
  • This variety possesses two genes each for bacterial blight resistance namely, xa13 and Xa21; and blast resistance namely, Pi54 and Pi2.
  • It is an early maturing and semi-dwarf Basmati rice variety with an average yield.
  • This variety was released for commercial cultivation in 2021.

UN agreement to protect marine life

Context: Members of United Nations adopted the first ever treaty to protect marine life in the high seas.

UN High Seas Treaty:

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  • The United Nations adopted the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Treaty (BBNJ), also known as the High Seas Treaty, marking the first-ever legally binding international treaty governing the high seas.
  • The High Seas Treaty was approved by all 193 U.N. member states and aims to establish regulations to protect the environment, prevent conflicts related to natural resources and shipping, and address various issues in waters beyond any country's national jurisdiction.
  • The treaty introduces a framework for the creation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the high seas, which will complement existing MPAs within national territorial waters. 
  • This initiative is intended to address biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation caused by climate change impacts such as ocean warming and acidification, as well as challenges posed by plastics, pollutants, and overfishing.

Focus areas under High Seas Treaty: 

  • Marine genetic resources (MGRs), including the fair and equitable sharing of benefits.
  • Area-based management tools (ABMTs), including marine protected areas (MPAs).
  • Environmental impact assessments (EIAs). 
  • Capacity building and transfer of marine technology (CB&TMT).

Biochar: The Ancient Charcoal

Context: Ancient charcoal, a type of charcoal first used by Amazonian tribes thousands of years ago is becoming a key component of net-zero goals set by blue chip companies eager to offset their carbon emissions.

About Ancient Charcoal: Biochar

About Biochar
  • Known as biochar, this black substance created by heating biomass and other agricultural waste can store carbon for hundreds of years and improve soil quality at the same time.
  • It is a carbonaceous material derived from waste biomass, of which several key properties, including low bulk density, low thermal conductivity, and the porous nature, have rendered it to present distinguished performance characteristics of the concrete.

How biochar sequesters carbon?

  • It is produced by heating wood and other biomass in a low-oxygen chamber that limits emissions, in a process known as pyrolysis. The bio-oils and gas produced can be used for power generation.
  • The resulting char can be mixed with existing soil, acting as a fertilizer and sequestering carbon with a mean residence time of about 2,000 years.
  • Biochar production and burial remove carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere through uptake by plants, allowing, in principle, an actual reduction of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. 
  • By contrast, conventional carbon capture and storage reduces the carbon dioxide concentrations from exhaust fumes, therefore at best preventing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels from rising further. 
  • Biochar is regarded as an ideal material for reducing CO2 in concrete production.

Benefits of Biochar

  • Carbon Sequestration: Potential to sequester up to 2 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually by 2050, or almost as much as India emits in a year.
  • Sound absorption: In addition to its insulation properties, voids and networks of interconnected pores derived from biochar also increase the sound absorption of the concrete. 
  • Cement hydration: The addition of biochar in cement-based composites could increase compressive strength by promoting cement hydration due to its high capacity for water retention.
  • Used as filler: It usually has a fine particle size; thus, it could be used as filler to fill the micropores in construction materials.
  • Fire resistance: Compared to wood-incorporated composites, biochar-modified composites showed relatively high fire resistance due to their stable physiochemical properties.
  • Construction Industry: Utilised as a renewable resource to replace cement content while making mortar that is being used in the construction industry.
  • Water retention: Biochar feedstocks, such as poultry litter and pulp and paper mill sludge, play an active role in enhancing water absorption in concrete.
  • Remediation of Soil: Biochar is often used for the remediation of soil suffering from heavy metal pollution.

Challenges of Biochar

  • Limit activity of earthworms in soil: Due to the application of biochar in soil, the activity of worms reduces which is essential for soil productivity.
  • Soil compaction: The frequent application of biochar causes soil compaction which in return decreases crop yield.
  • Lowers efficiency of pesticides: Biochar also affects the application of pesticides hence reducing the efficiency of pesticides in soil.

About Pyrolysis 

  • It is one of the technologies available to convert biomass to an intermediate liquid product that can be refined to drop-in hydrocarbon biofuels, oxygenated fuel additives, and petrochemical replacements. 
  • It is the heating of an organic material, such as biomass, in low or no oxygen.
  • Biomass pyrolysis is usually conducted at or above 500 °C, providing enough heat to deconstruct the strong bio-polymers. Because no oxygen is present combustion does not occur, rather the biomass thermally decomposes into combustible gases and biochar.  
  • Thus, pyrolysis of biomass produces three products: one liquid, bio-oil, one solid, bio-char, and one gaseous, syngas.

Summit for a New Global Financing Pact

Context: As world leaders and finance moguls land in Paris for the Summit for a New Global Financing Pact, it’s time to take concrete steps for sustainable finance and not let this be another international summit without substance.

India, the president of the G20 this year, is co-chairing the steering committee of the summit with France and can be counted on to be that voice of the Global South.

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About the summit:

  • What: a new deal to be signed among world leaders to ensure fixed funding amount and mechanism for various developmental issues.
  • When: on 22-23 June
  • Initiative: Taken by the French President, Emmanuel Macron

Aims

  • Aim of the Summit is to lay the groundwork for a new financial system suited to the common challenges of the 21st century, such as fighting inequalities and climate change and protecting biodiversity.
  • It aims to establish a sufficiently robust international financial architecture to provide greater resources, protect the most vulnerable countries from shocks, help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), restore the long-term trend of poverty reduction, and preserve global public goods such as climate and health.
  • Aim to “build a new contract with the North and the South”, in order to facilitate the access of vulnerable countries to the financing they need to address the consequences of ongoing and future crises.

Four main objectives

  • Restore fiscal space to countries facing short-term difficulties, especially the most indebted countries.
  • Fostering private sector development in low-income countries.
  • Encourage investment in "green" infrastructure for the energy transition in emerging and developing countries.
  • Mobilize innovative financing for countries vulnerable to climate change.

High level steering committee composition:

It includes France, Barbados, South Africa, Germany, Brazil, China, the United Arab Emirates, the United States, India, Japan, the United Kingdom, Senegal, the European Commission, the United Nations Secretariat, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the OECD.

Challenges in such funding:

1. Demand and Supply gap of funding:

Demand - According to One Planet Lab’s white papers released for the Summit, the scale of investment needed to meet the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals, climate COP21 and Biodiversity COP15 objectives set at the global and national levels is to the tune of an additional $4 trillion every year.

Supply - only $204 billions of official development assistance came last year. 

2. Regional difference: only 25% of global climate investment goes to South Asia, Latin America, and Africa, which house some of the most vulnerable regions. 

3. Not focusing on equal but differentiated responsibility: developed nations despite historically responsible for the emission are not taking responsibility to lead a way and fund more. They demand equal contribution of funds from developing nations like India for being current emitter. 

Way forward

  • Modernising and standardising existing tax structures, clamping down on illegal cross-border money movement, empowering tax administrations and curbing ineffectual fossil fuel subsidies.
  • At international level, taxing the production of fossil fuels, shipping of goods, and transportation of fossil fuels to raise funds.
  • Financing novel mechanisms, such as a Global Clean Investment Risk Mitigation Mechanism that pool risks across geographies and lower costs for all. It would help to attract private financing for such needs.
  • Transparency and real-time data can bridge the psychological and financial divides.
  • Chart a political pathway that creates time-bound deliverables on climate finance from one summit to another. 

Conclusion

The summit must outline the maths of finance, the mechanisms of delivery, and establish the momentum for real investment over the next two years. When we approach the 80th anniversary of the UN in 2025, reformed finance for sustainable development should have formed the basis for renewed and meaningful multilateralism.

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