Context: Recently, the Assam Cabinet decided to name a new Guwahati flyover after Prithu, a 13th-century Kamrup ruler, as a symbol of Assam’s historic resistance to foreign invasions.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Prithu: 13th-century Kamrup ruler.
King Prithu of Kamrup
King Prithu, also referred to as Raja Prithu Rae, was a 13th-century king of the Kamarupa kingdom, which corresponds to modern-day Assam.
He belonged to the Khen dynasty, who drew their lineage from Narakasura. They worshipped Kamteswari, an incarnation of Hindu Goddess Durga. Khen were probably local chieftains who rose to power after the fall of the Pala Dynasty.
He has not been featured prominently in mainstream historiography, but local lore, inscriptions, and regional narratives elevate him as a heroic defender of the region.
He is remembered for defeating the invading army of Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1206 CE.
Prithu has gained renewed recognition in recent decades, largely due to the efforts of historian Raktim Patar who wrote Maharaja Prithu: The Unsung Warrior King Who Annihilated Bakhtiyar Khalji in 2021.
He also defeated Hisan Uddin Iwaz (Delhi Sultan Ghiassuddin), noted British civil servant Wolseley Haig in The Cambridge History of India, Volume III.
Prithu and Bakhtiyar Khilji’s Invasion:
Bakhtiyar Khilji, a general under Muhammad of Ghor, was one of the earliest Turko-Afghan commanders who attempted to expand Islamic rule into eastern India.
In 1205-1206, following his destructive raid on Nalanda and Bengal, Bakhtiyar Khilji aimed to expand his conquests into Tibet through Kamrupa.
The campaign ended in disaster, Khilji’s forces were completely routed in Kamrup, with local accounts suggesting that he was fatally wounded.
This marked the first successful repulsion of Turko-Afghan incursions into the Northeast frontier. The Kanai Varasi rock inscription (Assam) is proof of the destruction of the Turks who invaded Kamrupa in 1206 CE.
The identity of the local ruler who inflicted this defeat has remained uncertain due to the absence of direct contemporary evidence, but modern scholars often associate the victory with King Prithu of Kamrup.
Context: May 31st marks the birth anniversary of the 18th century Maratha queen Ahilya Bai Holkar who was a great administrator and visionary. In all her dealings with her subjects, Ahilya Bai was guided by her innate generosity and principles.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Ahilya Bai Holkar.
About Ahilyabai Holkar
Born in 1725, she was the Rani of Indore (Holkar dynasty) within the Maratha Confederacy.
She established Maheshwar (in Madhya Pradesh) as the seat of the Holkar Dynasty, south of Indore on the Narmada River.
After the demise of her husband (Khande Rao) she was trained in military affairs by Malhar Rao Holkar.
She came to power after the passing of her father-in-law Malhar Rao Holkar.
Contributions in Culture:
Ahilyabai funded the reconstruction of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi (1780) which had been destroyed in the past and subsequently converted into a mosque by Aurangzeb in 1669.
The current structure of Vishnupad Temple, Gaya, Bihar was built by Maharani Ahilya Bai Holkar in 1787.
Ahilya Bai resurrected the jyotirlingas across the country. Renovations in Somnath, Varanasi, Trambak, Gaya, Pushkar, Vrindavan, Nathdwara, Haridwar, Badrinath, Kedarnath and many other sacred sites were undertaken during her reign.
The Maheshwari Sari are also part of the queen’s legacy. She not only promoted the traditional weave but also paved the way for skilling women, thus empowering them. The production of these saris was not only a way to increase the revenue collection of the state, but provided a steady source of income to the weavers. Under her encouragement, the production of Maheswari saris gained momentum and popularity.
About Holkars of Maratha Confederacy:
The Holkars were Subedar (one of the designations of a governor of a Subah/province) under Peshwa Baji Rao I (Pune seat).
When the Maratha Empire began to weaken due to internal clashes, the Holkars declared themselves the rulers of Indore in Central India, existing as an autonomous member of the Maratha Empire until 1818. After this they were under the protectorate of the British Empire.
The dynasty was founded with Malhar Rao, who joined the service of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire in 1721, and quickly rose to the rank of Subedar.
In the 1720s, he led Maratha armies in Malwa region, and in 1733 was granted 9 parganas in the vicinity of Indore by the Peshwa.
By the time of his death, he ruled much of Malwa, and was acknowledged as one of the five virtually independent rulers of the Maratha Confederacy.
He was succeeded by Ahilyabai Holkar (his daughter-in-law).
Context: The state government of Maharashtra has reclaimed the famous "Raghuji Sword" of the 18th century Maratha general Raghuji BhonsleI for Rs 47.15 lakh at an auction in London, United Kingdom.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Raghuji Bhonsle.
About Raghuji Bhonsle I
Raghuji Bhonsle I (reign 1739–1755) was a distinguished Maratha general under Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.
He was the founder of the Nagpur-based Bhosale dynasty, which became a significant power center within the Maratha Confederacy.
He led pivotal military campaigns in Bengal in 1745 and 1755, greatly expanding the Maratha Empire’s territory into Bengal and Odisha.
His influence also extended to regions in Central India such as Chanda, Chhattisgarh and Sambalpur.
His successful campaigns in South India resulted in the defeat of the Nawabs of Kurnool and Cuddapah, and further solidified Maratha dominance in the region.
He was honoured with the title ‘Senasaheb Subha’ by Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, impressed by his bravery and military acumen.
Raghuji Sword
The sword bears an inscription in Devanagari script on its spine, suggesting that it was made for Raghuji Bhonsle I.
The sword exemplifies the ‘European’ style of Maratha weaponry — characterised by a straight, single-edged European blade paired with a locally crafted Mulheri hilt, beautifully adorned with intricate gold inlay.
The European-made blade reflects the active global arms trade in 18th-century India, emphasising the intersection of Indian and European craftsmanship.
Note:
Nagpur Bhosales ruled over a mineral-rich region abundant in iron and copper, which were skilfully used to craft both everyday items and formidable weapons. The quality and artistry of the weaponry crafted by the Bhosales are renowned for their exceptional craftsmanship.
Following the 1817 Battle of Sitabuldi, where the East India Company defeated the Nagpur Bhosales, the British looted the Bhosale treasury, seizing priceless treasures, ornaments and weapons.
The artifact will be brought back to India shortly, where it is expected to be displayed in a museum or heritage institution.
Context: April 3 is the death anniversary of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj who passed away in 1680 at the age of 50.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Shivaji.
About Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj:
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was born on February 19, 1630, at Shivneri Fort located in Maharashtra.
He was son of Shahaji Bhonsle (a Maratha general) and Jijabai (mother).
He grew up under the guidance of Dadoji Kondadev, who trained him in warfare and administration.
At the age of 16, he captured Torna Fort in 1645, marking the beginning of Maratha rule.
He also took over several forts like Rajgad, Purandar, and Sinhagad from the Adil Shahi Sultanate ruling from Bijapur in Deccan.
He introduced guerrilla warfare tactics to fight against the Mughals and Deccan Sultanates.
He took on the titles of Chhatrapati, Shakakarta, Kshatriya Kulavantas and Haindava Dharmodhhaarak.
His struggles with Bijapur
Shivaji’s father Shahaji was in service of the Bijapuri Sultanate - a tripartite association between Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Golconda, as a general.
By 1645, Shivaji acquired control of several strategic from under the Bijapur Sultanate around Pune.
Following his success, he had emerged as a threat for Mohammed Adil Shah who gave the order to imprison Shahaji in 1648.
Shahaji was released on condition that Shivaji kept a low profile and kept from further conquests. Shivaji resumed his conquests after Shahaji’s death in 1665.
Battle of Pratapgad: The Battle of Pratapgad took place in 1659, at Pratapgad Fort in Satara. The battle was fought between the Marathas forces led by Chhatrapati Shivaji and the Bijapur troops under General Afzal Khan. The Marathas emerged victorious, marking their first significant military triumph against a major regional power.
Conflict with the Mughals
In 1659, he defeated Afzal Khan, a general of Bijapur, using strategic warfare.
In 1665, he signed the Treaty of Purandar with Raja Jai Singh (Ruler of Amber), surrendering 23 forts.
In 1666, he was captured and imprisoned in Agra by Aurangzeb but escaped using a clever disguise. His son Sambhaji Bhonsle was kept as a political prisoner to the ruler of Amber Sawai Jai Singh I, and later became Mansabdar.
Relationship with the English
Initial days of his reign, Shivaji maintained cordial relationships with the English till they supported the Bijapuri Sultanate in a confrontation against him in the capture of Fort of Panhala in 1660. So in 1670, Shivaji moved against the English in Bombay for them not selling him war material.
Coronation & Expansion:
On June 6, 1674: he was crowned as Chhatrapati (King or Lord of the Parasol) at Raigad Fort, officially establishing the Maratha Empire. In the following year, he expanded territory across Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
For this, he built a strong navy to protect the Konkan coastline, making him one of the first Indian rulers to emphasise naval power.
Death:
He died on April 3, 1680, at Raigad Fort. He left behind a strong, independent Maratha Empire that challenged Mughal supremacy.
Administration of Shivaji
Was assisted by a council of ministers called Ashtapradhan (eight ministers). These eight ministers were:
The Peshwa or Prime Minister, was head of general administration and represented the king in his absence.
The Majumder or the Auditor was responsible for maintain the financial health of the kingdom.
The PanditRao or Chief Spiritual Head was responsible for overseeing the spiritual well-being of the kingdom,
The Dabir or Foreign Secretary was entrusted with the responsibility of advising the king on matters of foreign policies.
The Senapati or Military General was in charge of overseeing every aspect of the military.
The Nyayadhish or Chief Justice saw formulations of law and their subsequent enforcement, civil, judicial as well as military.
The Mantri or Chronicler was responsible for keeping elaborate records of everything the king did in his daily life.
The Sachiv or Superintendant was in charge of royal correspondence
Except the Panditrao and Nyayadhis, all other ministers held military commands, their civil duties often being performed by deputies.
Reduced power of Deshmukh & Kulkarni and appointed his own revenue officials karkuns.
Chauth was 1/4th of land revenue and Sardeshmukhi was additional levy of 10% on those lands of Maharashtra over which Marathas claimed hereditary right but formed part of Mughal empire.
Chauth was a regular tax or tribute imposed from the early 18th century by the Maratha Empire and was an annual tax nominally levied at 25% on revenue or produce. The sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy on top of the chauth. A tribute paid to the king.
His army consisted of cavalry supervised by havildars and infantry having Malvi foot soldiers as an important feature.
He also maintained a navy with the purchase of twenty galivats(armed boat) from the Portuguese shipyards of Bassein (Vasai). Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them, and built his first marine fort at Sindhudurg, which was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy.
Shivaji signed a charter to the Dutch banning, freeing, and stopping the import and export of all slaves under his rule.
Shivaji abolished the ‘vatandari’ system, a form of landlordism prevalent in the Deccan during his time, and implemented the Ryotwari system instead.
Vatandari system was a form of landlordism prevalent in the Deccan region, where landowners (vatandars) held hereditary rights to land and collected revenue from local cultivators, who were dependent on them for their livelihood.
Shivaji abolished this system, and introduced the Ryotwari system, giving cultivators greater control over their land.
Promotion of Art and Culture
Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit: In his court, Shivaji replaced Persian with Marathi, and emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions. Shivaji commissioned one of his officials to make a comprehensive lexicon to replace Persian and Arabic terms with their Sanskrit equivalents. This led to the production of ‘Rajavyavaharakosa’, the thesaurus of state usage in 1677
Seal: Shivaji's royal seal was in Sanskrit.
Religious policy: Shivaji is known for his liberal and tolerant religious policies. While Hindus were relieved to practice their religion freely under a Hindu ruler, Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment, but supported their ministries with endowments.
Forts: The forts he built are Sindhudurg, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Raigad etc.
Shivaji was a contemporary of Samarth Ramdas and inspirer of Shivaji. He was an Indian Marathi Hindu saint, philosopher, poet, writer and spiritual master.
Context: The demand for the demolition of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb’s tomb has risen in Maharashtra.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Aurangzeb; Aurangzeb’s Tomb.
About Aurangzeb Tomb
Location: Khuldabad, near Ellora Caves, Maharashtra.
Architectural Style: Simple and unadorned, in line with Aurangzeb’s wish for a modest burial.
Historical Significance
Aurangzeb died in 1707 in Ahmednagar and was buried in Khuldabad, also known as the Valley of Saints.
The tomb follows the Chishti Sufi tradition, similar to Sheikh Salim Chishti’s tomb in Fatehpur Sikri.
It was later expanded by Lord Curzon (British Viceroy of India).
About Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb (Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir) was the sixth Mughal Emperor of India. Under his rule, the Mughal Empire reached its zenith and became the single largest empire in India.
Coronation: Took the throne after defeating Dara Shikoh in the Battle of Samugarh (1658).
Death: Died in 1707 in Ahmednagar, buried in Khuldabad, Maharashtra
Image source: Wikipedia
Major Policies & Administration
Religious Policies:
Reimposed Jizya tax (1679) on non-Muslims.
Destroyed some Hindu temples but also gave land grants to certain Hindu temples.
Deccan Policy:
Annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687), expanding Mughal rule in South India.
Faced stiff resistance from the Marathas, especially from Shivaji and Sambhaji.
Rajput Policy:
Conflicts with Rajputs, especially Mewar and Marwar, led to a decline in Mughal-Rajput relations
Sikh Policy:
Executed Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675), leading to opposition from Sikhs.
Faced resistance from Guru Gobind Singh and later Banda Singh Bahadur.
Aurangzeb’s reign marked the greatest territorial expansion of the Mughal Empire, but his religious orthodoxy, economic mismanagement, and prolonged Deccan campaigns weakened the empire. His policies contributed to the rise of regional powers like the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats, accelerating Mughal decline after his death in 1707.
Context: The Supreme Court stayed new construction and renovation of the centuries-old religious structures inside the Mehrauli Archaeological Park in New Delhi to avoid any planned demolition in the archaeologically sensitive area.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Mehrauli Archaeological Park; Various Structures in Mehrauli.
About Mehrauli Archaeological Park
Mehrauli is one of the seven medieval cities that make up the present union territory of Delhi, apart from Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Deenpanah and Shahjahanabad.
The Lal Kot fort was constructed by the Tomar chief Anangpal I around 731 AD and expanded by Anangpal II in the 11th century,who shifted his capital to Lal Kot from Kannauj.
The Chauhans defeated the Tomars in the 12th century.
Prithviraj Chauhan further expanded the fort, which is now Qila Rai Pithora. He was defeated and killed in 1192 by Mohammed Ghori, who put his general Qutb-ud-din Aybak in charge and returned to Afghanistan.
In 1206, after the death of Mohammed Ghori, Qutubuddin enthroned himself as the first Sultan of Delhi.
Thus, Delhi became the capital of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi (Slave dynasty), the first dynasty of Muslim sultans to rule over northern India.
Mehrauli remained the capital of the Mamluk dynasty which ruled until 1290.
During the Khilji dynasty, the capital shifted to Siri.
In 12th-century Jain scriptures, the location is also mentioned as Yogninipura, now noticeable by the presence of the ‘Yogmaya Temple’, near the Qutub Minar complex.
It was also the execution place of Banda Singh Bahadur after he sacked the regional Mughal capital of Samana.
Various Structures in Mehrauli
There are a number of tombs of prominent people from the Delhi Sultanate (1206 to 1526 AD) and Mughal (1526 to 1857 AD) era. These tombs are usually placed near the dargahs of saints.Tombs of the later Mughals are near the dargah of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Mehrauli or Humayun’s tomb near Nizamuddin Auliya’s dargah.
16th Century tomb of Adham Khan and his mother Maham Anaga:
Reminder of Akbar’s wrath on Adham for murdering his general and prime minister Atgah Khan.
Built in an octagonal shape with low towers at corners.
Consists of Lodhi-style domed octagonal chambers with ‘Verandahs’ on each side.
Zafar Mahal or Lal Mahal built in red sandstone:
Zafar Mahal was the summer palace of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
The building has two components, namely, the Mahal, which was built first by Akbar Shah II in the 18th century, and the entrance gate that was reconstructed in the 19th century by the last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
Bahadur Shah Zafar II wished to be buried in the precincts of the Zafar Mahal. However, after the first war of Independence (1857), he was deported by Major William Hudson in 1858 to Rangoon (Burma/Myanmar), where he died of old age.
This palace is also known for the Phoolwalon Ki Sair pass. This festival was started in 1812 by Akbar Shah II’s wife Mumtaz Mahal, after her son Mirza Jahangir was exiled to Allahabad by the British Resident Sir Archibald Seton.
Jamali Kamali Tomb and Mosque:
Contain the tombs of Sufi saint Jamali or Shaikh Fazlu’llah and his disciple.
Jamali was a well-known court poet who enjoyed the patronage of the Lodhi dynasty and that of Babur and Humayun as well.
Tombs of Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87 AD) and his son, Shahid Khan:
Shahid had died fighting against the Mongols near Multan during Balban’s reign.
Balban of the Mamluk dynasty is remembered for taking strong steps to control dacoity and robbery on the Delhi roads in the 13th Century.
Balban’s tomb is housed in the building Dar-ul Amaan (Haven of Safety) and as the name suggests, it served as a haven from debt collectors.
It is the first site where the true arch and dome, a prominent feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, introduced by the Turks, made its appearance.
A baoli or stepwell known as Rajon Ki Baoli:
It was constructed in 1506 AD during Sikandar Lodhi's reign.
It was used to store water.
It was commissioned by Daulat Khan in 1506 AD, an administrator of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
The enclosure of Rajon Ki Baoli includes a mosque and a tomb.
The name Rajon Ki Baoli is derived from the 'Rajbirs' or 'Mistris', the term used for masons.
A courtyard surrounded by a verandah with many beautiful pillars and the arches in the verandah are made in the typical north Indian fashion of that time.
Qutb Complex, close to the North-West of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque:
Tomb of Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 AD):
Built by Iltutmish himself in 1235 AD, a year before his death.
Made in white marble, surrounded by carved arched entrances on the three sides.
Context: Port Blair has been renamed ‘Sri Vijaya Puram’ by the Government of India in an effort to move beyond its colonial legacy. The new name pays tribute to the region’s historical ties with the Srivijaya Empire. This renaming also symbolizes the triumph of India's freedom struggle, recognizing the unique and vital role the Andaman and Nicobar Islands played in that historic fight for independence.
Introduction:
Port Blair, the gateway to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, was named after Archibald Blair, a naval surveyor and lieutenant in the Bombay Marine.
Blair was the first to conduct a detailed survey of the Andaman Islands, a crucial factor in the city’s establishment.
Archibald Blair’s early career and survey missions:
Blair began his service in the Bombay Marine in 1771, embarking on numerous survey missions across the coasts of India, Iran, and Arabia.
His work extended into various regions, including the Chagos Archipelago, Diamond Harbour near Calcutta, and along the Hooghly River.
These early missions earned him a reputation as a skilled surveyor, leading to his involvement in a mission to the Andaman Islands.
Survey of the Andaman Islands and naming of Port Cornwallis:
In December 1778, Blair departed from Calcutta with two ships, the Elizabeth and the Viper, to explore the Andaman Islands.
His expedition, lasting until April 1779, navigated the west coast and subsequently the east coast of the islands.
During this survey, Blair discovered a natural harbour, which he initially named Port Cornwallis, after William Cornwallis, then Commander-in-Chief of the British Indian Army.
Later the island was renamed after him.
Recognizing the strategic importance of this harbour, Blair reported his findings to the East India Company (EIC), who were impressed by the potential of the location.
Colonization of the Andaman Islands:
Following Blair’s discovery, the EIC decided to colonize the islands to establish a safe harbour to monitor and counter Malay pirate activities.
Port Cornwallis would also serve as a refuge for shipwrecked sailors and as a shelter for British officers during hostilities with other powers.
As part of the colonization process, several convicts were transported to the islands to perform unpaid labor, and the region became a penal colony.
Decline of the first colony:
In December 1792, for strategic reasons, the colony was shifted to the northeast part of the Andaman Islands, and the new settlement was named Port Cornwallis.
However, this new colony did not last long, as the settlers faced severe disease outbreaks, resulting in numerous deaths.
Port Blair and the revival of penal colony post-1857 revolt:
The Revolt of 1857 changed the course of Port Blair's history.
The British, now burdened with a large number of Indian prisoners, decided to renovate and resettle Port Blair as a penal colony.
Many of these prisoners were given life sentences, with some being hanged, and others succumbing to disease and the harsh conditions of the settlement.
With the rise of the Indian Independence Movement, the British constructed a vast cellular jail in 1906, now infamously known as Kaala Paani.
This jail housed numerous Indian freedom fighters, including Veer Damodar Savarkar, becoming a symbol of British colonial oppression.
Blair’s exploration and discovery were instrumental in shaping the colonial history of the Andaman Islands.
Certain facts about Port Blair
Port Blair, now officially known as Sri Vijaya Puram, serves as the capital of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a union territory of India situated in the Bay of Bengal.
It functions as the headquarters of the South Andaman district.
Port Blair is home to several strategic military installations. Indian Navy's major naval base, INS Jarawa, is located here, along with air and sea bases operated by Indian Coast Guard, Andaman and Nicobar Police, and Andaman and Nicobar Command-the first integrated tri-command of the Indian Armed Forces, comprising the Army, Navy, and Air Force.
In Indian freedom struggle movement:
Netaji Subas Chandra Bose escaped British surveillance in Calcutta on January 16, 1941, and returned to Indian soil nearly three years later, arriving at Port Blair Aerodrome on December 29, 1943.
On 30 December 1943, Netaji hoisted the national flag for the first time on Indian soil, at Port Blair, symbolizing the fulfilment of his promise that the Indian National Army (INA) would stand on Indian land by the end of 1943. This momentous visit also marked the declaration of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as the ‘first liberated territory of India.’
To commemorate this significant event, a Sankalp Smarak (Memorial of Resolve) was dedicated to the nation on December 29, 2021 (78 years after Bose's historic arrival in the Andamans).
From 1943 to 44 during World War II, this territory served as the headquarters of the Azad Hind government under Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. The island at the time was liberated from British rule by Japan which captured it during World War II. British forces eventually regained control of the islands in October 1945.
History of Engagement of Imperial Chola with Andaman Islands and Srivijaya:
During the 11th century, the powerful Chola emperor, Rajendra I, used the Andaman Islands as a naval base to launch a significant military campaign against the Srivijaya Empire (southern Sumatra), located in present-day Indonesia.
Strategic importance:
According to inscriptions found at Thanjavur dated to 1050 CE, the Cholas referred to the Andaman Islands as Ma-Nakkavaram (great open or naked land), which is believed to have contributed to the modern name of Nicobar under British rule.
The islands’ geographic location made them an ideal staging ground for naval expeditions aimed at Southeast Asia.
His attack on Srivijaya was a remarkable event, reflecting the Chola Empire’s strength and its influence in the region.
Invasion of Srivijaya:
The Chola invasion of Srivijaya was unique in India’s otherwise peaceful interactions with Southeast Asia.
For nearly a millennium, Southeast Asian states had come under the strong cultural influence of India, but this military campaign marked a rare instance of direct conflict.
Reasons for invasion:
The Srivijaya Empire may have attempted to disrupt Chola trade routes with the East, which prompted Rajendra I’s military response.
It is also believed that Rajendra I sought to extend his digvijaya (conquest of all directions) to Southeast Asia, thereby enhancing his imperial glory.
The attack on Srivijaya was also part of the Chola’s broader expansionist ambitions, which also included conflicts with other South Indian empires and Sri Lanka.
Outcome:
Rajendra I’s naval campaign against Srivijaya resulted in significant victories.
According to inscriptional records, he captured Srivijaya’s king, Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, and seized valuable treasures from the Buddhist empire, including the Vidhyadara Torana, a jewelled war gate of Srivijaya.
The control over the Srivijaya Empire in Southeast Asia gave access to a major commercial hub.
The conquest gave the Cholas control over important maritime trade routes.
This victory not only marked the height of Chola naval power but also demonstrated the empire’s capacity to influence events far beyond the Indian subcontinent.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, through their association with Rajendra I’s naval expeditions, gained a significant role in India’s maritime strategy and historical narratives.
About Rajendra Chola I (reigned from 1014 and 1044 CE):
Introduction:
Rajaraja I appointed his son, Rajendra I, as his heir apparent, marking the continuation of the Chola dynasty.
For two years, they ruled jointly, with Rajendra actively participating in campaigns, especially against the Western Chalukyas.
These efforts extended the Chola Empire's boundaries to the Tungabhadra River, securing its northern frontier.
Conquest of the Pandyas and Sri Lanka:
One of the major achievements during Rajaraja’s reign was the attack on Madurai, forcing the Pandya rulers to flee to Sri Lanka.
Rajendra I continued this campaign, successfully conquering Sri Lanka and reclaiming the Pandya crown and jewels.
This victory further solidified Chola dominance over the Pandyas and Sri Lanka.
Northern expeditions:
After ascending the throne in 1014 CE, Rajendra launched a significant campaign into northern India, extending the Chola influence beyond the Godavari River.
His forces secured key victories, leading to the construction of the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple, commemorating the northern conquests.
Western Chalukya campaigns:
Rajendra I continued his father’s campaigns against the Western Chalukyas, successfully sacking their capital, Kalayani.
The dwarapala statue from Kalayani, installed at the Darasuram temple, is a lasting symbol of these victories.
Rajendra I assumed titles such as Mudikonda Cholan, Gangaikondan, and Kadaramkondan to reflect his military triumphs and scholarly achievements. His reign marked the zenith of Chola power, extending from South India to Southeast Asia, cementing the Chola Empire as one of the most powerful in Indian history.
Context: On Navy Day (December 4), last year, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated a 35-foot statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji at Rajkot Fort in Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra. However, the statue collapsed recently on August 26, causing embarrassment for the state government. The statue's collapse has sparked a war of words between the ruling and opposition parties in Maharashtra, which is headed for elections.
Introduction
The Marathas played a pivotal role in the decline of Mughal power in India.
Under the dynamic leadership of Shivaji, they posed a formidable challenge to the Mughal Empire in the 1670s.
By the mid-18th century, they had successfully displaced Mughal authority in central India.
In 1674, the Maratha General Venkoji, Shivaji's half-brother, led an invasion of Thanjavur, ending Nayak rule and establishing Maratha dominance in the Tamil region.
This Maratha rule in Thanjavur continued until the death of Serfoji II in 1832.
Early life of Shivaji
Shivaji (1627–1680) was born in Shivner near Junnar to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai.
Shahji was a descendant of the Yadava rulers of Devagiri on his mother’s side and the Sisodias of Mewar on his father’s side.
Shahji served under Malik Ambar, a prominent Abyssinian minister of Ahmed Shah of Ahmednagar.
Following Malik Ambar's death, Shahji played a crucial role in Ahmednagar's politics before entering the service of the Sultan of Bijapur after Ahmednagar's annexation by the Mughals.
Shivaji and his mother were placed under the care of Dadaji Kondadev, who managed Shahji's jagirs at Poona.
Shivaji earned the trust of the Mavali peasants and chiefs, familiarizing himself with the hilly terrain around Poona.
He was also influenced by religious leaders Ramdas and Tukaram, with Ramdas being regarded as his spiritual guru.
Military conquests:
In 1646, he captured the fortress of Torna from the Sultan of Bijapur, followed by the fort of Raigad, which he rebuilt.
After the death of Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji took control of his father’s jagirs and several forts, including Baramati, Indapura, Purandhar, and Kondana.
Despite a temporary lull in military activities due to his father’s imprisonment by the Sultan of Bijapur, Shivaji resumed his campaigns in 1656, capturing Javli and constructing the fort of Pratapgarh.
Conflict with Bijapur:
Following the death of Mohammad Adil Shah of Bijapur in 1656, Shivaji and the Bijapur Sultan Adil Shah II made peace with Aurangzeb, who was engaged in a war of succession in Delhi.
Taking advantage of Aurangzeb's absence, Shivaji invaded north Konkan and captured key cities and forts.
In 1659, Bijapur's Sultan sent Afzal Khan with a large army to subdue Shivaji.
However, Shivaji out maneuvered Afzal Khan and his forces, capturing the fort of Panhala and securing his recognition as the ruler of his territories.
Conflict with the Mughals:
Aurangzeb, who became Emperor in 1658, appointed Shaista Khan as Governor of the Deccan to crush Shivaji.
Shivaji responded by launching a daring attack on Shaista Khan's residence in Poona in 1663, forcing Aurangzeb to recall him.
In response, Aurangzeb dispatched Raja Jai Singh to defeat Shivaji, leading to the Treaty of Purandar in 1665, where Shivaji ceded his forts and agreed to serve as a Mansabdar.
Shivaji's visit to Agra and renewed hostilities:
Persuaded by Jai Singh, Shivaji visited the Mughal court in Agra in 1666 but was humiliated and briefly imprisoned.
Upon his escape, Shivaji resumed his military campaigns, reclaiming lost forts and sacking Surat again in 1670.
He also imposed a chauth, or tribute, on Surat.
Coronation:
In 1674, Shivaji was crowned at Raigad.
He assumed the title of ‘Chhatrapati’ (supreme king).
Deccan campaigns:
In 1676, Shivaji began his career of conquests in the south.
A secret treaty was signed with the Sultan of Golkonda.
Shivaji promised him some territories in return for his support.
He captured Senji and Vellore and annexed the adjoining territories which belonged to his father, Shahji.
He allowed Venkoji or Ekoji to carry on administering Thanjavur.
The Nayaks of Madurai promised a huge amount as tribute.
The Carnatic campaigns added glory and prestige to Shivaji.
Senji, the newly conquered place, acted as the second line of defence for his successors.
Administration:
Central administration
Shivaji established a robust system of administration that was deeply influenced by the Deccan style, particularly drawing inspiration from Malik Amber's reforms in Ahmednagar.
As the supreme head of the state, Shivaji held ultimate authority, but he was supported by a council of eight ministers known as the ‘Ashtapradhan’.
Among these ministers, the Peshwa (also referred to as the Mukhya Pradhan) was initially the head of the advisory council, playing a crucial role in assisting Raja Shivaji in governance.
Revenue administration
Shivaji made significant reforms in revenue administration by abolishing the Jagirdari System and introducing the Ryotwari System, which emphasized direct relationships between the state and the cultivators.
He also redefined the roles of hereditary revenue officials, such as Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Patils, and Kulkarnis, ensuring stricter supervision over the Mirasdars, who held hereditary rights in land.
The revenue system was modeled after Malik Amber's Kathi system, where each piece of land was measured using a Rod or Kathi.
In addition to land revenue, Shivaji introduced two significant levies: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
Chauth, accounting for one-fourth of the revenue, was essentially protection money paid to the Marathas to avoid raids by Shivaji's forces in non-Maratha territories.
Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% imposed on areas outside the Maratha kingdom.
Military administration
Shivaji organized a well-disciplined and efficient military force that became a cornerstone of his administration.
The ordinary soldiers in his army were paid in cash, while the chiefs and military commanders were compensated through Jagir grants (known as Saranjam or Mokasa).
His army was composed of three main divisions:
Infantry (Mavali foot soldiers)
Cavalry (horse riders and equipment holders)
Navy
Shivaji’s last years were troubled by his eldest son Sambhaji’s rebellion. He died in 1680, leaving behind a kingdom that spanned the Western Ghats, Konkan, and parts of Karnataka, although some southern provinces were still unsettled at the time of his death.
Context: Satpula is located east of the Khirki Masjid, that is integral to the compound wall of the medieval fourth city of the Jahanpanah in Delhi.
About Satpula:
Built in 1340 by Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351) of the Tughlaq dynasty, the dam served two purposes:
Providing a reliable source of water for irrigation, and acting as a defence against possible intruders (such as Mongol invasions).
Served as a boundary wall for Jahapanah, the fourth city of Delhi.
The dam got its name from the seven arches through which water used to flow from a canal originating from the Aravalli.
During British rule, the stream over which the dam was built was diverted, which reduced the water body to a mere drain flowing on one side.
Spiritual significance:
Sufi saint Nasiruddin Mahmud (popularly known as Chirag Dehlavi/Chirag-e-Dilli) used to live nearby.
People used to believe that the canal water had healing properties.
For centuries, the area used to host a Diwali mela.
Why was the dam built?
During the rule of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq, the economic conditions of the Delhi Sultanate was in distress:
Due to very high expenses incurred on the war campaign in Deccan.
Also, due to the Sultan establishing his southern capital at Daulatabad (in 1329).
Between 1334 and 1344, repeated droughts caused famines, adding to the suffering of the people.
Urgent solutions had to be found.
One of the viable options planned was of building the Satpula, the seven arches bridge or gate-controlled dam, to tap the water resources of the local stream feeding the Yamuna River.
This brought large areas of land under controlled irrigated agriculture to grow food crops.
Structure:
Built using quartz (stone found in the Aravalli).
It has been constructed in stone masonry.
The eleven bays consist of eleven water tunnels and these are located at different levels, with seven main bays at the lowest level.
When built, wooden vertical gates made of heavy boards were operated by a rope and pulley arrangement to control flow of water.
It connected four principal cities: the Qila Rai Pithora, Siri, Tughlaqabad, and Jahanpanah.
About Khirki Masjid:
Built by Khan-i-Jahan Junan Shah, the prime minister of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388).
It is constructed in Jahanpanah city.
There are no specific inscriptions on the Mosque on its construction date. The name of the builder is inscribed on the eastern gate of the Mosque as 'Khan-i-Jahan Junan Shah'.
Structure:
There are four open courtyards encircled by arcades.
The main gate, leading to the qibla on the western wall, has a projecting mihrab.
Qibla wall is the wall in a mosque that faces Mecca.
Mihrab is a niche in the qibla wall indicating the direction of Mecca
Arch windows with perforated screens or jalis known as ‘Khirkis’, are seen on the second floor.
The mosque's walls are of rubble masonry construction with plastered surface on the outside.
Seven Cities of Delhi:
Indraprastha:
As per the mythology, the city of Indraprastha, which is believed to be around the Purana Qila area, was founded by the Pandavas from the epic Mahabharata.
Mentioned in ancient texts like the Mahabharata and the Puranas.
Buddhist texts mention Indraprastha as Indapatta.
Qila Rai Pithora:
Anangpal Tomar founded Delhi of Lal Kot in 1052.
Chauhan kings of Ajmer conquered Lal Kot in 1180 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora.
Siri:
It was built by Alauddin Khilji and expanded by subsequent rulers.
He constructed Siri between 1297 and 1307 to defend India and Delhi against Mongol raids.
Structures inside the Siri fort: Hauz Khas reservoir; Hazar Sultan palace.
Subsequent rulers expanded the city with other urban centres like Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, and Firozabad.
Tughlaqabad:
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq founded the fortified city of Tughlaqabad in the 14th century.
Walled city included seven rainwater tanks.
Jahanpanah:
The fourth city of Delhi established in 1326–1327 by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
To address the constant threat of the Mongols, the Sultan, built the fortified city of Jahanpanah, which subsumed the Adilabad fort and also all the establishments lying between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri Fort.
Context: In the tribal regions of Rajasthan, tribal parties such as Bharat Adivasi Party, are aiming to frame a broader ideology to create awakening among the tribes. Signboards with drawings of the 16th century tribal icon Rana Punja Bhil have been placed in several places.
The Union Government, through the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, has also started a project to revise existing literature on Adivasi histories and communities, shifting from colonial-era perspectives to indigenous narratives.
About Raja Punja Bhil:
Rana Punja Bhil or Poonja, was a tribal leader belonging to Bhil tribe.
Rana Punja became king of Bhomat region in southern region of Rajasthan.
In 1576 he fought alongside Rana of Mewar, Maharana Pratap against the Mughal emperor Akbar's forces, led by Man Singh I in the Battle of Haldighati.
Punja brought a contingent of Bhil tribesmen and himself led a crucial role in Haldighati.
Note:
The battle of Haldighati was fought in 1576 between the Mewar forces led by Maharana Pratap, and the Mughal forces led by Man Singh I of Amber.
Maharana Pratap was defeated in this battle.
After Akbar ascended the throne he started acquiring Rajputana States by using his diplomacy skills.
About Bhil tribe:
Listed as tribal people in: Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan as well as in Bengal and Tripura.
Term ‘Bhil’ was used to refer to various ethnic communities living in the forests and hills of Rajasthan's southern parts and surrounding regions of western India, highlighting the popularity of the bow and arrow as a weapon among these groups.
Language: Bhili, throughout their geographic distribution.
Bhil Rebellion:
The rulers of princely states in southern Gujarat were Bhils.
The Bhils rebelled on several occasions during the British colonial era, notably in 1846, 1857–58 and 1868.
The Bhils were designated as a criminal tribe by the British colonial government under the Criminal Tribes Act 1871.
Context: The Ram Temple at Ayodhya was formally inaugurated on 22nd January 2024. This was a after large scale social movement leading to the demolition of Babri Mosque at the disputed site on 6th December 1992. Following the demolition there was a long legal battle to ascertain the claims of the various groups on the disputed site. The judgement came in the favour of Hindu groups and the site was handed over to build a temple to commemorate the Ram Temple. The judgement emphasised on the following historical sources to ascertain the presence of Ram Temple and the tradition of worship of Ram at the site.
Babri mosque was built in 1528 AD on the instructions of Mughal Emperor Babur by Mir Baqi, who was the commander of Babur’s forces. However, a section of historians also say that the Babri Mosque was constructed by Aurangzeb.
Historical Sources quoted by Ayodhya Judgement
1. Janma Sakhies of Sikhism: Various Janma Sakhies have recorded the description of visit of Guru Nanak Devji to Ayodhya, where he had darshan of birthplace of Lord Ram. The accounts presented in the Janmasakhis depicts that pilgrim visited Ayodhya even before 1528 AD (when Babur is claimed to constructed the Babri Mosque).
Janma Sakhies are legendary biographies of Guru Nanak (1469-1539), founder of Sikhism. These are hagiographical accounts of the life of Guru Nanak written after the death of Guru Nanak, particularly noting the miracles and travels known as Udasis pursued by Guru Nanak. Largest of the JanmaSakhis is known as Guru Nanak Prakash, written by Kavi Santokh Singh.
2. Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl: Ain-i-Akbari has section on Ramavatara or Ram-incarnation and Ayodhya. Ayodhya is noted as one of the largest cities of India and as one of the holiest cities. Around the city, earth was filtered for gold.
3. Account of William Finch: William Finch arrived in India in August 1608 at Surat with Captain Hawkins. He was an English Merchant in the service of East India Company. He travelled along with Captain Hawkins during the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar and Jehangir. He explored various Indian cities like Delhi, Ambala, Sultanpur, Ayodhya and Lahore.
His account is preserved in a book edited by William Foster called ‘Early Travels in India (1583-1619)’ which has accounts by Ralph Fitch, John Mildenhall, William Hawkins, William Finch, Nicholas Withington, Thomas Coriyat and Edward Terry.
William Finch arrived in India in 1608 at Surat with Captain Hawkins.
He visited Ayodhya between 1608-11. He did not find any building of Islamic origin in Ayodhya.
He noted the mount known as Ramkot or fort of Lord Rama.
4. Account of Niccolao Manucci: Manucci was Italian traveller who visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Manucci is famous for his account of his travels in Mughal India which is known as ‘Storia do Mogor’. Storia do Mogor presents a first-hand account of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb, Shivaji, Dara Shikoh, Shah Alam I and Jai Singh I. He also provides a detailed account of folk beliefs and customs of the period. Manucci has listed the chief temples destroyed by Auranbzeb. Some of them are:
(a) Maisa (Mayapur)
(b) Matura (Mathura)
(c) Caxis (Kashi)
(d) Hajudia (Ajudhya)
5. Account of Joseph Tieffenthaler: Tieffenthaler was a Jesuit Missionary who visited India in 1740 (three decades after the death of Aurangzeb). His travel account is known as ‘Description Historiqueet Geographique Del’inde’ written in Latin. Tieffenthaler was reportedly proficient in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.
Tieffenthaler visited Ayodhya which is described in the text. He gives the following account:
Refers to Ayodhya as Adjudea.
Contains a reference to the belief of Hindus that Lord Rama is the human incarnation of Lord Vishnu (Described as Beschan in the account). Lord Rama was born at the site, the symbol it being the ‘Bedi’ or ‘cradle’.
Presence of Sita Rasoi which is a table like place worshipped as the kitchen of Sita.
Emperor Aurangzeb demolished the fortress called Ramcot and got a Muslim Mosque with triple domes, constructed at the same place.
Contains a reference to the use of fourteen black stone pillars which had existed at the site of erstwhile fortress.
His noted that despite the demolition by Aurangzeb there still existed a cult that continues to worship at the site and of large gatherings to mark and celebrate the birthday of Lord Rama.
6. Account of Robert Montgomery Martin: Montgomery Martin was an Anglo-Irish author and civil servant. He authored his account of 10 years of stay in medical practice in Shillong and working as a journalist in Calcutta where he established the ‘Bengal Herald’ newspaper. He wrote the ‘History, Antiquities, Topography and Statistics of Eastern India’ in three volumes based on his stay in India during the 1840s. He was one of the founding members of East India Association which was a London based organisation (1866) for raising matters concerning India with membership from Indians and retired British officials. (Note: Dadabhai Naoroji was the founder of East India Association).
He infers that the mosque was built by Mughal Emperor Babur and was the most modern in architecture.
However, Martin notes the destruction of Hindu places of worship by Aurangzeb.
He also noted the presence of pillars in the Mosque made of black stones.
7. Edward Thornton’s Gazetteer: Edward Thornton authored ‘Gazetteer of territories under the Government of East India Company and the Native States on the Continent of India’.
Context:Mehrauli city in Delhi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was recently revamped for the G-20 summit.
About Mehrauli City:
Introduction:
Mehrauli is one of the seven medieval cities that make up the present union territory of Delhi apart from Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Deenpanah and Shahjahanabad.
The Lal Kot fort was constructed by the Tomar chief Anangpal I around 731 AD and expanded by AnangPal II in the 11th century,who shifted his capital to Lal Kot from Kannauj.
The Tomars were defeated by the Chauhans in the 12th century.
Prithviraj Chauhan further expanded the fort, which is now Qila Rai Pithora. He was defeated and killed in 1192 by Mohammed Ghori, who put his general Qutb-ud-din Aybak in charge and returned to Afghanistan.
In 1206, after the death of Mohammed Ghori, Qutubuddin enthroned himself as the first Sultan of Delhi.
Thus, Delhi became the capital of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi (Slave dynasty), the first dynasty of Muslim sultans to rule over northern India.
Mehrauli remained the capital of the Mamluk dynasty which ruled until 1290.
During the Khilji dynasty, the capital shifted to Siri.
In 12th-century Jain scriptures, the location is also mentioned as Yogninipura, now noticeable by the presence of the ‘Yogmaya Temple’, near the Qutub Minar complex.
It was also the execution place of Banda Singh Bahadur after he sacked the regional Mughal capital of Samana.
Various historical structure in Mehrauli:
There are a number of tombs of prominent people from the Sultanate (1206 to 1506) and Mughal (1506 to 1857) era. These tombs are usually placed near the dargahs of saints.
Tombs of the later Mughals are near the dargah of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Mehrauli or Humayun’s tomb near Nizamuddin Auliya’s dargah.
16th Century tomb of Adham Khan and his mother, Maham Anga:
Reminder of Akbar’s wrath on Adham for murdering his general and prime minister Atgah Khan.
Built in an octagonal shape with low towers at corners.
Consists of Lodhi-style domed octagonal chambers with ‘Verandahs’ on each side.
Zafar Mahal or Lal Mahal built in red sandstone:
Zafar Mahal was the summer palace of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
The building has two components namely, the Mahal, which was built first by Akbar Shah II in the 18th century, and the entrance gate that was reconstructed in the 19th century by last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
Bahadur Shah Zafar II, wished to be buried in the precincts of the Zafar Mahal. However, after the first war of Independence (1857), he was deported by Major William Hudson in 1858 to Rangoon (Burma/Myanmar), where he died of old age.
This palace is also known for the Phoolwalon Ki Sair pass. This festival was started in 1812 by Akbar Shah II’s wife Mumtaz Mahal, after her son Mirza Jahangir was exiled to Allahabad by the British Resident Sir Archibald Seton.
Jamali Kamali tomb and mosque contain the tombs of Sufi saint Jamali or Shaikh Fazlu’llah and his disciple.Jamali was a well-known court poet who enjoyed the patronage of the Lodhi dynasty and that of Babur and Humayun as well.
Tombs of Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87) and his son, Shahid Khan:
Shahid had died fighting against the Mongols near Multan during Balban’s reign.
Balban of Mamluk dynasty is remembered for taking strong steps to control dacoity and robbery on Delhi roads in the 13th Century.
Balban’s tomb is housed in the building Dar-ul Amaan (Haven of Safety) and as the name suggests, it served as a haven from debt collectors.
It is the first site where the true arch and dome, a prominent feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, introduced by the Turks, made its appearance.
A baoli or stepwell known as Rajon Ki Baoli:
It was constructed in 1506 during Sikandar Lodhi's reign.
It was used to store water.
It was commissioned by Daulat Khan in 1506 CE, an administrator of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
The enclosure of Rajon Ki Baoli includes a mosque and a tomb.
The name Rajon Ki Baoli is derived from the 'Rajbirs' or 'Mistris', the term used for masons.
A courtyard surrounded by a verandah with many beautiful pillars and the arches in the verandah are made in the typical north Indian fashion of that time.
Qutb Complex, close to the North-West of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque:
Tomb of Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 CE):
Built by Iltutmish himself in 1235, a year before his death.
Made in white marble, surrounded by carved arched entrances on the three sides.
