Context: During an event, the Prime Minister, revealed the mascot for the International Museum Expo, which was a modernized rendition of the iconic Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro. According to the Ministry of Culture the adaptation is not a transformation or reimagining of the original artwork but rather an inspired craftwork. The traditional craft of Channapatna toys, protected by a geographical indication (GI) tag, was employed in creating this mascot.
Channapatna Toys
Channapatna, widely recognised as the ‘City of Toys’ or the ‘Toy land of Karnataka’ is located in the Ramanagara District of Karnataka. The town is renowned for its exquisite toys produced by local small-scale industries.
History:
The history of Channapatna toys dates back over two centuries. Tipu Sultan (1750-1799) encouraged Persian artisans to come to India and teach the local craftsmen the art of making wooden toys.
One of the prominent figures in the development of Channapatna toys is Bavas Miyan, who dedicated his life to assisting local artisans, introducing new technologies, and enhancing the art of toy-making.
Material used:
Toys are crafted from soft ivory wood, known as Doodhi wood or Milkwood, is white in colour and easy to work with. The wood is meticulously carved and given a polished appearance.
Vegetable dyes are used for colouring the toys, ensuring that they are chemical-free and environmentally friendly.
Toy making process:
Traditionally, the process involved coating the wood of the Wrightia tinctoria tree,locally known as Aale mara (ivory-wood), with lacquer.
The manufacturing process has diversified over the years. In addition to ivory-wood, other woods such as rubber, sycamore, cedar, pine, and teak are now utilized.
The manufacturing stages include wood procurement, seasoning, shaping, carving, colouring, and polishing.
Wide range of varieties: In addition to dolls and horses, they include mathematical games, puzzles, showpieces such as vintage cars, beaded curtains, pen stands, snails, candle stands, and more.
The traditional craft has gained recognition as a geographical indication (GI) under the World Trade Organization and is overseen by the Government of Karnataka.
Context:The Dancing Girl figurine, which was unearthed in Mohenjodaro in 1926, has recently become the focal point of a heated debate.
What is dancing girl?
During an event, the Prime Minister, revealed the mascot for the International Museum Expo, which was a modernized rendition of the iconic Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro.
While the ancient bronze figure stands at a mere height of 10.5 cm, with a dark complexion and being completely nude except for bangles and a necklace, the adapted mascot stands over five feet tall, has fairer skin, and is adorned in a bright pink blouse and an off-white waist-coat.
The Ministry of Culture maintains that the adaptation is not a transformation or reimagining of the original artwork but rather an inspired craftwork.
The traditional craft of Channapatna toys, protected by a geographical indication (GI) tag, was employed in creating this mascot.
Discovering the Dancing Girl
The Indus Civilization, also known as the Harappa-Mohenjodaro Civilization, thrived from 3300 to 1300 BC, with its mature stage dating from 2600 to 1900 BC.
This ancient civilization had been largely forgotten until its discovery was officially announced in 1924.
It was during one of these excavations in 1926, conducted by British archaeologist Ernest McKay, that the Dancing Girl figurine was discovered within the citadel of Mohenjodaro.
The Dancing Girl:
It is an extraordinary bronze statuette, crafted more than 4,500 years ago, and stands as a rare and exceptional masterpiece.
The statue holds immense cultural significance as it reflects the artistic aesthetics associated with the female form during that particular historical era.
It is constructed through the intricate lost-wax casting technique which showcases the remarkable skill and craftsmanship of the people of that time in working with bronze materials.
Standing tall, she displays long limbs, including legs and arms, a graceful neck, a subtle abdomen, and sensuous contours. The girl wears an assortment of bangles and a necklace, with her left arm adorned with bracelets and her right arm embellished with bangles.
Today, this bronze figurine is housed in the National Museum of India, serving as a valuable artifact that offers insight into the rich history of the Indus Civilization.
Inferences drawn from the figurine
As a dancer:John Marshall, the Director-General of the ASI from 1902 to 1928, suggested dancing pose of the figurine, which ed historians to believe that the woman was a dancer, although there is no concrete evidence to support this claim.
As a Goddess: Historian, Thakur Prasad Verma in Itihaas, claimed that the figurine actually depicted the Hindu goddess Parvati, attempting to establish a connection between the Indus Civilization and Vedic Hinduism. However, most historians have dismissed this claim, as there is insufficient evidence to confirm the presence of Hindu deity worship in the Harappa Mohenjodaro Civilization.
Artistic sophistication and knowledge of metallurgy:
It showcases the civilization's knowledge of metal blending and the complex process of lost-wax casting, which allows for the creation of intricately detailed metallic artifacts.
Evidently, the statue was not crafted for utilitarian purposes, but rather as a symbolically and aesthetically valuable artifact. It suggests that entertainment, particularly dance, held a significant role in their culture.
Mohenjodaro
The site Mohenjodaro (Mound of the Dead Men) is be found on the western bank of the lower Indus River, situated in Pakistan.
It is the largest settlement of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization and ranks among the earliest major cities worldwide, contemporary with other civilizations such as ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and Minoan Crete.
It holds the distinction of being the first South Asian site to receive such a designation.
Findings at the site
The Great Bath:
Sir Mortimer Wheeler identified a prominent building in Mohenjodaro as a ‘Great Granary.’ Adjacent to it stands a large and intricate public bath, often referred to as the Great Bath. The bath was made waterproof with a lining of bitumen.
The pool measures 12 meters (39 feet) in length, 7 meters (23 feet) in width, and 2.4 meters (7.9 feet) in depth. It is speculated that the bath may have been used for religious purification.
Water supply and wells:
Mohenjodaro boasts an astonishing number of over 700 wells, along with well-structured drainage and bathing systems.
The sheer quantity of wells suggests that the inhabitants relied predominantly on annual rainfall, as well as the proximity of the Indus River to the site.
It is noteworthy that the circular brick well design, prevalent at Mohenjodaro and other Harappan sites, appears to be an innovation credited to the Indus civilization.
There is no existing evidence of this particular design in Mesopotamia or Egypt during that era or even later.
Major artefacts
Mother Goddess Idol:
Discovered by John Marshall, the idol exhibits certain characteristics that resemble the Mother Goddess belief, which was prevalent in numerous early Near East civilizations.
The idol prominently displays symbol of fertility and motherhood.
Priest-King:
This sculpture was discovered in a building characterized by remarkably ornamental brickwork and a wall-niche.
Although there is no concrete evidence supporting the notion that priests or monarchs held authority in Mohenjodaro, archaeologists bestowed the title of ‘Priest-King’ upon this dignified figure.
The sculpture portrays a well-groomed man with a neatly trimmed beard, pierced earlobes, and a fillet encircling his head, possibly remnants of a once-elaborate hairstyle or headpiece.
Pashupati seal:
A seal depicting a seated figure in a cross-legged position, with animals surrounding it.
The interpretation of this figure varies among scholars, with some considering it to represent a yogi, while others identify it as a three-headed ‘proto-Shiva,’ symbolizing the ‘Lord of Animals.’
The Mohenjo-Daro Ruler:
Around 1500 BCE, the Indus Valley civilization employed ivory rulers for measuring length.
The ruler discovered in Mohenjo-Daro is divided into unit equivalent to 34 millimeters, with decimal subdivisions marked with remarkable precision, accurate to within 0.13 mm.
Similarly, a ruler found at Lothal (2400 BCE) is calibrated to approximately 1.6 mm (1/16 inch).
Additionally, ancient bricks discovered in the region exhibit dimensions corresponding to these standardized units.
Context:A burial site has been discovered at Khatiya Village, in Kutch region, Gujarat. It is considered to be the largest pre-urban Harappan cemetery.
About Khatiya cemetery
Situated on the banks of the Gandi stream, which flows into the Great Rann of Kutch. Researchers believe that in prehistoric times, the Great Rann of Kutch was a navigable area through which the Ghaggar-Harka-Nara River used to pass. However, the river eventually dried up, transforming Kutch into an arid region.
Findings
The excavation at the cemetery has revealed 500 graves, out of which 197 have been excavated so far.
Relation to ‘pre-urban’ Harappan phase: The Harappan civilisation, is said to have thrived along the banks of river Indus from around 5,000 BC to 1,000 BC. It is divided into the pre-Urban phase (5,000 BC to 2,600 BC); Urban phase or Mature phase (2,600 BC to 1,900 BC) and Post-Urban phase (1,900 BC to 1,000 BC).
Burial goods: Shell bangle, pottery shards, stone blades and even human skeletal remains have been found.
Pottery: Found as burial goods at the Khatiya site are mainly redware, buffware and greyware. It is comparable to the pre-urban Harappan pottery of Sindh and Baluchistan and North Gujarat.
With these findings, conclusion is drawn that the cemetery is believed to be 5,000 years old, belonging to the ‘pre-urban’ phase of the Harappan civilisation.
Harappan Civilisation
The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is considered the beginning of Indian history. It can be divided into three phases:
Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE.
Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.
Early Harappan Phase
The early Harappan phase marked the transition towards the mature Harappan period.
During this phase, farmers from the highlands gradually migrated between their mountain residences and the lowland river valleys.
The earliest specimens of the Indus script date back to the third millennium BCE, and trade networks connected this civilization to other regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials.
By this time, the villagers had successfully cultivated a diverse range of crops such as peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton. Additionally, they also domesticated animals like the water buffalo.
By 2600 BCE, early Harappan villages had developed into major urban centres, signalling the beginning of the mature Harappan phase.
The following sites show how the Early Harappan phase originated and took shape:
Mehrgarh: The earliest evidence for this development comes from Mehrgarh, Baluchistan.
First phase: People used stone tools but no potteries are found.
Second phase: Stone tools were refined and potteries were made.
Third phase: Greater use of pottery and copper tools were introduced.
Incipient Urbanism: Gradually, villages were getting larger and agriculture more developed. It was from these settled agricultural communities, the early phase of the Harappan civilization developed, marked by beginning of cities.
Ghaggar-Hakra-Indus Axis: In this region, the civilisation developed fully. Around 40 Early Harappan sites have been discovered.
Amri: Located near the Indus River. It shows the development of Indus pottery tradition from hard made, monochrome potteries to nicely painted, wheel-made potteries decorated with humped Indian bull. The use of copper and bronze also increased.
Kot Diji: This was a very important Early Harappan site. It is located on the left bank of river Indus opposite Mohenjodaro. One important feature is the diverse forms of wheel-made potteries decorated with plain dark brown stripes. This kind of pottery has been named as the Kot-Dijian Pottery and was widely spread in the Indus area.
The motifs such as horned bull, scaled fish and pipal leaves, used in the Amri and Kot Diji potteries, have been found extensively even during the mature Harappan period.
Punjab, Rajasthan and Haryana:
Harappa: The site reveals the existence of Early Harappan phase. Kot Diji-type of potteries have been found. Lapis lazuli, steatite and terracotta human figurines are reported from these levels.
Kalibangan: Situated in north Rajasthan (on now dried-up Ghaggar bank). During its Early Harappan period, people lived in houses made of mud bricks of standard sizes.
Copper axes, terracotta bangles shell, carnelian etc. have been found. Evidences about the use of plough for agricultural purposes are found.
Banawali: Located at the now dried-up course of Ghaggar and Saraswati, Hissar district of Haryana. Material objects found at the site comprise potteries, terracotta bangles, terracotta animal figurines, shell etc. At one place, a depiction of covered cart with spoked wheel have been found.
Context: The Prime Minister of India made reference to the Uttaramerur inscription located in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu during a discussion on India’s democratic history.
Uttaramerur
Situated in present-day Kanchipuram district, southeast of Chennai, Tamil Nadu. It was established during the reign of Nandivarman II, a Pallava king who ruled around 750 A.D.
Over the years, Uttaramerur was successively governed by the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Sambuvarayars, Vijayanagara Rayas, and Nayaks.
Historical temples: The village boasts three significant temples: the Sundara Varadaraja Perumal temple, the Subramanya temple, and the Kailasanatha temple.
Significance of Uttaramerur Inscription (920 A.D.)
Uttaramerur contains multiple inscriptions, with the most important one dating back to the rule of Parantaka I (907-953 AD).
This particular inscription on the walls of the village assembly (mandapa), provides comprehensive information about the functioning of the elected village assembly.
According to scholars, village assemblies might have existed before the time of Parantaka Chola, but it was during his rule that the village administration underwent significant refinement and became a well-operating system through the implementation of elections.
Local Elections
A comprehensive account of the operations of the Sabha (village assembly) is provided in the inscription The Sabha consisted exclusively of brahmans and comprised specialized committees responsible for various tasks. It also outlines the process of selecting members, qualifications, responsibilities and basis of disqualifications.
Constituting Sabha: There would be 30 wards, and individuals residing in these wards would gather to choose a representative for the village assembly.
Qualifications
Age group: Male, above 35 but below 75
Possession of Land and a house
Knowledge of mantras and Brahmanas from the Vedic corpus.
Exception: If the person had learned at least one Veda and four Bhashyas, exception was made regarding land ownership.
Disqualifications
Not submitting accounts while previously serving in a committee,
Committing any of the first four of the five 'great sins' (killing a brahman, drinking alcohol, theft, and adultery), associating with outcastes, and consuming 'forbidden' dishes.
Election Process
The entire selection process, under the guidance of priests was conducted through an elaborated lottery draw in the inner hall of the assembly building (mandapa).
The names of qualified candidates from each ward were written on Palm leaf tickets and placed in a pot (Kudavolai).
The oldest member of the assembly assigned a boy to randomly select a slip.
Responsibilities:
There were several important committees within the Sabha, each with its specific functions, which included:
Annual committee (an executive committee that required prior experience and knowledge)
Committee for supervision of justice (overseeing appointments and addressing wrongdoings)
Gold committee (responsible for the village temple's gold)
The assignments of the committees lasted for 360 days, after which the members retired.
It was important for the member to maintain accurate accounts, as any discrepancies could disqualify Sabha members.
Right to recall:
The villagers had the right to recall elected representatives who failed in their duties.
The committee for Supervision of Justice was responsible for this duty and with the assistance of an arbitrator, it conducted another selection following the prescribed process.
Imperial Cholas (c. 850 – 1200 CE)
According to the records, after the Sangam age, the Cholas remained as the subordinates of the Pallavas in the Kaveri region.
Vijayalaya (850-871 CE), conquered the Kaveri delta from the Muttariyar Dynasty. He founded the city of Thanjavur and established the Kingdom.
The copper plate inscriptions of Vijayalaya’s successors trace the Cholas’ lineage back to Karikala (most renowned Chola ruler during the Sangam age).
Successors of Vijayalaya
Parantaka Chola was instrumental in territorial expansion of the kingdom and also is credited with strengthening the governance of the Chola empire.
As dominant kingdom:
Rajaraja I (985–1014) (credited for Brihadeeswara temple in Thanjavur) and his son Rajendra I (1012–1044), conducted successful naval expeditions reaching Sri Vijaya (in maritime Southeast Asia).
They solidified the achievements of their predecessors and established Chola dominance throughout peninsular India.
Chola Administration
Monarchy: The governance during that period was led by a hereditary monarchy.
Addressed with titles: Peruman or Perumagan (great man), Chakkaravarti (emperor) and Tiribhuvana Chakkaravarti (emperor of three worlds).
Legitimacy: The kings established their legitimacy by asserting that they were comrades of the gods (thambiran thozhar).
Patronised Brahmins: The rulers appointed Brahmins as spiritual mentors or rajagurus. Patronizing Brahmins was seen as a means to enhance their prestige and legitimacy.
Land Grants: As a result, the Chola kings granted vast land estates to Brahmins known as brahmadeyams and chaturvedimangalams.
Provinces: The Chola state had been experiencing a continuous expansion of its territories since the reign of Vijayalaya.
These regions were under the rule of local chiefs commonly referred to as Feudatories.
Rajaraja I undertook the integration of these territories and appointed Viceroys to govern these regions.
Examples: Chola-Lankeswara in Sri Lanka and Chola-Ganga in the Gangavadi region of southern Karnataka.
The End of Chola Rule
Weakened central authority:
From the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, the Chola dynasty held a position of paramount importance in South India.
By the end of the twelfth century, local chiefs began to rise in power.
Invasion:
The frequent invasions from the Pandyas eroded its once formidable strength.
In 1264, Sundara Pandyan I, the ruler of the Pandyan kingdom, sacked the Chola capital of Gangaikondacholapuram.
The Cholas lost Kanchipuram earlier to the Telugu Cholas and with the capture of Gangaikondacholapuram, the remaining Chola territories fell into the hands of the Pandyan king.
In 1279, Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last Chola king, Rajendra Chola III, establishing Pandyan rule.
Context:In the book 'Delhi': Unknown Tales of a City’ by Ronald Vivian Smith, the description has been of Khooni Darwaja, which was built by Sher Shah Sur.
Khooni Darwaja
Khooni Darwaza, located near the Delhi Gate, was constructed during Sher Shah Suri's reign in the 16th century (1540-45).
Initially known as Lal Darwaza, it was later renamed Khooni Darwaza due to a tragic event that took place in 1857. Lieutenant Hodson shot and killed Bahadur Shah Zafar's sons and grandson there, after the British forces recaptured Delhi and the last Emperor sought shelter in Humayun's Tomb.
Architectural features
The architectural design of Khooni Darwaza showcases a combination of Mughal and Afghan influences. Constructed using quartzite stone, the gate stands tall with three stories.
It features three arched entrances, with the central one being the largest.
The upper floors of the gate boast balconies known as jharokhas, offering panoramic views of the surrounding area.
In the past, the gate's expansive courtyard served as a gathering space for the public, as believed by historians. Enclosed by a tall wall, the courtyard encompasses various chambers and rooms.
Additionally, on either side of the gate, there are rectangular windows with decorative overhanging edges known as chajjas, supported by intricately carved brackets.
Kangura structure:
The Kangura or Kungura battlement is an important aspect of Indian monuments which serves both military and aesthetic purposes.
While the petal shaped roof boundary looks regal, it also served as a place for soldiers to guard and defend the building.
Damaaga:
Below the Kangura battlement, there are three hole-like openings. These are called damaaga.
The damaagas were also structure built for defence, and could be used to pour boiling oil on enemies scaling the gate.
Pishtaq:
The main entrance have two wonderfully carved pishtaq, or niches.
These niches could be used to keep lamps to light up the entrance in the dark.
The frames of the window are made from red sandstone.
It is a protected monument under the Archaeological Survey in India.
Establishment of Sur Dynasty
Battle of Chausa (1539): In this battle Sher Khan defeated Humayun due to his superior political and military skills.
Humayun arrived at Agra after the defeat and assembled his army with the support of his brothers Askari and Hindal to counter Sher Khan. The final encounter took place at Kanauj.
Battle of Kanauj (1540): Humayun’s army was completely routed by Sher Shah.
Sur Dynasty (1540-1555)
Founded by Sher Shah.
Through his ability and efficiency, he emerged as the chief of Afghans in India. His military capability and diplomacy made him victorious over Humayun and many other Rajput rulers.
Malwa fell without a fight and Rana Uday Singh of Mewar surrendered without resistance.
End of the dynasty:
Sher Shah’s next venture to capture Kalinjar failed as a gunshot caused his death in 1545.
Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son Islam Shah who ruled till 1553. His death at a young age led to a state of confusion about succession. Humayun used this opportunity to regain Delhi and Agra from the Sur rulers.
Architecture during Sher Shah
Indian Architecture during the reign of Sher Shah Suri can be divided into two separate time periods. The first phase which runs from 1530 to 1540, a group of tombs were constructed taking the Lodi style to its ultimate expression. During the second phase from 1540 to 1545, when Sher Shah Suri wrested control from Humayun, he patronized a list of architectural innovations which represent an important development in the gestation of the subsequent Mughal Architecture.
1. First phase (1530-1540):
The initial phase of constructing tombs in Sasaram, Bihar, clearly demonstrated Sher Shah Suri's ambition to create a monument grander than anything found in Delhi.
To bring his vision to life, he enlisted the expertise of Aliwal Khan, a master builder trained in the Imperial tradition.
The construction began in 1525 with the tomb of Hasan Sur Khan, Sher Shah Suri's father, following a fairly conventional Lodi design.
However, Khan's subsequent masterpiece, the tomb of Sher Shah Suri, is a breath-taking architectural marvel.
It is an immense and majestic structure situated in a picturesque tank.
Crafted from the finest Chunar sandstone, this remarkable monument left a significant impact on the evolution of Indo-Islamicfunerary architecture.
2. Second Phase (1540-1545):
Sher Shah Suri gained control from Humayun and supported a range of innovative architectural endeavours that played a crucial role in the development of subsequent Mughal architecture.
Purana Qila or old fort is one of the oldest forts in Delhi India. The construction began in the time of Humayun and continued under Sher Shah Suri.
Purana Qila, served as a defensive citadel and the focal point of his sixth city in Delhi, called Shergarh. He added several more structures in the fort during his reign.
The fort also includes overhanging balconies or jharokhas, topped with pillar pavilions or chhatris which is a feature of Rajasthani architecture.
Sher Mandal, an interior structure in the Old Fort is credited to Sher Shah.
The Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid, the royal chapel of Sher Shah Suri, constructed around 1542, had a far greater influence on the subsequent Mughal architecture.
It exhibits four-centred arches within definite rectangular frames, adorned with delicate spearhead fringes and merlons.
The composition is harmoniously completed by the horizontal line of the projecting chajja, resulting in a cohesive and integrated structure.
Context:Buddhist stupas have been found in the ongoing excavation in the Bandhavgarh Tiger reserve in Madhya Pradesh. Many dynasties have ruled this region, including the Gupta, Pratiharas and Kalachuris.
Stupa
The stupa serves as the most fundamental of Buddhist architectural monuments. It symbolises a sacred space for the community as it represents Buddha’s burial mound.
Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, which was originally commissioned by the emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in 3rd century BCE, served as an architectural prototype for all others that followed. This historical site is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Stupa Architecture
The most basic stupa, as an architectural representation of a sacred burial site, has three fundamental features:
A hemispherical mound (Anda): Domed shape recalls a mound of dirt that was used to cover the Buddha’s remains.
A square railing (Harmika): It is inspired by a square railing or fence that surrounded the mound of dirt, marking it as a sacred burial site.
A central pillar supporting a triple-umbrella form (Chattra): The central pillar represents the pivot of the universe, the axis mundi along which the divine descends from heaven and becomes accessible to humanity. The three circular umbrella-like disks represent the Triratnas of Buddhism: (a) Buddha; (b) dharma (Buddhist teachings or religious law); and (c) sangha (monastic community).
Secondary Features:
Toranas (gateways): Enclosure wall with decorated gateways at the cardinal directions.
A circular terrace (Medhi): It likely served as a platform for ritual circumambulation.
Building material: Unburnt bricks were used at the core and burnt bricks were used on the outer face that was covered in a thick coating of plaster.
Decorations: To embellish Medhi and Toran, wooden sculptors were used.
Pradakshinapatha (Circumambulatory pathway): As a form of worship, devotees walk around the pradakshina patha, or open ambulatory pathway. Wooden railing that capped the stupa also encircled the Pradakshinapatha.
The earliest stupas contained actual relics of the Buddha. Over time, it has taken a grander symbolic association, “the mountain home of the gods at the centre of the universe”.
Kalachuri Dynasty
Two branches of the Kalachuri dynasty were:
The earlier rulers were called the Kalachuri Dynasty of Mahishmati. They ruled in Central-Indian region between the 6th-7th centuries AD.
The Later Kalachuri dynasty ruler was known as the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri that ruled between the 7th-13th centuries AD.
Kalachuri Dynasty of Mahishmati
The Mahishmati Kalachuri rulers are known as the Haihayas.
The inscriptions also mentioned about the three important rulers of the dynasty: Krishna Raj, Shankargana, and Buddharaj.
Literary references have suggested their capital was situated at Mahishmati in the Malwa region.
Territories controlled:
The Kalachuri inscriptions mentioned that the Kalachuri dynasty ruled over the Ujjayni, Vidisha, Anandapura, and parts of Vidarbha.
The dynasty controlled Vidarbha, where they succeeded the Vakataka and the Vishnukundina dynasties.
In addition, the Kalachuris conquered northern Konkan (around Elephanta) by the mid-6th century. Here, they succeeded the Traikutaka dynasty.
Krishnaraj (c.550-575)
He is the earliest known ruler of the dynasty.
Coins: Featured Brahmi script legends, imitated the designs of earlier coins issued by the Gupta Kings. For example, coins featuring a bull are based on the coins issued by Skandagupta. These coins have described him as ‘Parama-Maheshvara’ (Devotee of Shiva).
Shankaragana’s inscription described Krishnaraja as the devotee of Pashupati (Shiva).
He commissioned, the Shaivite monuments at the Elephanta Caves and the earliest of the Brahmanical caves at Ellora.
Shankaragana (c.575-600)
He is the earliest ruler of the dynasty to be attested by his own inscriptions, which were issued from Ujjain, which is regarded as the earliest epigraphic record of the dynasty.
He adopted titles similar to the Gupta emperor Skandagupta, which suggests he conquered western Malwa (formerly under the Gupta authority).
He probably extended control over the parts of the present-day Gujarat.
Buddharaja
Shankaragana was succeeded by Buddharaja, the last known ruler of the early Kalachuri dynasty.
Chalukyan Invasion:
The first Chalukyan invasion was undertaken by king Mangalesha, somewhere around 600 CE.
However, the invasion did not result in a complete conquest, as evident by the Vidisha and Anandapura grants of Buddharaja.
During the second invasion by Mangalesha, Buddharaja lost his sovereignty.
Cultural contributions of Kalachuri Dynasty
Elephanta Caves, Mumbai
These contain Shaivite monuments, along the Konkan coast.
Historical evidences suggest Krishnaraja was associated with these monuments. For example: Silver and copper coins of Krishnaraja have been here, suggesting he was the patron of the main cave temple on the island.
Ellora Caves
The earliest of the Hindu caves at Ellora have been built during the reign of Kalachuris. For example, earliest coin found at Ellora, in front of Cave No. 21 (Rameshvara), was issued by Krishnaraja.
About Bandhavgarh National Park and Tiger Reserve
Location: It is situated on the Eastern Satpura hill, between two other major protected areas of Madhya Pradesh, Kanha Tiger Reserve on the southern side and Sanjay National Park on the north eastern side.
The National Park was included in the Project Tiger network in 1993. The Panpatha Sanctuary was merged into the core area of Tiger Reserve, there-by increasing its core area.
Weather: According to Koppen’s Scheme, it lies in Monsoon type with Dry Winter Climate.
Historical significance: Famous Bandhavgarh fort, ancient Caves, rock paintings and carvings are found inside the Protected Area.
Fauna and Flora:
It is best known for ever-green Sal forests.
Some of the wildlife in the region, prominently figure in the IUCN red list of Endangered species: Tiger, Leopard, Dhole (Indian Wild Dog), Bengal or Indian Fox, Sloth Bear, Smooth-coated Otter, Rusty Spotted Cat, Fishing Cat, Gaur and Wild Elephant.
Context: A Cham Lama performance on the auspicious occasion of Buddha Jayanti at Tupchiling Gompa was observed in Lahaul region of Himachal Pradesh.
About the Cham Lama Dance:
A traditional Cham Lama dance is an event held by Tibetan monasteries during special Buddhist festivals.
Monks in colourful costumes wear masks and they dance to the music played from traditional instruments (such as the ritual drum), also performed by monks. The longer it goes on, the more they seem to get in a trance.
The dancers have to be both well-trained and strong as the ritual dance must be performed very precisely and the masks are very heavy.
Cham was introduced in the eight Century by Padmasambhava (who introduced Tantric Buddhism to Tibet), to subjugate the local demons that were obstructing the building of the first monastery in Tibet, Samye.
Many of the figures performing the dance are animal characters. The pictures are made at the annual Buddhist Festival at Trongsa Dzong, the largest dzong fortress in Bhutan, located in Trongsa (formerly Tongsa), in the centre of the country.
This five-day festival known as the Trongsa Tsechu is held in the courtyard of the temple every year in December or January. The festival celebrates the arrival of Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava) to Bhutan in the 8th century, a mark of triumph of Buddhism over evil.
By attending a Tsechu, visitors gain the Buddha’s blessing or and experience spiritual release through the tantric deities.
Context:Mridangam player Karaikudi R. Mani passed away. Through his group Sruthilaya, he popularised South Indian percussion instruments all over the world. He pioneered the Thala Vadya (percussion ensembles) performances in Carnatic music, which feature two percussion instruments performing solos without the use of vocals, veena, or violin.
Mridangam
A percussion instrument of ancient origin.
It serves as the main source of rhythmic accompaniment in a Carnatic music ensemble.
The pakhawaj, a modified version of mridangam, is the main percussion instrument in Dhrupad.
It is a complex instrument to tune and involves a lot of mathematics to construct korvais.
The mridangam is played during a percussion ensemble (Thala vadya).
The mridangam body is formed from a single piece of wood. The wood of the morgosa tree, the core of the coconut tree, and the palm tree are also utilised by manufacturers, but jackwood or redwood is their preferred material.
The right head of the drum is made up of three concentric layers of skin.
Indian Musical Instruments
Musical instruments like seven-holed flute and Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the sites of Indus Valley Civilization.
Four major traditional categories of musical instruments
Avanaddha Vadya/Percussion Instruments: These are known as membranophone as they have an exterior membrane that can be beaten to extract specific musical tones. One or two faces are covered with skin or hide. Examples: Tabla, Drum, Dhol, Congo, Mridangam, etc.
2. Sushira Vadya/Aerophones: Includes all the wind instruments. Examples: Bansuri (flute), Shehnai, Pungi, Ninkirns, etc.
Shehnai: It is a double reeded wind instrument with a widening tube towards the end. The exalted title of the ‘Shehnai King’ has been given to the legendary Ustad Bismillah Khan, who took the Shehnai to its zenith through his soulful play.
Flute: It has been in use since the Vedic period. It was initially called Nadi or Tunava.
3. Ghana Vadya/Idiophone: It is the genre of the solid instruments that do not require any tuning. Examples: Manjira, Jaltarang, Kanch tarang, Jhanj, Khartal, etc.
Manjira: A small brass cymbal that is generally used in temples. Archaeological excavations have dated Manjira to be as old as the Harappan civilisation.
4. Tata Vadya/Chordophones: String instruments that function best when their sound is modified by hand.
Three major types of Tata instruments:
Bowed: The instruments where the sound is drawn from drawing a bow across the strings. Example: Sarangi, Esraj and Violin.
Plectral: The instruments where the strings are plucked by the fingers or by a plectrum of wire or horn. Example: Sitar, Veena and Tamboora.
Those instruments that are struck by small hammer or a pair of sticks. Example: Gotuvadyam and Swaramandal.
Classical Music
Two distinct schools of Indian classical music evolved
Hindustani music:
Practiced in the northern parts of India.
This branch of music places more emphasis on the structure of the song as well as its improvisational potential.
The Shudha Swara Saptaka, also known as the "Octave of Natural Notes," scale was adopted by the Hindustani branch.
Ten main styles: Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasaga, Tarana, Sargam and Thumri.
Dhrupad:
One of the oldest forms of Hindustani classical music. It is also mentioned in Natyashastra (200 BC–200 AD).
Consolidated its position as a classical form of music in the 13th century but reached its zenith in the court of emperor Akbar.
Akbar employed and patronised musical masters like Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas and Tansen.
Singers who mastered Dhrupad were also patronised in the court of Raja Man Singh Tomar situated in Gwalior.
It became the major form of singing in the medieval period but fell in a state of decline in the 18th century.
Khyal:
The origin of this style was attributed to Amir Khusrau.
This form is popular amongst the artists as this provides greater scope for improvisation.
A Khyal composition is also referred to as a ‘Bandish’.
Carnatic music
Practiced in the southern parts of India.
The music is based on kriti and emphasises the saahitya, or lyrical aspect, of the musical piece.
The Kriti is a highly developed musical composition with a definite tala or rhythmic cycle and a certain raga.
Mridangam is frequently used to perform Carnatic music.
"Thanam" is the name of the melodic improvisation in unstructured rhythm with mridangam.
The term "Ragam" is used to describe those pieces without a mridangam.
Less improvisation is allowed than in Hindustani music.
Context: The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) has urged the government to protect historically significant structures such as the 600-year-old 'Vilakkumadom,' a magnificent granite edifice, at the Sree Mahavishnu Temple at Thirunelly in Kerala's Wayanad district.
Thirunelli Temple
History
There is documentary evidence that Thirunelly was an important town and pilgrim centre in South India during the reign of Chera monarch Bhaskara Ravi Varma I (962-1019 CE).
Historian V. R. Parameswaran Pillai states in his book 'Thirunelli Documents' that this temple was formerly an important component of Kerala's early recorded history.
Architecture
This 3000-year-old temple is a fine example of Kerala temple architecture. The temple is an architectural marvel with around 30 granite columns and a granite paved floor. A cloister of cubical granite pillars runs along the temple's outer wall.
An open courtyard surrounds the Sanctorum, which is encircled by a tile-roofed building.
The holy temple pond is called Panchatheertham. The temple lacks a temple well, which is a notable characteristic.
The main deity idol of the temple is in the form of Chathurbhuja.
Religious Significance
Temple is the only temple in the world where worshippers can complete all of life's rituals, from birth to death and life after death.
The ceremonies are carried out on the banks of the Papanasini stream, which flows down from Mount Brahmagiri.
Lord Brahma is said to have performed Lord Vishnu's prathishta here. The cave temple Gunnika, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is located on the temple's western side. As a result, Thirunelli is blessed by the presence of all three parts of the trinity.
It is also known as ''Sahyamala Kshetram'' and ''Southern Kashi''.
Distinctive Kerala style of temple architecture
Provincial variety of Dravidian style
The Dravidian style took a positive shape and became strengthened during the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. This style underwent gradual changes without losing its individuality.
Kerala, on the west coast of South India, has a provincial variation of this style. Basic temple construction and Brahmanical religion developed in Kerala in tandem and steadily under the Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram.
Local features in the Kerala temple architecture
Largely dictated by the geography of the region that abounds in forests blessed with the bounties of the monsoons, the structure of the temples in Kerala is distinctive.
Roof
Temple roof resembles those found in the Himalayan regions and those in East Asia.
Steep and pointed roofs constructed with wood are covered with copper sheets.
The shape of the roof is in accordance with the plan of the sanctum below. With a circular plan, one sees a conical roof, while with a square plan the roof is pyramidal.
The roof protrudes at numerous levels to shelter the interior skeletal framework from the region's violent monsoons.
Sanctum
The Central sanctum of a Keralite temple is referred to as the Sree Kovil.
It is surrounded by a cloistered Prakara, pierced at one or more cardinal points with a Gopuradwara.
The cloistered Prakaram has a Namaskara Mandapam located directly in front of the sanctum. This Prakaram also houses subsidiary shrines.
Mandapam
The Mukha Mandapam is integrated with the Gopura entrance.
The flagstaff or Dwaja Stambham is located outside of the Dwajastambham.
The Balipitham may be located in the Mukhamandapam or in the outer courtyard.
The outer prakaram or courtyard houses other subshrines, and optionally a temple tank.
Hall
The Kuttambalam or the theater hall of the Keralite temple is located either as a part of the inner prakara or as a separate hall outside the innermost prakaram.
The Kuttambalam has a stage, raised from the rest of the floor, and a backstage area. This is the site of the performance of Kathakali or Chakkiyar koothu recitals. Thus, the kuttambalam plays a role in educating visitors on the rich legends of the Indian cultural fabric.
Materials Used and Decorative elements
A harmonic blend of stones, woodwork, stucco work, and painting create a structure rich in regional traditions.
The woodwork is quite important here, as it gives the Kerala temple silhouette its vitality and character. The temple's inner skeletal framework is made of wood, but the foundation and upper construction are made of granite and laterite, respectively.
Kerala temple walls are made of coursed laterite stone masonry that has been plastered with mud and lime.
Murals can be found on some of these temple walls. Another distinguishing feature of Keralite temples is the use of Vilakku Maadam (multi-tiered brass lamps) in front of temples.
About INTACH
The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) is a non-profit charitable organisation registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
It achieved Special Consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council was awarded in 2007.
History
INTACH was established in 1984 in New Delhi with the goal of establishing a membership organisation to promote and lead heritage awareness and conservation in India.
INTACH has been a leader in the conservation and safeguarding of India's natural and cultural heritage since 1984.
In 2007, INTACH signed a memorandum of understanding with AusHeritage, Australia's well-known heritage network, to engage on regional initiatives in South Asia and South East Asia.
Restoration
Over the years, INTACH has taken up the restoration and conservation of hundreds of monuments that fall outside the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India and other government organisations.
After developing Raghurajpur, Odisha, India, as a heritage village known for its master 'Pattachitra' artists and 'Gotipua' dance troupes, it later used the same pattern to develop Padmanabhpur village, Ganjam district, Odisha, India, known for its weavers and folk dancers, into another heritage destination.
Mission
INTACH's mission to conserve heritage, is based on the belief that living in harmony with heritage enhances the quality of life, and it is the duty of every citizen of India as laid down in the Constitution of India.
The objectives spelt out in the Memorandum of Association constitute INTACH's Mandate and Vision
Sensitise the public about the pluralistic cultural legacy of India and instill a sense of social responsibility towards preserving India's common heritage.
Document unprotected buildings of archaeological, architectural, historic and aesthetic significance, as well as the cultural resources, as this is the first step towards formulating conservation plans.
Develop heritage policies and regulations, and make legal interventions to protect India's heritage when necessary.
Provide expertise in the field of conservation, restoration and preservation of specific works of art and encourage capacity-building by developing skills through training programmes.
Undertake emergency response measures during natural or man-made disasters and support the local administration whenever heritage is threatened.
Context: Shilabhattarika, the celebrated Sanskrit poetess of Ancient India, has recently been the subject of new research by researchers at the Pune-based Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI), which is home to the largest collection of manuscripts and rare books in South Asia. They claim to have shed new light on her by identifying her as the daughter of the renowned Chalukyan Emperor Pulakeshin II of Badami (in modern Karnataka).
Findings from the copper plates
Information about the literary past
The copper plate gives critical details to the literary history of the Chalukyas, in addition to providing information on the geography and politics.
Marked change in the Historiography of the Badami Chalukyas
It had provided earliest concrete historical proof of Shila-Bhattarika's status as a poetess, who made a name for herself in the historically male-dominated field of classical Sanskrit literature.
The new research has put Shilabhattarika's life in the 7th century CE instead of the prevailing belief that placed her as the wife of the 8th-century Rashtrakuta ruler, Dhruva.
Shilabhattarika was a Chalukyan princess who may have been Pulakeshin II's daughter.
Pulakeshin II, who ruled from 610 to 642 CE, is known for having notably defeated Harshavardhan of Kanauj in a battle that took place in close proximity to the Narmada River in 618 CE.
Reconstruction of the Past
Archaeologists, linguists, and orientalists employ copper plates, which frequently have inscriptions of hereditary grants made by kings, to recreate the past.
A copper-plate charter with five copper plates from the era of Vijayaditya, the Badami Chalukyan king (696-733 CE) has been deciphered.
A copper ring with a Varaha (boar) seal serves as the binding element of the charter. The Varaha seal served as the royal seal of Badami Chalukyas. A Sanskrit text written in late-Brahmi script was included in the charter.
According to a preliminary interpretation of the plates, Vijayaditya gave the village of Sikkatteru to the Vedic scholar Vishnusharma in the month of Magha, Shaka year 638.
The plates also revealed that Mahendravarma, son of Shilabhattarika, the daughter of "Satyashraya," had asked Vijayaditya to make the grant. Pulakeshin II was the only Badami Chalukyan ruler who was solely known by the title "Satyashraya," which can be translated as "patron of truth."
Additionally, evidence points to Shilabhattarika's marriage to Dadiga, a prince from Talakkad's Ganga lineage.
Shila-Bhattarika
A Sanskrit poetess from the ninth century.
In the accounts of Rajashekhara:
Shilabhattarika has been lauded for her delicate compositions by the Sanskrit poet-critic Rajashekhara, court poet of the Gurjara-Pratiharas (9th–10th century CE).
Rajashekhara claims that the Panchali style (one of the four primary literary styles, the other three are Vaidharbhi, Gaudi, and Lati) can be seen in the writings of Shilabhattarika and perhaps in a few of the works of the poet Bana from the seventh century.
The 15th-century anthology Subhashitavali contains a lyric attributed to Rajashekhara that states that Panchali style preserves "a balance between words and meaning."
In Sharngadhara-paddhati, a 14th-century anthology, she and three other female poets are lauded, in the following sentences: Poetesses like Shilabhattarika, Vijja, Marula, and Morika are well-known for their poetic brilliance and erudition. These women are proficient in all academic fields, have engaged in disputes with other academics.
Subjects in her poetry: It is known that she wrote at least 46 poems, some of which deal with "love, morality, politics, nature, beauty, the seasons, insects, anger, indignation, codes of conduct, and the characteristic features of various kinds of heroines."
The deciphering of the plates also sheds light on how, Shilabhattarika might have developed the level of poetry-writing expertise that put her on par with the most esteemed male poets of the day.
Durvinita, a well-known ruler of the Western Gangas, was Shilabhattarika's grandfather-in-law. He was also an accomplished composer who had patronised Bharavi, the author of the classical epic Kiratarjuniya.
Context: Kilimanoor Palace Trust has decided to put the last unfinished painting of Raja Ravi Verma (Parsi lady) for the public display. He died on 02 October 1906.
About Raja Ravi Verma:
Birth: Kilimanoor, Kerala
Learning: he learnt watercolour painting from the royal painter Ramaswamy Naidu, and later trained in oil painting from Dutch artist Theodore Jensen
Specialisation: Oil and water paintings. He focused on realised expression and skin tone. Varma combined European realism with Indian sensibilities. He was inspired from Indian literature to dance drama.
Achievements: Three gold medals at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.
Role towards masses: He opened a Lithographic Press in Bombay in 1894 to take his art to masses. His lithographs increased the involvement of common people with fine arts and defined artistic tastes among common people.
Important work:
Shakuntala
Nair Lady Adorning Her Hair
There Comes Papa
Galaxy of Musicians
Damayanti talking with a swan
Maharaj Shivaji
Legacy
2014 Indian Hindi-language film, Rang Rasiya (English title: Colours of Passion) explores Varma's inspiration behind his paintings.
Early Life: He was born in 1556 to Bairam Khan, Akbar's uncle and tutor, and after Bairam Khan was assassinated, Akbar had the child brought to him and arranged for his upbringing.
Career:
He was one of Akbar's Navratans and also served in Jahangir's court. His political and military career began with Akbar's Gujarat campaign.
Emperor Akbar nominated him as Governor of Gujarat in 1575.
He was a composer who created couplets about Lord Krishna since Akbar's wife, Jodha, revered Lord Krishna.
Akbar bestowed the title Mirza Khan upon him. He used Persian, Hindi, and Sanskrit in his poetry.
Over the years, his 700-odd couplets have become a significant feature of Hindi school textbooks.
He was also a leading translator of his time, having translated Babur's autobiography from Turkish to Persian.
Khane-E-Khana
Rahim Khan is credited with funding the creation of attractive structures like as canals, tanks, and gardens. The most impressive of his works is the tomb he made for his wife, Mah Banu, in 1598. It was the first Mughal tomb erected specifically for a woman.
Features:
Material used: The tomb is made of red sandstone, buff sandstone and marble.
Different architectural styles: It is an arch-shaped structure and is decorated using the structure of an inverted lotus. Other styles include- niches, bulbous domes, canopies and Charbagh pattern.
Ornamentation: The tomb has been ornamented with diverse motifs including those seen in other mausoleums as well as those found in Hindu architecture like the peacock and Swastika.
Humayun’s Tomb
Significance of Tomb:
Built in 1570, it is of particular cultural significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent.
The tomb has also been documented as the first ever tomb built for a Mughal emperor.
The structure is considered to be an inspiration for the most well-known example of Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal.
Commissioning
Many scholars have argued that it was Haji Begam, Humayun’s widow who had commissioned this mausoleum.
However, according to Akbar Nama, written by Emperor Akbar’s official biographer Abu’l Fazl, Haji Begam was on a pilgrimage to Mecca during much of the construction period of the tomb. This has been confirmed by both Abu’l Fazl and Father Monserrate, a Jesuit priest who resided in Emperor Akbar’s court during the early 1580s. The monument was built by Emperor Akbar.
Abd al-Qadir Badauni mentioned it was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, an architect of Iranian descent.
It was designated as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1993.
Features:
Persian Influence:
It was the first structure in which the slightly bulbous and double dome, a feature borrowed from Persia and Samarkand, was introduced in India. Persian style is once again evident in this complex in the Char-Bagh (Four Gardens), a quadrilateral garden layout based on the four gardens of Paradise mentioned in The Holy Quran.
Hybrid of Persian and Indian Architectural styles
Topping off the mausoleum is the Persian double dome, flanked by pillared kiosks, or chattris, which are a distinct Indian architectural feature.This combination of Persian and Indian architectural styles works beautifully together and this makes Humayun’s Tomb a great example of a hybrid of styles of two separate cultures.
Four distinct octagonal units separated by four recesses make up the mausoleum, with the entrance located in the recess which is located in the centre of the southern facade.
Contrast is one of the key elements: While the rest of the building is made up of red sandstone, with white and black marble and yellow stone detailing, the exterior dome is of purely white marble.
Dormitory of Mughals: A central domed chamber with the emperor’s tomb in the middle and four corner rooms comprise the first floor. The large corner rooms as well as the numerous cells at the plinth level are a clear indication that the structure was originally designed to accommodate several graves. Over 150 Mughal family members are buried there.
Significance: For the patron of this tomb, Akbar, there were two purposes behind building this great structure, to commemorate his father’s legacy and to make a political statement.
