GS Paper 3

Phonotaxis - Explained

Phonotaxis is a behaviour exhibited by certain organisms in response to sound stimuli. It refers to their capacity to detect and move towards or away from a specific sound or a signal.

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There are two types of phonotaxis: 

  • Positive phonotaxis: Its purpose is attraction, and it usually happens when the females of a particular species (crickets, moths, frogs etc.) are attracted to the sounds made by the males, for mating purposes. 
  • Negative phonotaxis: Serves to repel or warn, it is a survival mechanism that helps organisms avoid potentially dangerous situations or stimuli in their environment. E.g., If a particular frequency or pattern of sound is associated with a predator, prey animals might exhibit negative phonotaxis by moving away from the source of the sound to seek safety. 

Rastriya Vigyan Puraskar (RVP)

Context: The Ministry of Science and Technology has instituted the Rastriya Vigyan Puraskar (RVP)—56 annual awards to honour scientists and innovators. The new RVP will replace the long-running Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (SSB) prizes given by CSIR since the 1960s. However, unlike SSB awards that carried prize money, the new RVP awards will have no monetary component, like the Padma awards. 

This move by the government comes nearly a year after it decided to reduce the number of annual science prizes given by its ministries. While RVP aims to felicitate scientists and technologists, the lack of prize money marks a shift from the decades old SSB awards.

Rastriya Vigyan Puraskar

  • The Government of India has established the "Rastriya Vigyan Puraskar," a prestigious set of national accolades bestowed to individuals in recognition of their outstanding contributions to the domains of science, technology, and innovation.
  • The Rastriya Vigyan Puraskar (RVP) is set to become a prestigious accolade within the realm of science, technology, and innovation in India.
  • Invitations for nominations in this category of awards will be sent annually on the 14th of January. The period for submitting nominations will continue until the 28th of February, which coincides with National Science Day.
  • The announcement of these prizes is scheduled to take place annually on the 11th of May, coinciding with National Technology Day.
  • The presentation for all categories of prizes is scheduled to take place on August 23rd, which coincides with National Space Day.
  • In addition to the accolades, recipients of these honours will also get a diploma and a medal.
  • National Technology Day (11th May): This day marks India’s second nuclear test in 1998 in Pokhran. 
  • National Space Day (23rd August): This day marks successful landing of Chandrayaan-3 near the South Pole of Moon. (Shiv Shakti Point was the site of the landing of Chandrayaan-3).
  • National Science Day (28 February): This day marks the discovery of Raman effect by Nobel Laureate Dr. C. V. Raman. 

Objective

  • The primary aim of the Recognizing Valuable Contributions Program (RVP) is to bring attention to the exceptional and motivating achievements accomplished by scientists, technologists, and innovators either individually or together in many areas of science, technology, and innovation.

Eligibility criteria

  • Individuals who have made significant contributions in terms of groundbreaking research, innovation, or discovery in any field of science, technology, or technology-led innovation and are employed in government, private sector organizations, or working independently are eligible for the awards.
  • The eligibility criteria for the new awards will extend to People of Indian origin (PIOs). 
  • However, it is important to note that only one PIO will be eligible for the Vigyan Ratna award, while three PIOs may be picked for both the Vigyan Shri and the VY-SSB prizes. However, PIOs will not meet the eligibility criteria for the Vigyan Team prizes.

Categories

The awards shall be given in following four categories:

  • Vigyan Ratna (VR)awards achievements and& contributions made in any field of science and technology.
  • Vigyan Shri (VS) award will recognize distinguished contributions in any field of science and technology.
  • Vigyan Yuva-Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (VY-SSB) award will recognize and encourage young scientists up to the age of 45 years have made an exceptional contribution in any field of science and technology.
  • Vigyan Team (VT) award is to be given to a team comprising three or more scientists, researchers, or innovators who have made an exceptional contribution working in a team in any field of science and technology.

Awarded in various fields

  • The Rastriya Vigyan Puraskar will be awarded across 13 distinct disciplines, including Physics, Chemistry, Biological Sciences, Mathematics and Computer Science, Earth Sciences, Medicine, Engineering Sciences, Agricultural Sciences, Environmental Sciences, Technology and Innovation, Atomic Energy, Space Science and Technology, and other related fields.
  • This prize will strive to guarantee participation from diverse fields of employment, with a focus on promoting gender equality.

Rastriya Vigyan Puraskar Committee (RVPC)

  • The Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) to the Government of India will preside over the Rastriya Vigyan Puraskar Committee (RVPC), which will receive the nominations submitted for the award.
  • The RVPC will comprise secretaries of Science Departments, individuals from Science and Engineering Academies, as well as distinguished scientists and technicians representing many domains within the realm of Science and Technology.
  • The RVPC alone will make the final decision to award the Rastriya Vigyan Puraskar.

Dhole: Asiatic wild dog tiger coexistence

Context: A new study has found that overlapping prey availability or habitat suitability could dictate a positive association between dholes and tigers, facilitating coexistence or even cooperative behaviours between the two species of carnivores.

Dhole (Cuon alpinus)

Dholes, also called Asiatic wild dogs, whistling dogs, red dogs etc. are social carnivores of the dog family (Canidae). 

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  • Natural Habitat: They inhabit forests of central, south and southeast Asia. Habitat typically includes Tropical dry forests, Tropical wet forests, Temperate Forests and Production agroforests.
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  • They are naturally found in India and are mostly found in areas ranging from the foothills of Shivaliks, Northeastern India, Eastern parts of the Deccan plateau, and the Eastern Ghats along with the Western Ghats.
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  • Social behaviour - They live in clans rather than packs, as the pack refers to a group of animals that always hunt together. In contrast, dhole clans frequently break into small packs of three to five animals, particularly during the spring season.
  • IUCN Status - Endangered 

Considering Green Drought for Drought Assessment

Context: The Karnataka government has requested the inter-ministerial central team to consider the ‘green drought’ prevailing in the state and urged that the assessment be made based on factors like crop growth and yield. 

What is a Green Drought?

  • Green drought is when the vegetation may appear green on the top, but there is stunted growth and soil moisture stress for more than a month impacting yield drastically. 
  • This phenomenon is particularly problematic because it can be challenging to detect and monitor.

Other Types of Drought

  • Meteorological Drought is the simple absence/deficit of rainfall from the normal. It is the least severe form of drought and is often identified by sunny days and hot weather.
  • Hydrological Drought leads to reduction of natural stream flows or ground water levels, plus stored water supplies. Main impact is on water resource systems.
  • Agricultural Drought occurs when moisture level in soil is insufficient to maintain average crop yields. Initial consequences are in the reduced seasonal output of crops and other related production. An extreme agriculture drought can lead to a famine, which is a prolonged shortage of food in a restricted region causing widespread disease and death from starvation.

Why is Drought Assessment a Challenging Task?

  • Issues in Assessment and Early Warning: The absence of accurate and dependable water-related data is a prevailing problem. Additionally, wherever data is available, it is compartmentalised. This limits sharing horizontally and vertically along the entire data chain. 
  • Drought is different from other natural disasters like cyclones, floods, earthquakes and tsunamis due to several factors:
    • No Universal Definition: There isn't a universally accepted definition that can adequately capture its intricate nature. 
    • Identifying Start and End of a Drought Episode: Identifying the onset and conclusion of a drought episode is challenging due to its gradual emergence, quiet progression, and slow dissipation. In India, it's generally linked with the monsoon season. 
    • Absence of Parameters: No indicator or index exists that can reliably predict the arrival and severity of a drought event or foresee its potential consequences. 
    • Wide Geographical Expanse: Droughts often cover extensive geographical areas, surpassing the scope of many other natural calamities, making effective response considerably more difficult. 
    • Quantification of Impact: The impacts of droughts are mainly non-structural and tough to quantify. These include ecological damage, disruption of socio-economic foundations within communities, and long-term health effects due to malnutrition, among others. 

Read: Drought management & Flash droughts

M.S. Swaminathan- Architect of India’s Green Revolution

Context: Renowned agricultural scientist Dr. M.S. Swaminathan passed away on September 28 at the age of 98.

About Dr. M.S. Swaminathan:

  • Dr. M.S. Swaminathan was born on 7 August 1925 in Kerala. 
  • A plant geneticist by training, he made a stellar contribution to the agricultural renaissance in the country and is popularly known as the Father of the Green Revolution in India.
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Contributions of Dr. Swaminathan:

1. Increase in wheat production:

  • He played a pivotal role in introducing semi-dwarf Mexican wheat strains, Sonora 64 and Lerma Rojo 64 to Indian fields. 
  • He along with experts at the erstwhile Planning Commission put together a policy to subsidize fertilizers and power while expanding irrigation cover to promote the dwarf wheat variety, utilizing British-era water canals in Punjab and Haryana.
  • This led to a significant increase in wheat production, thus turning India from being dependent on humiliating food donations to feed its population to being a self-sufficient nation. 
    • In the early 1960s, India’s wheat and rice production was just 10-12 million tonnes (MT) and 35-36 MT, respectively, forcing massive grain imports that crossed 10 MT in 1966-67.
    • India had signed off on an agreement with the US called the “Public Law 480” to qualify for food aid. This food assistance was a political hazard because the aid came tied with conditions.
    • Following the successful green revolution, by the end of the 1960s, India’s wheat production crossed 20 MT. 

2. Increase in Rice production:

  • He introduced the fertiliser-responding high-yielding VARIETY of “Indica” rice from the Philippines-based International Rice Research Institute.
    • He worked in the indica-japonica rice hybridization programme for transferring genes from the relatively non-lodging and fertiliser-responsive ‘Japonica’ rice varieties to indigenous ‘Indica’ races. 
  • He pioneered the development of popular basmati rice varieties — culminating in the Pusa Basmati variety in 1989, which was the world's first semi-dwarf, high-yielding basmati variety.

3. Sustainable agriculture:

  • He consistently advocated for sustainable agriculture, emphasising the delicate balance between human advancement and ecological sustainability.
  • He had forewarned farmers in 1968 not to treat the productivity leap as an “evergreen revolution” by overusing subsidised agricultural chemicals which would ruin soil health.

4. Advocacy for Farmers' welfare:

  • As the chairman of the National Commission on Farmers in 2004, he advocated for fair minimum support prices for crops. He recommended that MSP for crops be at least 50% more than the weighted average cost of production, ensuring fair compensation to farmers.
  • He played a pivotal role in developing the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act 2001. 

5. Mainstreaming gender considerations in Agriculture: 

  • He advocated the empowerment of farm women in the areas of land and water rights, access to technology, credit and insurance and the ability to market their produce at a remunerative price. 
  • His efforts to empower women farmers helped shape India’s Mahila Sashaktikaran Yojana.

Awards:

  • S.S. Bhatnagar Award for his contribution to biological sciences (1961)
  • Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership (1971)
  • Albert Einstein World Science Award (1986)
  • First World Food Prize (1987)
  • Padma Vibhushan (1989)
  • Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Development (2000)
  • Mahatma Gandhi Prize of UNESCO (2000)

Govt notifies bankruptcy code changes to make aircraft recovery easier

Context: The Ministry of Corporate Affairs has issued a notification stating that certain provisions of the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC) will no longer apply to aircraft, their engines, airframes, and helicopters. 

Background: 

When Go First airlines filed for voluntary insolvency in the month of May (2023), the companies (lessors) who had leased aircrafts to the airline applied to DGCA to deregister those aircrafts from the airlines and repossess them. But DGCA didn’t approve their requests and kept their applications in abeyance.

Reason: Under section 14 of India’s Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), the admission of an insolvency plea by the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) results in an immediate and complete moratorium on recovery of assets leased to the debtor (Go First in this case).

Concerns:

Inability of the lessors to take back their aircrafts results in:

  • Violation of Cape town convention: India is a signatory to the Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment and the related protocol, commonly known as the Cape Town Convention (CTC), as per which lessors can seek deregistration and export of aircraft without consent of the airline when lease payments are defaulted. 
  • Impacts aviation market: It impacts the reputation of India’s aviation market and may increase risk premiums for other Indian carriers. This may increase cost of operations for Indian airlines which are already reeling under the pressure of volatile fuel prices and cut throat competition. 

Thus, the recent changes to the IBC to exempt leased aircrafts under the protection given to debtors, came as a relief to the aviation sector.  

National Investment and Infrastructure Fund

Context: India's National Investment and Infrastructure Fund (NIIF) and Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) jointly launched a $600 million fund on Wednesday for climate and environment projects. 

Why NIIF?

Infrastructure projects frequently exhibit long-gestation periods, creating challenge for financial institutions to manage their short-term liabilities with these long-term cash-flow profiles.

To avoid these Asset-liabilities mismatch faced by the banks in funding infrastructure projects, Government has constituted National Investment and Infrastructure Fund (NIIF) with an authorised capital of 20,000 crores, to provide long-term institutional investment support to infra projects in India. 

What is NIIF?

The National Investment and Infrastructure Fund (NIIF) is a state-owned fund created by the GoI in 2015 to support infrastructural development in India, by gathering capital from domestic and international investors.  It has three components under it:

  • Master fund: This fund primarily invests in infra-related projects such as roads, ports, airports, and power. It invests in both green field(new) as well as brownfield(operating) projects. 
  • Fund of Funds: This fund invests in other funds managed by the renowned fund managers having a good track record in funding successful infrastructure projects. That means, this fund acts as an anchor investor to other private funds. 
  • Strategic Opportunities Fund (SOF): SOF targets to invest in companies belonging to sectors that have good growth potential. 

Freedom on the Net 2023: The Repressive Power of Artificial Intelligence

Context: The report, titled “Freedom on the Net 2023: The Repressive Power of Artificial Intelligence”, has raised the issue of increasing use of artificial intelligence by governments for censorship and spread of disinformation. 

Freedom on the Net 2023 Report  

The report is an annual study of human rights online conducted by Freedom House, a non-profit organisation. It evaluates Internet freedom in 70 countries on a range of 1 to 100, where ‘100’ represents the highest digital freedom. 

Evaluation Criterion  

The report evaluates countries on five censorship methods: 

  • Internet connectivity restrictions.  
  • Blocks on social media platforms. 
  • Blocks on websites.  
  • Blocks on VPNs. 
  • Forced removal of content. 

Freedom House Organisation  

Freedom House is a Washington based non-profit organisation. It was founded in 1941 to rally policymakers and a broadly isolationist American public around the fight against Nazi Germany, and to raise awareness of the fascist threat to American security and values.  Since then, it has established itself through its advocacy, programs, and research as the leading American organisation devoted to the support and defence of democracy around the world. 

Global Finding  

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India Specific Findings

  • India's Internet freedom is ranked at 50 on a scale of 1 to 100. In contrast, Iceland has the highest Internet freedom score of 94. 
  • According to a report India is found to engage in all the methods used for censorship except VPN blocking.  
  • The report said that AI-enabled digital repression in India has incorporated censorship, including the use of automated systems, into the country’s legal framework. 
  • For example, The Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules require large social media platforms to use AI-based moderation tools for broadly defined types of content.  
  • India also figured among the list of countries that blocked websites hosting political, social, or religious content and conducted technical attacks against human rights organisations. 

The Censoring Power of Artificial Intelligence 

Advances in artificial intelligence (AI) are amplifying a crisis for human rights online. AI has allowed governments to enhance and refine their online censorship. 

  • AI-based tools that can generate text, audio, and images have quickly grown more sophisticated, accessible, and easy to use, leading to escalation of disinformation tactics. 
  • AI can serve as an amplifier of digital repression, making censorship, surveillance, and the creation and spread of disinformation easier, faster, cheaper, and more effective. 
  • Automated systems have enabled governments to conduct more precise and subtle forms of online censorship.  
  • Suppliers of disinformation are employing AI-generated images, audio, and text, making the truth easier to distort and harder to discern.  
  • Sophisticated surveillance systems using AI rapidly trawl social media for signs of dissent, and massive datasets are paired with facial scans to identify and track pro-democracy protesters.  
  • AIs uptake has increased the scale, speed, and efficiency of digital repression. 
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Way Forward:

  • To protect the free and open internet, democratic policymakers working side by side with civil society experts from around the world should establish strong human rights-based standards for both state and nonstate actors that develop or deploy AI tools. 
  • To protect internet freedom, democracy’s supporters must adapt the lessons learned from past internet governance challenges and apply them to AI.  
  • Democratic policymakers should establish a positive regulatory vision for the design and deployment of AI tools that is grounded in human rights standards, transparency, and accountability.  
  • AI carries a significant potential for harm, but it can also be made to play a protective role if the democratic community learns the right lessons from the past decade of internet regulation. 

China to double the size of Tiangong Space Station

Context: China plans to expand its space station to six modules from three in coming years, offering astronauts from other nations an alternative platform for near-Earth missions as the NASA-led International Space Station nears the end of its lifespan.

Tiangong Space Station (TSS)

  • TSS is a permanently crewed space station constructed by China and operated by China Manned Space Agency.
  • Placed in: Low Earth orbit between 340 and 450 km above the Earth's surface.
  • Operational lifetime: More than 15 years. 
  • It has been fully operational since late 2022, hosting a maximum of three astronauts.
  • TSS will weigh 180 metric tons after its expansion to six modules.

International Space Station (ISS)

  • ISS is a modular space station (habitable artificial satellite) and the single largest man-made structure in the low Earth orbit.
  • Launched in 1998, it is a multinational collaborative project involving five participating space agencies:
    • NASA (United States)
    • Roscosmos (Russia)
    • JAXA (Japan)
    • ESA (Europe)
    • CSA (Canada) 
  • The ownership and use of the space station are established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. 
  • It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day, hosting a maximum of seven astronauts.
  • It serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which scientific research is conducted in astrobiology, astronomy, meteorology, physics, and other fields.
  • NASA intends to keep operating the ISS until the end of 2030, after which the ISS would be crashed into Point Nemo over the South Pacific Oceanic Uninhabited Area (SPOUA).

BlueWalker 3 Satellite

Context: An international team of scientists has published a paper that outlines the impact of the prototype BlueWalker 3 satellite on astronomy.

About BlueWalker 3:

  • It is a prototype satellite, a part of a planned constellation of over a hundred similar satellites intended to deliver mobile or broadband services anywhere in the world.
    • The approximately 1.5-ton satellite will deploy a 10-meter diameter phased array antenna, comprising numerous identical sub-antenna modules with a total area of 64 square meters. These modules will connect directly to standard mobile phones.
  • It was launched into low-Earth orbit in 2022 by AST SpaceMobile, a U.S.-based company.
  • It is considered the largest commercial antenna system ever deployed in low-Earth orbit.
  • The satellite is among the brightest objects in the sky reaching a peak comparable to that of Procyon and Achernar, two of the brightest stars in the night sky.
  • Its remarkable brightness results from a massive phased-array antenna, making it appear like a giant mirror reflecting sunlight from Earth’s perspective. 
BlueWalker 3 Satellite image
Image Source: ast-science.com

Concerns:

  • Bluewalker 3’s large size and bright reflective surfaces could interfere with astronomical observations, as its light could be mistaken for stars or interfere with the ability to detect dimmer objects.
  • The satellite’s large size could block out a portion of the night sky, making it difficult for astronomers to observe certain objects.
  • It actively transmits at radio frequencies that are close to bands reserved for radio astronomy, which may hamper radio telescope observations. 

Using AI for Audit Techniques

Context: The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG), who is the chair for the Supreme Audit Institutions (SAIs) of the G20, warned of absolute dependence on Artificial Intelligence (AI). 

Artificial Intelligence (AI):

  • In Layman terms, Artificial Intelligence can be defined as a branch of science that makes machines or software to mimic human intelligence such as recognizing speech, making decisions, and identifying patterns.  
  • AI is an umbrella term that encompasses a range of technologies, including machine learning, deep learning, and natural language processing (NLP).
Components of Artificial intelligence

Examples of Artificial Intelligence:  

  • ChatGPT: Uses large language models (LLMs) to generate text in response to questions or comments posed to it.  
  • Google Translate: Uses deep learning models to translate text from one language to another.  
  • Netflix: Uses machine learning to create personalized recommendations for users based on their previous viewing history.  
  • Tesla: Uses computer vision to power self-driving features on their cars. 

Role of Artificial Intelligence in Governance:

1. Smart Policy Making:

  • Data-oriented Policy making: Collection and analysis of data such as demographic, behavioural data etc. from different ministries and government sectors to effectively formulate the policy and schemes. 
  • Localisation of Policy Making: AI-enabled tools have the potential to provide regional and local leaders with insights and analysis allowing policies to be better tailored to local conditions.  
  • Timely Awareness Generation: Use of language models to create awareness in different languages in real-time using LLM can increase the outreach of government initiatives. 
  • Measurement of effectiveness: The government can create AI-backed feedback mechanisms to measure satisfaction of different sections from different platforms based on different parameters. 
  • Futuristic Policy Making: AI through data provided can predict emerging issues and can improve preparation to tackle such issues.   

2. Service Delivery: 

  • Effectiveness of Service Delivery: AI systems can reduce the time, cost and increase the effectiveness of the services provided by the governments. E.g.,  
    • AI-enabled procurement processes can allow governments to identify inefficiencies and potential cost savings in the products and services they purchase. 
    • Traffic management through AI-based modelling can significantly reduce the amount of time spent in traffic.  
    • Allocating health system resources using AI-enabled patient demand analytics can minimize wait times while reducing costs. 
    • By using job seeker data and their skill-set data in AI-enabled systems government can plan job schemes. 
  • Automation of Delivery through AI: Through AI-enabled system, the government can create a single point entry for all citizens and can update it regularly. E.g., if a salaried person gets unemployed her unemployment allowances and other scheme benefits start automatically through an AI-backed system. 

3. Efficient operations:

  • Learning and Training: AI can help enhance the learning and development of organizations and employees through customized training and education programs. 
  • Rationalisation of Work: AI can help in decreasing the repetitive tasks handled by government officials. 
  • Effective Auditing: AI can help in the allocation, expenditure and monitoring of the finances for initiatives and give effective guidance for the optimisation of financial and human resources. 

Concerns associated with the use of AI in Governance:

  • Propagate bias: AI systems can perpetuate and even amplify biases in decision-making. Algorithms through machine learning if trained on biased data can impact policymaking. 
  • Privacy concerns: AI systems can collect and process large amounts of personal data which raises concerns about privacy and data security demanding effective legal safety for its large-scale use in government functioning.  
  • Risk of exclusion and discrimination: Algorithms of AI can be so complex that even those who created the algorithm cannot thoroughly explain how the variables led to the resulting prediction. This opacity poses the risk of exclusion and discrimination by AI in decision-making.  
  • Loss of jobs: AI systems have the potential to automate tasks traditionally performed by humans. E.g., Chatbot replaced human-assisted consumer support, which could lead to job displacement and cause socioeconomic disruption.  
  • Security risks: AI can be used for malicious purposes halting the regular functioning of government e.g., cyberattacks, deep fake etc.  
  • Ethical concerns: There is no legal accountability and responsibility arising out of the decisions made by AI. 
  • Political Concerns: Data collected by the government if used by AI to predict voter behaviour and its manipulation during election times threatens the very foundation of democracy. 

Challenges faced in auditing using AI:  

  • Data standardisation: Lack of authorised sources and challenges faced in ensuring the accuracy of vast data. 
  • Data Integration: Lack of synchronisation, data integration and cross-referencing among different departments and ministries. 
  • Lack of Capacity: Lack of capacity and awareness about AI among auditors. 
  • Lack of AI regulation: Lack of explicit National guidelines and regulations for the use of AI in audits in India. 

Way Forward: 

  • Comprehensive regulatory framework: India needs a comprehensive regulatory framework with both horizontal regulations (that would be applicable across sectors) and vertical regulations (sector-specific). There is a need to identify the capabilities of AI that are more susceptible to misuse than others to promote the responsible use of AI.
  • Responsible use of AI: The AI system should be programmed to maintain the integrity of data and should work on the principle of justice and promoting individual liberty and privacy. Use authentic data sources to ensure transparency, address legal concerns, and look at deficiencies in IT controls and governance. 

Global Regulations:

  • European Union’s Artificial Intelligence Act:
    • The Act was formulated:
      • To bring transparency, trust, and accountability to AI. 
      • To create a framework to mitigate risks to the safety, health, fundamental rights, and democratic values of the EU. 
      • To address the different levels of risks E.g., limited risk, high risk and unlimited risk as defined in the act.
    • Under the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), Data Protection Impact Assessments are legally required if organisations use AI systems that process personal data to avoid potential risks. 
  • The U.K.’s Information Commissioner’s Office has published draft guidance on the AI auditing framework. 

What are Nanoparticles?

Context: A recent study shows that in urban environments, ultrafine particles of 1 to 100 nanometers, can contribute up to 90% to the total particle number concentration. Largely originating from vehicle emissions, the nanoparticles can move from the respiratory system to other parts of the human body which has the potential to cause more chronic and acute illnesses. 

Origin of nanoparticles

  • Nanoparticles occur naturally in the environment but the major nanoparticle pollutants arise due to Anthropogenic emissions.
    • Natural pollutants: 
      • Sea emits aerosol of salt that ends up floating around in the atmosphere.
      • Smoke from volcanoes and fires contains a huge variety of nanoparticles.
      • Dust from deserts.
      • Trees emit nanoparticles of hydrocarbon compounds such as terpenes (which produce blue haze seen in forests).
    • Anthropogenic pollutants: 
      • Majorly emitted by large industrial processes, power stations, jet aircraft, vehicles (powered by internal combustion engines) and household fuels. 
      • Types of nanoparticles emitted include- partially burned hydrocarbons (in soot), ceria (cerium oxide; from vehicle exhaust catalysts), metallic dust (from brake linings), calcium carbonate (in engine lubricating oils), and silica (from car tires). 
  • Concentration of NPs can be influenced by Meteorology and other factors.
    • With the rise in relative humidity, coagulation of these particles results in their concentration becoming high.
    • Higher wind speed can result in the dispersion of these particles.
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General facts about Nanoparticles:

  • Nanoparticles are extremely small particles that are sized between 1 and 100 nanometers.
  • Size: A nanometer is one billionth of a metre. The small size allows nanoparticles to have unique properties compared to larger particles.
  • Properties: Nanoparticles have unique optical, electrical, magnetic, chemical, mechanical, thermal, and quantum properties compared to bulk materials. Their high surface area-to-volume ratio also results in enhanced reactivity, solubility, and heat transfer. 

Key examples include:

  • Iron oxide nanoparticles are superparamagnetic for data storage, while cobalt has high coercivity.
  • Nanoparticles make good catalysts due to their high surface reactivity.
  • Mechanical strength increases for nanoparticles of metals like Aluminium.
  • Ceramic nanoparticles strengthen composites.
  • Quantum effects dominate at the nanoscale.
  • Metal nanoparticles like gold and silver have vivid colours due to localised surface plasmon resonance.
  • Semiconductor quantum dots have tunable conductivity and fluorescence.

Application of Nanoparticles:

  • Medicine & Healthcare - Drug delivery, bioimaging, diagnostics, dental care, sunscreens, antimicrobial coatings.
  • Electronics - Nanoelectronics, sensors, data storage devices, quantum dot displays.
  • Energy - Solar cells, lithium-ion batteries, fuel additives, hydrogen generation and storage.
  • Environment - Pollutant degradation, water treatment, nano-filtration, catalytic converters.
  • Agriculture - Pesticides, fertilizers, pathogen detection, encapsulated agrochemicals.
  • Food & Packaging - Antimicrobial films, improved barrier properties, moisture control, and thermal stability.
  • Cosmetics - UV protection in sunscreens, long-lasting colour pigments, anti-ageing creams.
  • Textiles - Stain and wrinkle-resistant fabrics, lightweight protective clothing, moisture wicking.
  • Paints & Coatings - Anti-corrosive coatings, thermal barrier coatings, anti-fouling paints.
  • Automotive - Fuel cells, lighter and stronger materials, advanced lubricants.
  • Aerospace - Lighter and stronger composites, structural health monitoring.
  • Defence - Lightweight soldier armour, surveillance, sensors, nanocoatings for equipment.

Concerns are associated with Nanoparticles:

  • Respiratory effects - Inhaled nanoparticles can deposit in lungs, causing inflammation, fibrosis, asthma, and lesions. Links to lung cancer have also been reported.
  • Cardiovascular toxicity - Nanoparticles like PM2.5 can enter bloodstream and damage blood vessels and heart tissue, leading to thrombosis, arrhythmia and myo-cardiac cell death.
  • Skin penetration - Nanoparticles in cosmetics and sunscreens may be absorbed through skin, entering bloodstream. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles caused DNA damage in mice's skin.
  • Bioaccumulation up food chain - Nanoparticles concentrate in algae/plankton, get absorbed by fish/animals which are later consumed by humans, leading to biomagnification.
  • Water contamination - Release of nanoparticles into rivers, lakes and groundwater from product waste. Can be toxic to aquatic life. Difficult to filter out nanoparticles.
  • Soil pollution - Accumulation in sewage sludge applied as fertilizer. Runoff from landfills. Alters microbial communities in soil.
  • Air pollution - Nanoparticle emissions into the air, leading to reduced air quality.