Art & Culture

Yelagiri Hut Shelters

Context: More than two centuries ago, over 200 Malaiyali tribes built traditional clay huts on the flat peak of the picturesque Yelagiri hill in northern Tamil Nadu establishing an all-encompassing system for shelter, storage, farming, and cattle. 

image 4

About Yelagiri Hut Shelters:

  • Tribespeople settled in upper Nillavur, Yelagiri, and became foragers turned farmers who began cultivating its tabletop peak for food. They used local red loam clay to build 16x22 feet one-room homes, replacing huts.
  • The hut was meant for people to live in but eventually turned into a storage space for the seeds we collected before the sowing period began. Once the land was harvested, that space was occupied by grains till we sold or consumed them.
  • A unique feature of the munn veedu (mud house) or andara kotai (storage facility) is that it stands on a stilt-like structure also made of teak wood. This holds the house two feet above the ground to keep rodents at bay and to prevent the house from flooding during torrential rains. 
  • These shelters are made of dry bamboo leaves the thatched roof is waxed with cow dung to prevent it from leaking during the monsoon season.
  • After the crops were harvested, the area was filled with grains until they were either sold or consumed. This outer layer sometimes gives the impression of the house being smaller than it actually is from the external view. Nonetheless, the interior has ample room to accommodate eight individuals, along with a paran (attic) utilised for storing utensils and various domestic belongings.
  • They employed science to build these houses that remained unaffected come rain, sun, or storm. At the same time, the stilts provided extra storage space under the house that could be used for grains or even poultry.
  • Today, all that remains in the hut is a three-foot-long munn paanai (clay pot) and the remnants of a straw attic that once held an entire year’s worth of grains and seeds. 

About Malaiyali Tribe

  • The Malaiyali tribe – malai meaning “hill” and Yali meaning “people” is strewn across the Eastern Ghats in North Tamil Nadu.
  • They are usually hill farmers and they cultivate different types of millet.
  • They are believed to have ancestral connections to the Vellala caste of cultivators. According to historical accounts, around ten generations ago, there was a migration from the sacred city of Kanchi to the hills of their present-day region. This period coincided with the dominance of Muslim rulers in Southern India.

Kalbeliya Dance

The dance indigenous to the Rajasthan region of India, specifically linked to the Kalbelia tribe, is recognized as Kalbelia dance. This traditional performance, alternatively referred to as 'Sapera Dance' or 'Snake Charmer Dance,' showcases the artistic expression of the Kalbelia community.

Notably, this dance and the associated melodies from Rajasthan gained global recognition, earning a spot on UNESCO's prestigious register of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2010. Within the Kalbelia dance, male individuals engage with customary musical instruments, while the female members execute the choreography.

This dance form is notably regarded as one of the most captivating amongst all Rajasthani dances.

Origin and Significance of Kalbelia Dance

Significance of Kalbelia Dance

The origin of Kalbelia dance lies within the cultural heritage of the Kalbelia tribe residing in Rajasthan. Historically, these nomadic people led a migratory lifestyle, preferring mobility over permanent settlement.

The Kalbelia tribe was historically linked to snake-catching and the trade of snake venom, often recognized as Sapera or Snake Charmers.

The traditional Kalbelia folk dance predominantly features female performers, who synchronize their movements with the enchanting melodies of the Been, a traditional musical instrument.

This dance is an integral part of joyful occasions within the Kalbelia community. Unlike structured educational systems, formal manuscripts, or documented instructions, Kalbelia songs and dance routines are transferred through generations via oral tradition, maintaining the essence of this folk art alive.

Geographical Indication Tags (GI)

Context: The Geographical Indications Registry in Chennai granted the Geographical Indication (GI) tag to seven products from different regions of India.

What is a GI tag? 

  • Geographical Indications of goods refer to the place of origin of a product. GI tags are a form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) that convey an assurance of quality and distinctiveness, attributable to the fact of its origin in a specific geographical locality, region or country. E.g., Tirupathi laddu, Nagpur oranges. 
  • The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industry awards GI Tag in India. 
  • A GI registration is given to an area, not a trader, but once a product gets the registration, traders dealing in the product can apply to sell it with the GI logo.
    • Any trader’s body, association, or organisation can apply for a GI tag. The applicants need to prove the uniqueness of the item with historical records and a complete breakdown of how the product is made.
    • Authorised traders are each assigned a unique GI number. 
    • The raw materials for such products do not have to come from that region (unless it is an agricultural tag). E.g.,
      • Leaf in Banarasi paan is not grown in Varanasi; it comes from Bihar, West Bengal, or Odisha.
      • Mulberry silk used in Kancheepuram sarees comes from Karnataka and the gold zari from Surat.
  • If any unauthorised trader tries selling the product under that name, they can be prosecuted under The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999.
    • India, as a member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999 which came into force in 2003.
    • Under Articles 1 (2) and 10 of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, geographical indications are covered as an element of IPRs.

Categories of GI products: 

  • There are over 500 GI tags as of January 7, 2023. There are 34 classes of products that can get GI tags, ranging from chemicals and paint to foodstuff, handicrafts, musical instruments, firearms, locomotives etc. 
  • The products in the GI registry fall under five major categories (Chart 1). Handicrafts dominate the list, with over half the GI tags being given to products crafted by skilled artisans.
image 29

GI tags across States:

  • Every State in India has at least one GI tag which is a proxy for unique cultural items.
  • If a State has more GI tags compared to another, it does not necessarily mean that the state is more culturally rich; it just means that more items have been registered.
    • Tamil Nadu (61) has the highest number of GI tags compared to other States. 
    • Uttar Pradesh (56) has the second highest number of GI tags.
      • Banaras offers 11 unique crafts and agricultural items (the highest from a single place), including the famous Banarasi paan. 

Benefits of GI tags: 

  • Prevents unauthorised use of GI tag products by others.
  • Helps consumers to get quality products of desired traits and is assured of the authenticity.
  • Promotes economic prosperity of producers of GI tag goods by enhancing their demand in national and international markets.

About the Products 

image 7

Jalesar Dhatu Shilp (metal craft)

  • Jalesar is located in the Etah district of Uttar Pradesh and was the capital of Magadha King Jarasandha.
  • The metal art of Jalesar is highly esteemed for its intricate designs and exceptional craftsmanship, blending elements of both traditional and contemporary styles.  
  • Skilled artisans employ various techniques such as casting, molding, hammering, engraving, and filigree work to create a diverse array of metal products. 

Goa Mankurad mango

  • The mango was given the name ‘Malcorada’ by the Portuguese, which translates to ‘poor coloured’.
  • Over time, this word evolved into ‘Mankurad’ and in the Konkani language, it came to be known as ‘aamo’ which means mango.

Goan Bebinca

  • Bebinca, a traditional Indo-Portuguese dessert, is a type of pudding widely recognized as the ‘Queen of Goan desserts.’ 
image 8

Udaipur Koftgari metal craft

  • The ancient art of Koftgari is used to create exquisitely ornamental weaponry.
  • This damascene technique involves a complex process of etching designs, heating, and cooling the metal, while also embedding gold and silver wire into the surface. 
  • Unlike inlaid metal ornamentation, the wire does not sink into the iron; instead, it remains on the surface and is mechanically bound through pressing, burnishing, and polishing. 
  • After the design is complete, burnishing tools known as Opani are used to push and bind the overlaid silver firmly.
  • Lastly, the surface is polished using a hakek stone to achieve the final stunning appearance.
  • The term ‘Koftgari’ originates from the Persian and Urdu words 'kuft-gari,' meaning 'beaten work,' and the artisans who practice this art are called 'kuftgars' or gilders. 
  • Historically, Koftgari was brought to India by Persian craftsmen during the 16th century when they served Mughal rulers.
  • The Mughal Emperors, had a significant iron workshop called the Mughal Silehkhana that produced ornamented swords and weapons for the imperial army. 
image 9

Bikaner Kashidakari craft

  • The technique involves printing diverse patterns on fabrics through the tie and dye method. 
  • The thread used in the embroidery varies from the finest silk to the thickest wool. It is often combined with glass, sequins, and various types of stitches to create rich and detailed patterns, typically worked in chain stitches.
  • The embroidery creates a captivating contrast between colours, with dramatic effects achieved through the use of vibrant traditional hues like yellow, black, red, and green.
  • Geometric forms are harmoniously balanced with depictions of trees, peacocks, and other motifs.
image 10

Jodhpur Bandhej craft

  • Bandhej is a popular traditional craft of Rajasthan, with Jodhpur being one of the prominent centres for this art form.
  • Bandhej patterns: Dot pattern known as Bandhani, the wave pattern called Leheriya, and even the Japanese motif called Shibori.
  • The art of Bandhej is primarily practiced by the skilled women artisans of the Rangrez community, meaning ‘dyer’ in Persian.
  • The process starts with preparing the fabric, which is typically cotton or silk. The fabric is thoroughly washed to remove impurities and then dyed in a base colour, often red, blue, green, or yellow. 
  • Skilled artisans meticulously tie small, tight knots on the fabric using thread, creating various patterns like dots, squares, waves, or stripes.
  • After tying the fabric, it is immersed in a dye bath. The areas where the knots are tied resist the dye, resulting in a unique and mesmerizing pattern on the fabric.
image 11

Bikaner Usta Kala craft

  • The Bikaner Usta Kala craft is also known as gold nakashi work or gold manauti work, owing to the predominant use of golden colour in its exquisite designs, created with actual gold during the earlier periods.
  • It is a unique form of miniature painting practiced on metal surfaces.
  • The skilled artisans, known as ‘Ustads’, have inherited their craft techniques from their ancestors, and they have diligently preserved this art form through generations. 
  • The metal surface is first cleaned and polished meticulously, providing a smooth and ideal canvas for the upcoming artwork.
  • To impart a distinctive shimmering effect, the designated areas of the artwork are adorned with a layer of gold or silver leaf.
  • Employing natural pigments and carefully selected colours, the Ustad adorns the artwork with intricate brushwork, creating a harmonious and vibrant appearance. 
  • The motifs and themes often draw inspiration from Mughal and Persian influences, showcasing elaborate floral patterns, geometric designs, and captivating scenes from epics and mythology.

Fusion of Rock Art

Rudragiri hillock located in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, boasts a celebrated historical past and remarkable archaeological monuments. This site unveils a fascinating combination of prehistoric rock paintings from the Mesolithic period and exquisite artwork from the Kakatiya dynasty. 

More about the news

  • At the foothills of Rudragiri, five naturally formed rock shelters have been uncovered.
  • These shelters served as dwellings for people during the Mesolithic age approximately around 5000 B.C. They contain striking rock paintings from that era, which provide a fascinating glimpse into the past.
  • Two of these natural caves display remarkable murals dating back to the renowned Kakatiya dynasty. Despite being affected by the forces of nature over time, fragments of these paintings offer valuable insights into their creation during the 13th century A.D.
  • The paintings are adorned with a variety of colors derived from white kaolin and various pigments. They vividly depict captivating scenes from the epic Ramayana.
  • In the first cave, there is a narrative mural portraying the intense battle between the Vanara brothers - Vali and Sugriva.
  • The middle cave features a grand sketch of Hanuman, accompanied by sacred symbols such as the conch (Sankha) and the fire altar (Yagna Vedi).
  • Additionally, the third cave houses prehistoric rock paintings dating back to the Mesolithic era, providing a glimpse of the ancient artistic expressions from that time.

Early Rock Paintings in India

  • India boasts some of the earliest rock paintings dating back to the Upper Palaeolithic times. 
  • The first discovery of rock paintings in India was made by archaeologist Archibold Carlleyle. 
  • Remnants of these ancient paintings have been found on cave walls in several districts of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, and even the Kumaon hills in Uttarakhand, particularly at Lakhudiyar, where the rock shelters along the River Suyal preserve these prehistoric artworks.

The Spectacular Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka

  • One of the most remarkable sites of rock paintings in India is Bhimbetka, located in the Vindhya hills of Madhya Pradesh.
  • Discovered by archaeologist V.S. Wakankar. 
  • The paintings at Bhimbetka depict a diverse range of themes, including daily life events, sacred and royal images, hunting scenes, dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animal fights, honey collection, body decoration, and household scenes.

Classification of Bhimbetka Rock Art

  • The rock art at Bhimbetka has been categorized into various groups based on style, technique, and superimposition.
  • The drawings and paintings are classified into three historical periods: Period I (Upper Palaeolithic), Period II (Mesolithic), and Period III (Chalcolithic).

Mesolithic Paintings

  • During the Mesolithic period (Period II), the rock paintings at Bhimbetka feature a variety of themes, with hunting scenes being predominant.
  • The paintings depict groups of primitive men hunting animals with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows, and bows.
  • Some paintings show the hunters using traps and snares to catch animals. The hunters are depicted wearing simple clothes and ornaments, occasionally adorned with elaborate headdresses or masks. 
  • The Mesolithic artists showed a mix of fear and tenderness for animals in their artwork.

Daily Life Depictions

  • The rock paintings at Bhimbetka also depict various aspects of daily life during the Mesolithic era.
  • Scenes of community dances, people gathering fruits or honey from trees, and women grinding and preparing food are common themes.
  • The artists painted men, women, and children engaged in various activities, giving a glimpse of what life was like for these ancient people.

Techniques and Colours

  • The artists at Bhimbetka used a wide range of colors, including white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green, and black.
  • White and red were particularly favored colors.
  • The paints were made by grinding various rocks and minerals, such as haematite for red and chalcedony for green.
  • The artists used plant fiber brushes for their artwork.
  • Surprisingly, these colors have survived thousands of years due to the presence of oxide on the rock surface, which helped preserve the paintings despite adverse weather conditions. 

Location and Purpose of Paintings

  • The paintings were made on the walls and ceilings of rock shelters, with some found in places where people lived and others in areas with potential religious significance.
  • The elevated locations of some paintings suggest they were meant to be visible from a distance.
  • The paintings display pictorial quality and provide insights into the lives and beliefs of early human beings, showing a passion for storytelling and a portrayal of humans and animals engaged in the struggle for survival.

A Glimpse into Prehistoric Life

  • These prehistoric paintings offer valuable information about early human beings, their lifestyle, food habits, and daily activities.
  • They provide a glimpse into the minds of these ancient artists, reflecting their thoughts and perceptions.
  • The remains from the prehistoric period, including rock weapons, tools, ceramics, and bones, serve as witnesses to the evolution of human civilization, with the rock paintings being among the most significant legacies left behind by the primitive humans of that time.

About Kakatiya Dynasty

Early Kakatiya Dynasty rulers

  • The Kakatiya dynasty, known for ruling the eastern Deccan region from the 12th to the 14th centuries, had its roots traced back to Venna, who reigned from 800 to 815 AD.
  • Venna was believed to be a descendant of Durjaya, a legendary chieftain of the Andhra kingdom.
  • The Kakatiya lineage continued with Gunda I and Gunda II, about whom little information is available except for their rule from 815 to 865 AD.
  • During the early days, the Kakatiyas served as vassals to the powerful Rashtrakuta, which held significant influence over much of India during the 6th to 10th centuries AD.

Rise to Power and Independence

  • After the collapse of the Rashtrakuta kingdom, Gunda IV saw an opportunity to establish his family's independent rule.
  • He declared Kuravi as an independent principality, leading the Kakatiya dynasty towards self-governance.

Consolidation and Expansion 

  • Ganapati, who ruled from around 1199 to 1262, focused on consolidating the kingdom and expanding its territories.
  • He led successful campaigns, bringing Telugu-speaking lowland deltas around the Godavari and Krishna rivers under his control.
  • The capital of Kakatiyas was Orugallu, now known as Warangal.

Rudrama Devi: A Remarkable Female Ruler

  • Rudrama Devi, succeeding Ganapati, was one of the few female rulers in Indian history.
  • She continued her predecessor's fortification efforts and repelled an attempted invasion by the Seuna dynasty (Yadava Dynasty). 
  • She married an Eastern Chalukyan prince, Virabhadra, and later handed over the throne to her grandson, Prataparudra II.

Decline of the Kakatiya Dynasty

  • Prataparudra II faced challenges from the Delhi Sultanate under Alauddin Khalji, who saw the wealth and potential of the Kakatiya lands.
  • Prataparudra II initially submitted to Alauddin but later asserted his kingdom's independence.
  • The subsequent conflicts with the Delhi Sultanate led to the fall of the Kakatiya dynasty.

Jagannath Yatra at Puri

Context: Jagannath Ratha Yatra has begun in Puri in the current month of Ashadh.

image 115

About the Jagannath Yatra

  • The Ratha Yatra, also known as the Ratha Jatra or chariot festival, is a magnificent Hindu celebration held annually in the city of Puri, Odisha, India. It is considered the oldest and largest chariot festival in the Hindu tradition, taking place during the bright half of the lunar month of Ashadh, which typically falls in June or July.
  • The festival revolves around the worship of Lord Jagannath, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu or Krishna, and his siblings Balabhadra and Subhadra. During the Ratha Yatra, the three deities are ceremoniously pulled in massive wooden chariots from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple. The deities reside in the Gundicha Temple for a week and then return to their abode in the Jagannath temple (Bahuda Yatra)
  • The origins of the Ratha Yatra can be traced back to ancient texts such as the Brahma Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, and Kapila Samhita, which describe the grandeur of the festival. It is believed that participating in the Ratha Yatra and pulling the chariots grants immense blessings and spiritual purification.
  • The construction of the chariots is a significant part of the festival. Every year, the three chariots, named Nandighosa, Taladhwaja, and Darpadalana, are built anew using specific types of wood, such as phassi and dhausa. The skilled carpenters responsible for constructing the chariots have hereditary rights and privileges for this sacred task. The logs are collected near Puri after being set afloat as rafts in the river Mahanadi and are then transported by road to the city.
  • The chariots, adorned with vibrant decorations and intricate designs, stand tall on the Bada Danda, the Grand Avenue, near the eastern entrance of the Jagannath Temple. Each chariot has a charioteer, known as Sarathi, and is pulled by devotees with great enthusiasm and devotion. Alongside the chariots, nine Parsva devatas, painted wooden images representing various deities, add to the grandeur of the procession.
  • As the chariots begin their journey towards the Gundicha Temple, the air is filled with excitement and religious fervor. Devotees from all walks of life come together to pull the massive ropes, chanting the names of the deities and seeking their blessings. The procession moves along the bada danda, a two-mile stretch leading to the Gundicha Temple.
  • During the procession, the chariot of Lord Jagannath, Nandighosa, makes a significant stop near the crematorium of Bhakta Salabega, a Muslim devotee. This pause symbolizes the harmony between different faiths and pays tribute to the devotion of Salabega. It serves as a reminder of the all-encompassing nature of the divine.
  • On the return journey from the Gundicha Temple, the deities make a special halt near the Mausi Maa Temple, also known as Aunt's abode. They receive an offering of Poda Pitha, a type of pancake believed to be Lord Jagannath's favorite delicacy. This act of offering food to the deities signifies the bond between the devotees and the divine, fostering a sense of love and devotion.
  • The Ratha Yatra is not just a one-day event but a culmination of various rituals and festivities that span a period of 42 days known as Chandan Yatra or Sandalwood Festival. During this time, preparations for the chariot construction commence. The festival is divided into two halves - Bahar Chandan and Bhitar Chandan. Bahar Chandan involves colorful processions of representative images. 

Ranajit Guha, the unconventional historian

Context: Ranajit Guha, a distinguished historian who left an indelible mark on the field of Indian history, sadly passed away in April 2023. He was renowned for his significant contributions and was particularly influential within the Subaltern Studies group.

image 49

About Ranajit Guha

  • Famous works: A Rule of Property for Bengal: An Essay on the Idea of Permanent Settlement, (Today, it is recognized as a classic in modern Indian history); History at the Limit of World-History; An Indian Historiography of India: A Nineteenth Century Agenda & Its Implications; Dominance without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India; Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India. 
  • During the 1980s, he initiated a transformative approach to studying South Asia and the Indian subcontinent. He observed that the prevailing mainstream historical studies were inadequate for comprehending the complexities of the region's past. 
  • This led to a shift away from the predominantly elitist approach to studying the history of the region. The new methodology, known as Subaltern Studies, emerged as an influential post-colonial and post-Marxist school of history. 
  • Guha defined the term ‘subaltern’ as the demographic distinction between the overall Indian population and those identified as the elite. 
  • As part of the project, he examined the landmark legislation of 1793 known as the Permanent Settlement of Bengal. He posed a previously unasked question: How did the application of the 18th-century French economic doctrine of Physiocracy, aimed at creating entrepreneurial farmers in Bengal, result in the creation of the neo-feudal zamindari system?

Subaltern Studies 

  • The term ‘subaltern’ draws inspiration from the work of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937). Initially, the term referred to peasants excluded from the industrial capitalist system. 
  • The Subaltern historians departed from Gramsci's interpretation, arguing that the history of subaltern groups was autonomous from that of the dominant classes while acknowledging their subordinated status.
  • The Subaltern Studies examines non-elites and subalterns as agents of political and social change. They demonstrate a particular interest in studying the discourses and rhetoric of emerging political and social movements, rather than solely focusing on highly visible actions such as demonstrations and uprisings.
  • In Indian context: Explores the dynamics of dominance and subordination within colonial systems, notably in India. Dissatisfied with the prevailing conventions of Indian history writing, a group of writers joined the collective and made significant contributions to its volumes. 

Unveiling the Phases of Subaltern Studies

The Subaltern Studies project, renowned for its innovative approach to historical analysis, can be divided into two distinct phases. 

Phase I of the Subaltern Studies:

  • Represented a radical departure from conventional Indian historiography, characterized by the confrontation between the elite and the subaltern. 
  • The project aimed to break free from the economic determinism found in various Marxist theories and challenge the elitism of bourgeois-nationalist and colonial interpretations. 
  • The project highlighted the distinctions between the politics of the people and elite politics, as elite mobilizations were vertical in nature and people's mobilizations took a horizontal form.
  • The elite mobilization tended to be legalistic and peaceful, whereas subaltern mobilization often exhibited a more spontaneous and confrontational nature.
  • Phase II, embracing discourse analysis in Subaltern Studies:
  • The second phase saw a significant change in its approach, influenced by postmodernist and post-colonialist ideologies that reshaped its trajectory. 
  • The impact of postcolonial perspectives became evident, particularly in the works of Partha Chatterjee. 
  • Chatterjee's influential book, ‘Nationalist Thought and Colonial World’ (1986), applied a postcolonial framework, which portrayed colonial power-knowledge as dominant and irresistible.
  • Over time, many other writers associated with Subaltern Studies moved away from Marxist ideology, leading to intellectual divergences within the group.

Critiques of the Subaltern Studies Project

Despite influential contributions to historiography, it has faced extensive criticism from various quarters. Critiques have emerged from Marxist, Nationalist as well as Cambridge School historians.

  • Scholars like, Javeed Alam argued that the autonomy of subaltern politics is based on the perpetuity of rebellious action, irrespective of whether the consequences are positive or negative.
  • This perspective neglects the historical trajectory of militancy and overlooks the implications of such theoretical constructs. 
  • In the review essay by Sangeeta Singh, a critical picture is presented of Guha's understanding of the spontaneity of peasant rebellion. It was seen as a reflexive action, which is problematic, as it equated spontaneity with action based on traditional consciousness.
  • Guha's assertion about the centrality of religion in rebels' consciousness was viewed as supporting the British official view that downplayed the disruptive role of colonialism in rural and tribal structures.
  • Ranjit Das Gupta, argued that the project tended to focus on moments of conflict and protest while downplaying the dialectics of collaboration among subaltern groups.
  • David Ludden, pointed out its rigid theoretical division between ‘elite’ and ‘subaltern’ and its confinement of subaltern politics to the lower strata, thereby alienating subalternity from political histories of popular movements.

Despite the controversies, the project has undeniably made significant contributions to historical scholarship, reshaping our understanding of marginalized voices and challenging dominant narratives.

Mural in new Parliament

Context: Ministry of External Affairs characterized mural within recently constructed parliament building as a representation of expansion of the ancient Ashokan empire. The mural illustrates the Ashoka empire's growth and conveys concept of accountable and citizen-centred governance that Ashoka embraced and promoted.

Mural in new Parliament

About Mural Paintings

  • Murals are artworks displayed on solid structures, such as walls, and have rich and extensive history. 
  • Spanned from 2nd century BC to 8th-10th century AD. 
  • Murals are found predominantly within natural caves and rock-cut chambers.
  • Examples: Ajanta, Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter, Bagh caverns, Sittanavasal caves, and Kailasanatha temple in Ellora.
  • Main Themes: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

Features of Mural Paintings 

  • Distinguishing feature lies in grand scale, as they surpass confines of traditional paper and are meant to adorn the walls of expansive structures, typically caves and temple walls.
  • Two notable qualities: organic integration with architecture and their significant public significance.
  • Mural paintings possess a truly three-dimensional nature, as they interact with and inhabit space they occupy.
  • To create vibrant pigments used in ancient Indian mural paintings, natural sources like terracotta, chalk, red ochre, yellow ochre were blended with animal fat. 
  • Subjects: human and animal figures, hunting scenes, family life, courtly settings, deities, and narratives from the Buddhist Jataka tales.

Examples of Mural Paintings

image 31

Ajanta Cave Paintings

  • Carved during 4th century AD from volcanic rocks, Ajanta caves comprise a remarkable collection of 29 caves.
  • Created over a span of four to five centuries under the patronage of the Mauryan Empire.
  • Caves no. 9 and 10 house murals from the Sunga period, while the rest belong to the Gupta period.
  • The cave walls showcase a combination of murals and fresco paintings, the latter being created on wet plaster.
  • In Cave 1, one can find paintings of several Bodhisattvas: Vajrapani (a protector and guide), Manjusri (a manifestation of Buddha's wisdom), and Padmapani Avalokitesvara (a symbol of Buddha's compassion).

Sittanavasal Cave (Arivar-Kovil) Paintings

  • Situated in Tamil Nadu, these rock-cut caves are distinguished for their Jain temple paintings.
  • These murals bear a striking resemblance to artworks found in Bagh and Ajanta.
  • The thematic focus of paintings revolves around Jain Samavasarana (Preaching-hall), where Tirthankaras delivered sermons following their attainment of kevala-gnana (enlightenment).  
  • Scholars have attributed caves to the Pallava period when King Mahendravarman I excavated the temple. 

About Ashoka (Mauryan Emperor)

  • Ashoka, also known as Chakravartin Samrat Ashoka, was the third emperor of the Mauryan Empire from 268 to 232 BCE.
  • He was the son of Bindusara and grandson of the dynasty's founder, Chandragupta. During his father's reign, Ashoka served as governor of Ujjain, Central India and according to Buddhist legends, he suppressed a rebellion in Taxila.
  • He is credited with the construction of various stupas and viharas and notable ones are: Sanchi and Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh; Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh; Mahabodhi Temple, Barabar Caves and Nalanda Mahavihara in Bihar and Sannati Stupa in Karnataka, India.  
  • Ashoka played a crucial role in dissemination of Buddhism throughout ancient Asia. 

Kalinga War and conversion to Buddhism

  • According to Ashoka's inscriptions, he achieved victory over the Kalinga region in his eighth regnal year.
  • Edict 13 of Ashoka Rock inscriptions reveals deep remorse experienced by the king upon witnessing the devastation in Kalinga.
  • However, epigraphic evidence suggests that his transformation was a gradual process. For instance, Minor Rock Edict issued in the 13th regnal year, mentions that he had been a practicing Upasaka (lay Buddhist) for over two and a half years.

Third Buddhist Council

  • Convened in Pataliputra, under the patronage of Ashoka, around 250 BC.
  • Aimed to unite, various Buddhist schools and purify the Buddhist movement.
  • Moggaliputta Tissa, a Buddhist monk, presided over the council.
  • Sthaviravada sect, which upheld the belief in the simultaneous presence of past, present, and future, was established as an orthodox school.
  • Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka (third Pitaka), which explains the tenets of Dhamma.
  • As a result of this Buddhist council, Ashoka dispatched Buddhist missionaries to various regions, including Gandhara, Kashmir, and Sri Lanka. 

Edicts of Ashoka

  • Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka as well as cave walls.
  • Language and Script: Mostly in Brahmi script and Magadhi and Prakrit languages; Kandahar inscriptions are in Greek and Aramaic, and inscriptions in north-western Pakistan are in Kharosthi script.
  • The geographical distribution of these edicts outlines the vast expanse of the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka's rule, stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to present-day Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra.
  • In one such inscriptions, lands beyond Ashoka's borders are mentioned, including Chodas (Cholas), Pandyas, Satiyaputa and Keralaputa (Chera). 
  • Maski Inscription, Karnataka:
  • The site has a minor rock edict and was first edict of Ashoka containing the name Ashoka instead of ‘Devanampriya’ or ‘Piyadassi’.
  • The inscription was ‘dharma shasana’ which tells people to follow the tenets of Buddhism. 

Kalsi Inscription, Uttarakhand:

  • The only place in North India where Ashoka has inscribed a set of fourteen rock edicts.
  • It reflects the policies for commitment to non-violence and restriction of war.
  • Kanganahalli inscription at Sannati, Karnataka:
  • An inscription in Brahmi script reading ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) and a sculpture of King Ashoka. 

The edicts emphasize:

  • Ashoka's commitment to peace, righteousness, and justice, as well as his deep concern for welfare of his subjects.
  • By renouncing violence and war, and promoting peace and pursuit of dhamma (righteousness), Ashoka diverged from prevalent philosophy of statecraft.
  • Shows his efforts to spread and develop dharma throughout his kingdom.
  • Edicts mainly focus on social and moral precepts rather than specific religious practices or philosophical dimension of Buddhism.

SAVITRIBAI PHULE

Context: Maharashtra Chief Minister directed to initiate a probe into a website that allegedly posted derogatory content against pioneering 19th-century educationists.

Savitribai Phule

  • She was from the Mali community and was born on January 3, 1831, in Maharashtra’s Naigaon village. 
  • At the tender age of 10, she was married to 12-year-old Jyotirao Phule, a man of social reform himself, who believed that women must be educated. He began to home-school Savitribai. Later, Jyotirao admitted Savitribai to a teacher’s training institution in Pune.
  • She was an exponent of female education, equality, and justice who took on the caste system with her revolutionary ideals and strived to dismantle the elite-controlled education system.

Contributions of Savitribai Phule in Education:

  • In 1848, Savitibai and Jyotiba established the first-ever school for girls in Bhidewada of which Savitribai was the headmistress. 
  • In 1853, they established an education society that opened more schools for girls and women from all classes, in surrounding villages.
  • Savitribai and Jyotirao broke social barriers, paving the way for women's emancipation in a time when female education was unheard of.
  • Known as modern India’s first female teacher and in 1852, she was declared the best teacher in the state by the British government.

Role as Social Reformer

  • Savitribai started the Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (‘Home for the Prevention of Infanticide’), a childcare centre for sexually exploited, pregnant widows, and rape victims facing discrimination. 
  • She also adopted a child of a widow, Yashwantrao.
  • In 1852, she started the Mahila Seva Mandal to fight for the rights of women. 
  • She organized a strike against barbers in Pune and Mumbai, putting pressure on them to stop shaving the heads of Brahmin widows.
  • She is often referred to as the mother of Indian feminism.
  • In 1873, Savitibai and Jyotiba started ‘Satyashodhak Marriage’, a rejection of Brahmanical rituals where the marrying couple takes a pledge to promote education and equality.
  • In 1868, she along with her husband set up a well in their backyard to allow people from the oppressed classes to drink water.
  • In 1897, following the Bubonic plague, Savitribai set up a clinic in Hadapsar to attend to the victims of the plague. 

 Literary works

  • She published two collections of poems - Kavya Phule(Poetry’s Blossoms) was published in 1854 and Bhavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (The Ocean of Pure Gems), in 1892.

Her most iconic poem is titled 'Go, Get Education' and was intended to encourage women to educate themselves as the best means of fighting inequality.

Ahmednagar of Maharashtra to renamed after Ahilyadevi Holkar

Context: Maharashtra Government is planning to rename Ahmednagar after Ahilyadevi Holkar (Maratha queen of Malwa).

Who was Ahilyadevi Holkar:

Ahilyadevi Holkar
  • She was born in Chaundi village (present-day Ahmednagar district) of Maharashtra. 
  • She belonged to the Holkar dynasty of Maratha which ruled from Indore. 
  • She made Maheshwar the home of the Holkar Dynasty (south-west of Indore in Madhya Pradesh).
  • She came to power after the passing of her husband Khande Rao Holkar and father-in-law Malhar Rao Holkar.
  • She is known to have built hundreds of temples and Dharmashalas across India. She is particularly well-known for restoring and rededicating some of the holiest Hindu pilgrimage sites that the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb had desecrated and destroyed a century earlier.
  • She rebuilt the Kashi Vishwanath temple which was destroyed by Aurangzeb to build Gyanvapi Mosque in Banaras.
  • The current structure of Vishnupad Temple, Gaya, Bihar was built by Maharani Ahilya Bai Holkar in 1787

About Holkars of Maratha Confederacy:

  • The Holkars were Subhedar under Peshwa Baji Rao I (Pune seat).
  • Due to internal feud, Holkar became independent and remained so till 1818. After this they were under the protectorate of the British Empire.
  • The dynasty was founded with Malhar Rao, who joined the service of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire in 1721, and quickly rose to the rank of Subedar. The name of the dynasty was associated with the title of the subhedar, who was known informally as Holkar. 
  • In the 1720s, he led Maratha armies in Malwa region, and in 1733 was granted 9 parghanas in the vicinity of Indore by the Peshwa. 
  • In 1747, he started the construction of his royal palace, the Rajwada. By the time of his death, he ruled much of Malwa, and was acknowledged as one of the five virtually independent rulers of the Maratha Confederacy.
  • He was succeeded by Ahilyabai Holkar (r. 1767–1795), his daughter-in-law. She was born in the Chaundi village in Maharashtra. She moved the capital to Maheshwar, south of Indore on the Narmada River. 
  • He was succeeded by Ahilyabai Holkar (r. 1767–1795), his daughter-in-law.

Buddhism as a tool of Soft Power

Context: Nepal, the birthplace of Siddhartha Shakya, known as the Buddha, holds immense historical and cultural significance for Buddhists worldwide. However, despite this rich heritage, Nepal's role in global Buddhist congregations has been limited. This article explores the growing influence of India and China, two emerging superpowers, in defining the future of Buddhism and their utilization of Buddhism as a tool of soft power.

Buddhism as a tool of Soft Power

India's Approach to Buddhism

  • India is the place where Buddha attained his Nirvana and also popularised Buddhism. Hence, many religious sites associated with Buddhism in India are sacred for Buddhist across the globe. 
  • India has long claimed Buddhism as an integral part of its cultural identity. The country sees Buddhism as a symbol of peace and tranquillity, especially during its tumultuous formation as a Republic, marked by religious divisions between Hinduism and Islam.
  • India has utilized Buddhist symbolism, such as the Ashoka Pillar and the wheel on the flag, to escape difficult times and promote harmony.
  • Also, India's recently hosted a two-day global Buddhist summit in New Delhi, organized by the Ministry of Culture in collaboration with the International Buddhist Confederation.  

China's Soft Power Strategy

  • China's growing political and economic power has led to a multifaceted approach to promote Chinese Buddhism as a tool of soft power.
  • With a vast Buddhist population and numerous monasteries and temples, China sees Buddhism as an important aspect of its cultural diplomacy.
  • China's focus on Nepal as a source of Buddhism, alongside its infrastructure investments in Buddhist countries, demonstrates the country's intent to harness Buddhism's power for national integration and as a soft power tool. 

Let us understand the significance of the Global Buddhist Summit

  • The summit, which took place in April, witnessed the participation of prominent figures from the global Buddhist community, including the Dalai Lama.
  • By organizing this high-profile event, India seized a valuable opportunity to project itself and connect with the Buddhist population worldwide, thereby bolstering its soft power.

Understanding Soft Power Diplomacy

  • Soft power diplomacy refers to the use of cultural, social, and economic means to influence other countries' attitudes and behaviours, without resorting to coercion or economic pressure. It aims to build relationships and shape international discourse through avenues such as cultural exchanges, educational programs, and public diplomacy campaigns.
  • India's Buddhist heritage plays a pivotal role in its soft power diplomacy strategy.

Significance of Buddhism for India's Foreign Relations

  • Historical and Cultural Ties: India's deep-rooted cultural and historical connections with Buddhism strengthen its soft power diplomacy with Buddhist countries like Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
  • Promoting Religious Harmony: As the birthplace of Buddhism, India can leverage its Buddhist heritage and teachings to engage with countries like China, which has a substantial Buddhist population, fostering dialogue and understanding between the two nations.
  • Economic Benefits: India's possession of seven out of the world's eight most significant Buddhist sites provides economic opportunities. The development of the Buddhist Circuit, a tourist trail connecting these sites, contributes to the nation's soft power diplomacy efforts.
  • Pan-Asian Presence: With 97% of the global Buddhist population residing in Asia, Buddhism holds intrinsic value for countries such as Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, and Sri Lanka, shaping their national values and identity.

India's Efforts in Buddhist Diplomacy

  • Focusing on promoting tourism through the development of the Buddhist tourist circuit. 
  • Prime Minister made it a priority to visit Buddhist sites during his Southeast and East Asian visits.
  • Alternative Approach to Global Politics:
  • The statement by Prime Minister, "India has not given 'Yuddha' to the world but 'Buddha'," reflects India's aspiration to provide an alternative to contentious global politics, with morality as a guiding principle.
  • The theme of the Delhi summit, "Responses to Contemporary Challenges: Philosophy to Praxis," aligns with this objective.

Challenges

  • China factor: 
  • China's attempt to control the appointment of the next Dalai Lama poses a challenge to India's soft power projection.
  • China's investment in the Gautam Buddha International Airport in Nepal, viewed by India as a Chinese project.
  • Geopolitical wrangling over Nepal's Buddhist sites risks turning them into mere attractions, devoid of their historical and spiritual essence.
  • India's promotion of Tibetan Buddhism and the exclusion of Nepal and other Buddhist nations from forums like the Global Buddhist Summit may serve geopolitical interests rather than a genuine commitment to Buddhism's essence. 

Way forward

  • India should continue promoting Buddhism at the highest levels of government and organize cultural events to showcase its rich Buddhist history.
  • Collaboration with the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) and strengthening ties with Buddhist institutions and leaders worldwide would be beneficial. 
  • Furthermore, leveraging Bollywood's reach to promote India's Buddhist heritage and utilizing cultural meetings during India's G-20 presidency can amplify Buddhist diplomacy on a global scale.
  • Increase investments, such as construction of the India International Centre for Buddhist Culture in Lumbini. 

Kheer Bhawani temple

Context: The Kheer Bhawani Mela witnessed an immense display of excitement and zeal as Kashmiri Pandits and locals of the Kashmir valley commemorated it. This revered event, which takes place on Jyeshtha Ashtami, holds significant spiritual importance in the region.

Kheer Bhawani temple

(Picture given above: oldest drawing of Kheer Bhawani Fair by William Carpenter Junior)

About Kheer Bhawani Mela

  • Every year on the auspicious day of Jyeshtha Ashtami, Kashmiri Pandits make a pilgrimage to the Mata Ragnya Devi Temple or the Kheer Bhawani Temple to express their reverence.
  • The deity Kheer Bhavani holds great significance and is deeply respected within the region.
  • This vibrant fair takes place near the Kheer Bhawani Spring, locally known as Syendh, distinct from the Sindhu (Indus) River.
  • Under the rule of Ranbir Singh (1830-1885), a temple was constructed on the island, featuring a revered goddess idol and a Shiva linga within a lofty chamber built inside the spring. This amalgamation of a Shiv Linga and a goddess idol is unique to this sacred Hindu site.
  • It stands as one of the largest Hindu gatherings in the region, second only to the Amarnath pilgrimage.
  • Throughout the years, the Kheer Bhawani Mela has evolved into a symbol of communal harmony and fraternity in Kashmir. 

Kheer Bhawani Temple

  • Location: North-eastern region of Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
  • Surrounding the goddess, there is a septa-gonal spring within the temple premises. This holy spring is known for its remarkable ability to change colours, displaying hues of red, pink, orange, green, blue, and white, although most of these colours do not hold any specific significance.
  • The current structure of the spring, temple pond, and temple itself was established during the 1910s under the rule of Maharaja Pratap Singh of Jammu and Kashmir, with further renovations carried out by Maharaja Hari Singh. The temple area is adorned with ancient chinar trees. 

History and associated legends 

  • References to Kheer Bhawani can be found in several ancient texts.
  • Kalhana's Rajtarangini: It mentions the sacred spring of Tula Mula, noting its location in a marshy area that was once engulfed by floods thousands of years ago, submerging both the spring and the temple.
  • The Bhrigu Samhita also makes a reference to Kheer Bhawani. 
  • Abu’l-Fazal's Ain-i-Akbari: It provides further information, describing the Tula Mula area as spanning a hundred bighas, which would sink into the marshy lands during the summer season. 

Shrine of Saint Sheikh Ahmed Karim

Saint Sheikh Ahmed Karim (Peer Ki Gali)

  • Located on the Mughal Road in the Poonch district of Jammu and Kashmir, this historic location holds significance in connection with a revered religious figure known as Alamdaar-e-Kashmir, Sheikh Noor-u-Din Noorani (RA) (1378 to 1441).
  • According to written accounts, the sacred site acquired its name due to the presence of Sheikh Ahmed Karim, a Hindu saint who converted to Islam. 
  • It is important to note that the site is not a Mazar or the grave of a saint, but rather a place where Sheikh Ahmed Karim used to meditate. His actual grave is situated north of the grave of Bahuddin Ganj Bakash in Kashmir.
Sufism

Historical reference

  • Francoise Barnier, in the year 1665, visited this location as part of the caravan accompanying the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. 
  • In his writings, Barnier states, "The saint had been residing here since the time of Mughal emperor Jahangir." Additionally, Barnier documented the 
  • visits of both Aurangzeb and Shahjahan to this place.
  • Aliabad Sarai is another historical site situated near the Shrine:
    • According to historical records, it is indicated that the Sarai at this location was initially constructed by the Mughal emperor Akbar.
    • He commissioned its construction to provide lodging and amenities for travellers journeying along this route. 
    • Later, the Sarai was restored by emperor Shahjahan, who named it after his loyal governor, Ali Mardan Khan. As a result, the Sarai became widely recognized as Aliabad Sarai.

Concept of Peer and Murid in Sufism

  • Peer: A distinguished title bestowed upon a Sufi spiritual guide, also known as Sheikh. Within Sufism, the role of a Peer entails guiding and instructing disciples along the path of Sufism.
  • This guidance is often provided through general teachings, referred to as Suhbas, as well as individualized guidance. 
  • Murid: The journey of Sufism commences when a student takes a solemn oath of allegiance, known as Baiat or Bayaah, where they pledge their loyalty and repent for past transgressions before their Pir (spiritual guide). 

Sufism Movement and its features

  • During the medieval period, Sufism arose as a departure from the established and rigid religious doctrines of the time, emphasizing the importance of religious experiences and direct perception of God rather than strict adherence to formal practices alone. 
  • While Sufis acknowledged the significance of the Shariat (Islamic law), they placed great emphasis on cultivating personal religious experiences. 
  • Sufism has been influenced by a variety of sources including Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, as well as the Indian philosophical systems of Vedanta and Yoga.

Sufi path: 

  • The primary emphasis was on embarking upon the Sufi path as a means to establish direct communion with the divine reality.
  • The path could only be undertaken under the strict guidance of a spiritual mentor known as a ‘pir’.
  • The disciple, referred to as a ‘murid’, advanced through these stages and states by engaging in spiritual exercises such as self-discipline and the recollection of God's name.
  • Sama: One distinctive practice of the Sufis was the musical recital, which aimed to induce a mystical state of ecstasy. This practice faced opposition from the religious scholars (ulema). 

Silsilahs: 

  • The Sufis organized themselves into different orders known as Silsilahs. For example: Suhrawardi, Qadiri, and Chishti. 
  • The activities of a Sufi order revolved around a hospice or khanqah, where the pir provided spiritual training to the disciples.
  • These khanqahs were sustained through endowments and charitable contributions.

Advent of the Sufis to India

  • Before Delhi Sultanate: 
  • Even before the Delhi Sultanate was established, early Sufi saints had already arrived in India. The subsequent development of Sufism in India was primarily shaped by the Indian environment rather than non-Indian forms of Sufism. 
  • Among the notable early Sufi saints who settled in India was Al Hujwiri, also known as Data Ganj Baksh, who arrived in India around 1088 AD. He authored the renowned Sufi manual titled ‘Kashf-ul-Mahjub.’

During Delhi Sultanate: 

  • With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, various Sufi orders found a new home in India, attracting Sufis who had fled from other parts of the Islamic world as refugees. 
  • By the mid-14th century, the influence of Sufi activities had spread throughout most parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Organisation of Sufis in India

The Sufis in India organized themselves into various orders. According to Abul Fazal, there were fourteen Sufi orders that arrived in India, but only two of them, namely the Chishti and Suhravardi silsilahs, established strong roots in the country. 

Chishti Silsilah

  • The Chishti silsilah originated in Ajmer and gradually spread to other regions such as Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, and the Deccan.
  • Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, introduced the Chishti order in India. He arrived in India during the Ghori conquest in 1190, and settled in Ajmer around 1206.
  • His simple, devout, and dedicated life had a profound impact on those who encountered him, earning respect from both Muslims and non-Muslims. 
  • He was known for his tolerant attitude towards non-Muslims and was not actively involved in conversion efforts. Following his passing, his tomb in Ajmer became a renowned pilgrimage site.
  • The early Chishtis incorporated certain ethical values from the nathpanthi yogis and their communal way of life.

Suhravardi Silsilah

  • Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya, introduced Suhravardi silsilah in India (1182-1262). He aligned himself with Iltutmish during the conquest of Multan against Qubacha and received state patronage from the Delhi Sultanate. 
  • ltutmish bestowed upon him the title of Shaikh-ul Islam (Leader of Islam) and granted him an endowment. 
  • The Suhravardi order-maintained connections with the ruling establishment and actively participated in political activities.
  • The Suhravardi silsilah was primarily concentrated in Sindh, Multan, Punjab and Bengal. 
  • Unlike the Chistis, the Suhravardis did not advocate a life of poverty, extreme austerity, and self-mortification. In fact, they actively engaged with the government and willingly accepted official positions. 
  • The Suhravardi silsilah was primarily associated with the upper echelons of Muslim society. Certain saints of the Suhravardi silsilah held rigid and uncompromising views on various religious and social matters.