Context: Maharashtra is set to create India’s first underwater museum and artificial coral reef by scuttling the decommissioned naval warship INS Guldar near Nivati Rocks, Vengurla, in Sindhudurg district.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About India’s First Underwater Museum; Artificial Coral Reef; INS Guldar.
India’s first Underwater Museum and Artificial Coral Reef
India’s first underwater museum and artificial coral reef will be developed around the decommissioned warship INS Guldar in Maharashtra.
Aim: To boost marine conservation and tourism, offering scuba diving and future submarine tours.
The underwater museum cum-artificial reef is estimated to cost Rs 78 crore. The initiative is supported by the central government. Centre will bear nearly 60% of the total cost and the state government the rest.
INS Guldar
INS Guldar, an 83 metre long Kumbhir Class landing ship, was built in Poland and commissioned into the Indian Navy in 1985. It was decommissioned in 2024.
It was designed for amphibious warfare and capable of beach landings. It was once part of India’s peace keeping mission in Srilanka combating attacks from the Liberation of Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)
It has been officially handed over by the central government to the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation for conversion into a submerged museum.
Scuttling of INS Guldar:
Scuttling is the deliberate sinking (controlled sinking) of a ship to dispose of an old vessel, create an artificial reef, or prevent it from falling into enemy hands. The process of scuttling follows the Archimedes principle.
Archimedes principle: The buoyant force keeping an object afloat is equal to the weight of the water the object displaces.
Context: India has mandated E20 petrol (20% ethanol, 80% petrol) and aims for E27 in the future, achieving the E20 milestone five years ahead of the original 2030 target.
However, concerns are emerging over mileage loss, engine damage, and lack of consumer choice, especially for vehicles manufactured before 2023.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: About E20, Flex fuel vehicles.
Mains: E20 Fuel in India: Challenges, Concerns & Lessons from Brazil
Ethanol Blending
Ethanol Blending refers to the process of mixing ethanol, a biofuel derived from plant-based sources, with petrol to create a more sustainable and cleaner fuel.
Ethanol is often produced from renewable sources such as corn, sugarcane, or other biomass.
India's Ethanol Blending Programme
The Government of India launched the Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme in 2003 to promote ethanol use in transportation fuel.
2003: EBP launched in 9 States & 4 UTs with 5% ethanol blend (E5).
2013: National Policy on Biofuels notified.
2018: National Policy on Biofuels revised — target of 20% blending by 2030.
2021: The target of 20% blending advanced to 2025-26.
2023: E20 fuel introduced in select cities.
2025-26: Pan-India rollout of E20 planned.
Objectives:
Reduce Crude Oil Import Bill: India imports >85% of crude oil needs. Blending ethanol with petrol helps reduce dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels.
Enhance Energy Security: Diversify fuel sources.
Lower Carbon Emissions: Ethanol contains oxygen which can improve the combustion of fuel. This aids the complete burning of fuel and lowers emissions of certain pollutants like Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Waste Utilisation: Use damaged grains, surplus rice and stubble will reduce waste.
Boost Farmer Income: Assured procurement of surplus crops and farm residue will boost farmers' income.
What is E20 Fuel?
E20 is a fuel blend that comprises 20% ethanol produced from plant products such as sugarcane, rice, and maize, and 80 % gasoline.
Challenges and Concerns with E20 in India:
Engine Compatibility Issues:
The majority of vehicles manufactured before 2023 are designed for E10 fuel only.
Ethanol’s higher water content can corrode metals and damage non-ethanol-rated rubber seals, valves, and pistons.
Cold-start problems in winter due to ethanol’s higher ignition temperature.
Performance and Mileage Loss: Ethanol has a lower energy density (around 33% lower calorific value) than petrol and may cause a marginal decrease in mileage (fuel economy).
Lack of Consumer Choice: Petrol pumps rarely disclose the blending percentage. No option for customers to buy pure petrol or lower blends like E10.
No Price Incentive: Unlike Brazil, where ethanol is 25-35% cheaper, E20 in India is priced at parity with petrol, reducing consumer motivation.
Warranty and Liability Risks: Car manuals of popular models (Hyundai i20, Mahindra Thar, etc.) explicitly warn against using >10% ethanol; damage may void warranties.
Rapid Policy Transition: Moving from E10 to E20 in a short time frame has created adjustment challenges for both manufacturers and consumers.
Infrastructure and Awareness Gaps: Limited roll-out of flex-fuel compatible vehicles and inadequate readiness of service and repair networks to address ethanol-related issues.
Feedstock and Environmental Concerns: High dependence on water-intensive crops like sugarcane for ethanol production may exacerbate water scarcity and raise food-versus-fuel debates.
Case Study: Brazil’s Ethanol Blending Success
Brazil is a global leader in ethanol fuel adoption, offering a valuable model for India’s E20 programme. It launched its Ethanol blending scheme (EBS) in 1975 in response to the global oil crisis.
The scheme leveraged Brazil’s abundant sugarcane resources to create a sustainable alternative to petroleum fuels. Key points of Brazil’s EBS:
Phased Rollout: Gradual progression from E10 to E27, alongside introduction of E100 (pure ethanol), avoiding sudden stress on existing vehicle stock.
Flex-Fuel Technology: Cars capable of running on any blend of petrol and ethanol; by the late 1980s 90% of new cars were ethanol-compatible.
Transparent Consumer Choice: Fuel pumps display ethanol content; consumers select blends based on price and preference.
Economic Incentives: Ethanol priced 25-35% lower than petrol at the pump.
Public Engagement: Strong awareness campaigns highlighting both environmental and performance benefits.
Way Forward
Phased Rollout: Introduce E15 as an intermediate step for older fleets before full E20 coverage.
Mandate Flex-Fuel Engines: All new vehicles should be compatible with higher ethanol blends.
Transparent Labelling: Display blending levels at every pump.
Introduce Price Incentives: Ensure ethanol blends are cheaper to encourage voluntary adoption.
Consumer Awareness Campaigns: Address myths, highlight benefits, and explain precautions.
Independent long-term studies on E20’s impact on older engines.
India’s ethanol push is a strategic step towards energy self-reliance and climate goals, but its success will depend on harmonising policy ambition with market readiness.
Context: India is home to 15 species of the cat family (Felidae). Smaller wild cats like the Fishing Cat remain lesser-known yet ecologically significant. The species faces growing threats from habitat loss and human-wildlife conflict, particularly due to the degradation of wetlands.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Fishing Cat.
Fishing Cat
Description: An elusive nocturnal cat, twice the size of the domestic cat. It weighs 7-12 kgs, and has a greyish brown fur lined with black spots.
Behaviour:
In its territory, this cat is often the apex predator meaning no other creature preys on it.
The diet is primarily fish; it also hunts on rodents, chickens, small animals.
Well adapted to water with webbed paws, a waterproof coat, ability to swim underwater, and claws that stay out to help grip mud and catch fish.
Habitat: Wetlands i.e., river floodplains, mangroves, marshes, swamps.
Distribution in India: Terai region, marshes of western India, Sundarbans, East coast, Chilika Lake (Odisha), Sri Lanka; rediscovered in Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan).
The fishing cat spends 50% of its hunting time standing, sitting or crouching near the edge of water. Barely 5% of hunting time is spent submerged in water.
Protection Status:
IUCN Red List: Vulnerable
CITES: Appendix II (trade regulated to avoid threats to survival)
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule I (the highest level of legal protection in India)
Fishing cat numbers are rapidly declining in the Sundarbans and were once thought extinct in Rajasthan until recent sightings in Keoladeo National Park.
Factors responsible for Decline:
Habitat loss: The decline is largely on account of habitat loss. It has been estimated that 30-40% of India’s wetlands have been lost or severely degraded in the last four decades. Protecting wetland ecosystems is therefore crucial for the fishing cat.
Human encroachment on wetlands and revenge killings of cats by humans.
Scientific Research & Monitoring:
Fishing Cat Project (Tiasa Adhya): Extensive surveys, community engagement.
Wildlife Institute of India’s Godavari Estuary Project: GPS collar tracking in Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh) to map habitat use and human interaction zones.
Community-Based Conservation: Awareness campaigns to reduce animosity and promote co-existence.
Context: A recent simulation study by Japanese researchers using an ocean circulation model has affirmed that Fukushima wastewater release is safe.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key idea about Nuclear contamination; Key facts about Tritium.
Japan releases wastewater from Fukushima Nuclear Plant
An earthquake followed by a tsunami in 2011 wrecked the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan, destroying its cooling system and causing reactor cores to overheat and contaminate water within the facility with highly radioactive material.
Since the disaster, power plant company TEPCO has been pumping in water to cool down the damaged reactors' fuel rods. Every day the plants produce contaminated water which is stored in around 1,000 tanks, which are already filled to 98% of their 1.37 million-ton capacity.
This water has been treated to remove most radioactive contaminants but still contains tritium (a radioactive isotope of hydrogen) and Carbon-14 which are difficult to separate from water.
In 2021, Japan’s government announced plans to release over one million tonnes of contaminated water from the Fukushima nuclear plant into the Pacific ocean over the next 30 years.
Rationale to release wastewater
There is a lack of available space for additional storage tanks, as well as due to safety risks and expense of managing the accumulating water.
Japan states that the water has been treated and diluted before releasing it into the ocean. The water contains about 190 becquerels of tritium per litre, below the World Health Organisation drinking water limit of 10,000 becquerels per litre (Bq/L). (Becquerel is a unit of radioactivity).
Associated Concerns:
The release has raised concerns among China and South Korea, as well as environmental and anti-nuclear groups regarding its potential impact on public health (increase the risk of cancer), seafood and marine environment.
Waste water released into the ocean off Fukushima will not be contained to waters surrounding Japan. It will be carried by ocean currents, particularly the cross-Pacific Kuroshio current, to other parts of the world.
Marine animals that migrate great distances, phytoplankton (free-floating organisms) and microplastics can all act as Trojan horses to spread radionucleotides far away.
Findings of the latest Research by Japanese Researchers:
Low radiation levels: As the nuclear facility is releasing tritiated water gradually, the Tritium levels (radiation level) is even lower than that due to natural and historical sources. The peaks from the routine discharge never exceed 0.002 Bq/L, which is 25x (25 times) lower than natural background radiation levels.
Impact of Warming: Warmer oceans might shift the Kuroshio Current a little North and strengthen eastward flow, speeding up tritium dispersion in the mid-Pacific. However, Tritium concentrations will still remain three orders of magnitude below detection threshold.
Since, Tritium has a half life of around 12 years, natural decay reduces long-term risk. Even under extreme warming or a worst-case eddy transport scenario, the levels of the Tritium would remain undetectable across the wider Pacific Ocean by 2099.
About Tritium:
Tritium is a radioactive isotope of Hydrogen with a half-life of about 12 years. Hydrogen has three isotopes:
Protium- one proton and zero neutron
Deuterium - one proton and one neutron
Tritium - one proton and two neutrons
Occurrence: Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare on Earth. The atmosphere has only trace amounts, formed by the interaction of Nitrogen with cosmic rays. It can be produced artificially as a low-abundance byproduct in nuclear reactors.
Uses:
Energy source in radioluminescent lights for watches, gun sights, numerous instruments and tools.
Radioactive tracer in a medical and scientific setting.
Nuclear fusion fuel, along with more abundant deuterium, in tokamak reactors and hydrogen bombs.
Concerns: Tritium is easily absorbed by the bodies of living creatures and rapidly distributed via blood.
Context: India’s crop protection chemical industry is undergoing a significant transformation, marked by the rapid growth of the herbicide segment.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Crop protection chemicals (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides), Agricultural labour trends.
Crop Protection Chemicals
Crop protection chemicals, commonly known as pesticides are substances used to protect crops from:
Insects (insecticides) E.g., White-backed plant hopper in paddy.
Fungal diseases (fungicides) E.g., Blast and sheath blight in rice.
Weeds (herbicides) Unwanted plants that compete with crops for resources.
These chemicals ensure improved crop health, higher productivity, and reduced input losses.
Current Market Snapshot
Total Organised Market Size : ₹24,500 crore (approx.)
Segment-wise Breakdown :
Insecticides ₹10,700 crore
Herbicides ₹8,200 crore
Fungicides ₹5,600 crore
Herbicides are the fastest-growing segment, with over 10% annual growth, driven by labour shortages and evolving agricultural practices.
The market is heavily dominated by multinational corporations, with limited domestic presence: Bayer (15%, Germany), Syngenta and ADAMA, both owned by China’s Sinochem, Corteva (USA) etc.
However, the herbicide segment has Indian players too, such as Dhanuka Agritech (estimated 6% share) and Crystal Crop Protection Ltd.
Why is the usage of Herbicides booming?
Labour Shortage and Rising Wages:
Manual weeding is time-intensive (8-10 hours/acre).
Labour costs have risen from ₹326.2 (2019) to ₹447.6 (2024).
Availability of rural labour for strenuous manual work is declining.
Limitations of Mechanical Weeders: Power weeders are not effective in densely planted or deep-rooted weed areas.
Herbicides as Labour-saving Technology: Like tractors and harvesters, herbicides are seen as substitutes for manual labour.
Cost Comparison: Manual weeding (₹2,000+ per acre) is comparatively more expensive than using chemical herbicide (E.g., Sikosa): ₹850-900 per acre.
Changing Patterns in Herbicide Usage
Traditional Practice: Post-emergent application – applied after weeds appear.
New Trend: Pre-emergent herbicides - Prevent weeds from sprouting.
Early post-emergent: Target weeds at early crop growth stage.
Pre-emergent herbicides account for ₹550 crore in ₹1,500 crore paddy herbicide market and 20% of ₹1,000 crore wheat herbicide market
This preventive approach marks a shift from reactive farming to strategic input use.
Challenges & Concerns:
Multinational Monopoly: Unlike seeds and fertilisers (where Indian public/private players exist), the pesticide industry remains largely foreign-dominated. Sinochem Holdings Corporation (China) owns Syngenta & ADAMA; India lacks a comparable domestic giant.
Dependence on Imports: Heavy reliance on imported active ingredients and technologies. Need to strengthen indigenous R&D in crop chemistry.
Ecological Risks: Misuse of herbicides can harm non-target species, contaminate soil and water.Growing concerns about Paraquat toxicity and herbicide-resistant weeds.
Way Forward
Encourage indigenous innovation in agri-chemicals.
Incentivise public-private partnerships for research in biopesticides and sustainable crop protection.
Promote judicious use of herbicides with farmer education and regulation.
India’s pesticide market is shifting towards herbicides due to labour shortages and cost efficiency. While MNCs dominate, Indian firms are gaining ground through innovation. Strengthening local R&D and ensuring environmental safety are key to sustainable growth.
Context: The Central Government has unveiled the National Cooperative Policy 2025. The government has urged States to announce their own cooperative policies by January 31, 2026, in alignment with the National Cooperative Policy.
Relevance of the Topic:Mains: National Cooperative Policy 2025; Cooperatives: Benefits and Challenges.
What are Cooperatives?
A cooperative is avoluntary association of individuals with common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations, who come together to pool resources for mutual benefit. It functions on democratic principles and emphasises collective ownership, shared profits, and participatory decision-making.
The97th Constitutional Amendment (2011) gave constitutional recognition to cooperatives, adding Part IXB to the Constitution and inserting the term "Cooperatives" in Article 19(1)(c).
Types of Cooperatives: Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS); Dairy cooperatives, Fisheries cooperatives, Urban Cooperative Banks, etc.
There are over 8.6 lakh registered cooperative societies in India covering 30 crore members, covering 99% of villages and 71% of rural households.
Benefits of Cooperatives:
Economic Inclusion: Help small farmers, artisans, and rural entrepreneurs access markets and finance.
Job Creation and Democratic Empowerment: Ensure grassroots participation in economic activities. With over 30 crore members, cooperatives remain a key socio-economic driver, especially in rural India.
Rural Development: Cooperatives enable rural credit, dairy, storage, and agro-processing.
Challenges (As per Shivaji Rao Patil Committee):
Lack of participatory character: Free rider problem where inactive members benefit without contribution. Dominated by elite members and politicians.
Restricted Coverage and Role:
Equity infusion by the government enables the government to appoint board of directors leading to poor autonomy.
State Cooperative Acts allow postponing elections and superseding boards.
Regional Skew: Cooperatives are successful only in a few states like Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra. Limited to single-purpose societies like PACs, reducing viability.
Governance related issues: Poor regulation by Registrar of Cooperative Societies. Prevalence of Financial fraud, corruption etc.
Lack of adequate capital as cooperatives cannot raise money from capital markets. Poor use of technology and lack of professional management.
Government Initiatives for Cooperative Sector:
Creation of Ministry of Cooperation (2021) to streamline cooperative growth, policymaking, and digitisation.
Computerisation of PACs.
Income tax relief: Reduction in MAT from 18% to 15% in Union Budget 2023-24.
National Cooperative Database launched to create a real-time, unified registry of all cooperative societies.
Banking Regulation (Amendment) Act, 2020 to strengthen regulation of urban cooperative banks.
Cooperatives as buyers on GeM portal (Government e-Marketplace).
National Cooperative Policy 2025:
Vision: To contribute to India’s collective ambition of becoming ‘Viksit' by 2047 through sustainable cooperative development.
Mission:
To create an enabling legal, economic, and institutional framework that will strengthen and deepen cooperative movement at grassroots level.
To facilitate transformation of cooperative enterprises into professionally managed, transparent, technology-enabled, vibrant, and responsive economic entities.
Need for a New Policy: The last cooperative policy was framed in 2002 which was outdated due to the radical shifts brought on by globalisation, digitisation, and socio-economic transformation.
Key Highlights of National Cooperative Policy 2025:
Legislative and Institutional Reforms
Encourage States to amend cooperative laws (Cooperative Societies Acts and Rules) to enhance transparency, autonomy and ease of doing business.
Promote digitalisation of registrar offices and real-time cooperative databases.
Revive sick cooperatives with institutional mechanisms.
Financial Empowerment
Preserve and promote the three-tier Primary Agriculture Credit Societies (PACS) - District Central Cooperative Bank - State Cooperative Bank credit structure.
Promote cooperative banks and umbrella organisations (like National Urban Cooperative Finance & Development Corporation).
Enable cooperative banks to handle government businesses.
Business Ecosystem Development:
Model cooperative villages with multipurpose PACS as growth engines.
Encouraging States/UTs to develop at least one model cooperative village.
Develop a national ‘Cooperative Stack’ integrating with Agri-stack and databases.
Promote Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) and Government e-marketplace (GeM) platform integration.
Encourage research and innovation through cooperative incubators and Centres of Excellence.
Inclusivity Measures:
Active participation of youth, women, SC/STs, and differently-abled in cooperatives.
Model bye-laws for gender representation and transparent governance.
Sectoral Diversification:
Promote cooperatives in new and emerging sectors such as:
Renewable energy,
Waste management,
Health and education,
Mobile-based aggregator services (E.g., for plumbers, taxi drivers),
Organic and natural farming,
Biogas and ethanol production, etc.
Implementation and Monitoring
A robust multi-tier implementation structure is proposed:
Implementation Cell within the Ministry of Cooperation with technical Project Management Unit support for effective and timely implementation of the policy.
The National Steering Committee on Cooperation Policy chaired by the Union Cooperation Minister will be constituted for overall guidance, inter-ministerial coordination, periodic policy review, etc.
Policy Implementation and Monitoring Committee headed by the Union Cooperation Secretary for coordination with States, troubleshooting implementation bottlenecks, periodic monitoring and evaluation, etc.
Context: India plans to launch its carbon market in 2026 aiming to reduce carbon emissions. Among the potential carbon removal technologies, Biochar has emerged as a promising option.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Biochar. Mains: Biochar: What, potential, benefits, challenges.
What is Biochar?
Biochar is a type of charcoal rich in carbon produced from pyrolysis of biomass (agricultural residue, municipal solid waste) under limited or no oxygen conditions. It offers a sustainable alternative to manage waste and capture carbon.
India generates over 600 million metric tonnes of agricultural residue and over 60 million tonnes of municipal solid waste every year. A significant portion of both is burnt openly or dumped in landfills, leading to air pollution from particulate matter and greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, and CO2.
Utility of Biochar
Waste management: By using 30% to 50% of surplus waste, India can produce 15-26 million tonnes of biochar and remove 0.1 gigatonnes of CO2-equivalent annually.
Byproducts of biochar production, such as syngas (20-30 million tonnes) and bio-oil (24-40 million tonnes), can generate additional electricity and fuels.
Utilising syngas could generate around 8-13 TWh of power, equivalent to 0.5-0.7% of India’s annual electricity generation, replacing 0.4-0.7 million tonnes of coal per year.
Bio-oil can potentially offset 12-19 million tonnes (or 8%) of diesel or kerosene production annually, leading to lower crude oil imports and reducing more than 2% of India’s total fossil-fuel-based emissions.
Carbon sink: Biochar can hold carbon in the soil for 100-1,000 years due to its strong and stable characteristics, making it an effective long-term carbon sink.
Agriculture:
Applying biochar can improve water retention, particularly in semi-dry and nutrient-depleted soils. This can abate nitrous oxide emissions by 30-50%.
Biochar can also enhance soil organic carbon helping restore degraded soils.
Industrial sector: In carbon capture applications, modified biochar can adsorb CO2 from industrial exhaust gases.
Construction sector:
Biochar can be explored as a low-carbon alternative to building materials.
Adding 2-5% of biochar to concrete can improve mechanical strength, increase heat resistance by 20%, and capture 115 kg of CO2 per cubic metre, making building materials a stable carbon sink.
Wastewater treatment: Biochar offers a low-cost and effective option to reduce pollution. India generates more than 70 billion litres of wastewater every day, of which 72% is left untreated. A kilogram of biochar along with other substances can treat 200-500 litres of wastewater, implying a biochar demand potential of 2.5-6.3 million tonnes.
What hinders Biochar’s Application?
Despite its theoretically substantial potential to capture carbon, biochar remains underrepresented in carbon credit systems due to:
Absence of standardised feedstock markets and consistent carbon accounting methods, which undermine investor confidence.
Barriers such as limited resources, evolving technologies, market uncertainties, and insufficient policy support.
Viable business models are yet to emerge for large-scale adoption. Market development is further constrained by:
limited awareness among stakeholders,
weak ‘monitoring, reporting, verification’ frameworks, and
lack of coordination across areas such as agriculture, energy, and climate policy.
Way Forward
To enable large-scale adoption :
Sustained support for R&D is essential to create region-specific feedstock standards and to optimize biomass utilisation rates based on agro-climatic zones and crop types.
Biochar should be systematically integrated into existing and upcoming frameworks, including crop residue management schemes, bioenergy initiatives in both urban and rural contexts, and state-level climate strategies under the State Action Plans on Climate Change.
Recognising biochar as a verifiable carbon removal pathway within the Indian carbon market will generate additional income for investors and farmers through carbon credits.
Deploying biochar production equipment at the village level has the potential to create approximately 5.2 lakh rural jobs, linking climate action with inclusive economic development.
The additional benefits of biochar, such as better soil health, lower fertilizer requirement (by 10-20%), and higher crop yield (by 10-25%), should be systematically integrated into policy and market frameworks to fully realise its potential.
Biochar, though not a silver bullet, offers a science-backed multisectoral pathway for India to achieve its climate and development goals.
Context: Recently, flash floods and mudslides struck Dharali village in Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Flash Floods and Cloudburst.Mains: Reasons behind flash floods in Uttarkashi.
While such disasters are frequent in the Himalayan region, this particular event was not caused by a cloudburst, but due to a dangerous combination of rugged topography, continuous rainfall, and geological fragility.
What are Flash Floods?
Flash floods are sudden surges in water levels in rivers or streams, often caused by intense rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or dam breaches.
Causes Behind the Flash Floods in Uttarkashi:
Rugged Himalayan Topography:
Uttarkashi lies at an altitude between 800-6900 metres, with steep slopes, deep gorges, and narrow valleys. These steep gradients accelerate the flow of rainwaterand landslide debris which make flash floods more intense and sudden.
The region's terrain causes rapid runoff, preventing water from percolating, and instead directing it forcefully into river systems.
Continuous Heavy Rainfall: Though not a cloudburst (which requires 100 mm/hour rainfall), Uttarkashi received persistent rainfall over several days, saturating the soil and weakening slopes. Saturated land is more prone to landslides and debris flow, which adds mass to flowing water, worsening the impact downstream.
Geological Vulnerability: The region consists of glacial moraines, unconsolidated sediments, and loose soil layers formed by past landslides. Even mild triggers like rainfall or tremors can cause massive slope failure, sweeping mud and rocks into river channels.
Accelerated Deglaciation due to Climate Change: Rising temperatures have led to increased melting of glaciers around Gangotri and Yamunotri. This meltwater, when combined with rainfall, increases the hydrological load, enhancing the chances of flash floods.
Lack of vegetation: Uttarkashi district is situated along the southern Himalayan slope, where there is limited vegetation and no significant obstruction. Mild triggers such as rainfall or earthquakes can cause loose moraine and soil to easily slither downhill, swallowing homes and roads along its path.
Why was it not a Cloudburst?
According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD): Rainfall of 100 mm or more in an hour over a roughly 10 km x 10 km area is classified as a cloudburst event.
On the day of the flash flood, Uttarkashi received only 2.7 mm, and stations reported well below cloudburst criteria.
Thus, this was a widespread rain-induced landslide and flash flood, not a localised extreme rainfall event.
The Uttarkashi flash floods are a classic example of how vulnerable Himalayan ecosystems are to even moderate but prolonged rainfall, especially when climate change and poor land-use practices compound the risk. This underlines the need for sustainable development, robust early warning systems, and disaster-resilient infrastructure in fragile hill regions.
Context: Necropolitics is a theory that examines how modern nation states determine whose lives are disposable and may be sacrificed in the name of security, threat, or political control.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About the idea of Necropolitics. Mains: Essay: Necropolitics: What, How Necropolitics Operates?
What is Necropolitics?
Necropolitics refers to the power of the state (or other authorities) to decide who may live and who must die. It goes beyond physical killing as it includes slow neglect, abandonment, and structural violence where certain people are denied care, dignity, or justice.
E.g., Bengal Famine of 1943 - Millions died not due to a lack of food, but because British colonial policies prioritised imperial interests over Indian lives.
The idea of Necropolitics was coined by Cameroonian historian Achille Mbembe in a 2003 essay and later expanded in his book Necropolitics (2019). The concept of Necropolitics builds on Michel Foucault’s Notion of Biopolitics.
How Necropolitics Operates?
Necropolitics is not always about open violence. It works through invisible systems and everyday decisions. Mbembe identifies key features of necropolitical systems:
State terror and suppression: Even in democracies, dissent is crushed using surveillance, arrests, or killings.
Collaboration with non-state actors: Governments often work with militias or gangs, blurring lines between legal and illegal violence.
Enemy creation as governance: Politics often revolves around inventing an enemy- a community to blame, exclude, or control.
War and terror as economies: Violence fuels industries- arms, surveillance, and security become profitable.
Displacement of communities: Large-scale resource projects or conflict zones often force poor people out of their homes.
Varied forms of death: Torture, drone strikes, hunger, lack of healthcare, all can be tools of political death.
Moral justifications: Ideologies like nationalism, religion, or security are used to justify abandonment or violence.
‘Living Dead’ and ‘Death Worlds’
Mbembe introduces the idea of the "living dead", people who are alive biologically but have been stripped of all social, legal, and political recognition.
These people may not be killed directly, but live in conditions so degrading and unstable, it is like dying slowly every day.
For Example: During India’s COVID-19 lockdown, migrant workers were left without food, shelter, or transport. Many died walking back to their villages, not from the virus, but from state neglect.
Mbembe calls such spaces “death worlds”, zones where people live outside the protection of law, care, or justice.
The State of Exception:
Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben describes the "state of exception", a situation where governments suspend laws and rights in the name of protecting them.
Mbembe extends this idea: For some communities (like refugees, slum dwellers, minorities), this exception is not temporary, it is permanent. In these zones, people are governed by logistics, not justice.
Necropolitics in Everyday Life:
Necropolitics is not confined to war zones. It thrives in the slow violence of poverty, caste, racism, and displacement. It exists all around us, through silence, neglect, and “routine” policy decisions.
Examples:
Sterilisation of Dalit and Adivasi women: bodies controlled without consent.
Police profiling of Muslims or Dalits: targeted surveillance.
Neglect of refugees, slum dwellers, and tribal areas: systemic denial of basic rights.
It also exists in silence, in the world including states and global institutions, looking away as thousands of civilians, including women and children, are killed in places like Gaza, while the rest of us carry on with our daily lives.
In a necropolitical world, the aim must not just be survival. It must be the right to a dignified life- a life that is: Valued, Protected, Mourned if lost.
Way Forward
Challenge Necropolitics by:
Resisting narratives that normalise suffering.
Questioning systems that abandon the most vulnerable.
Demanding policies that protect all lives equally.
Recognising necropolitics around us is the first step towards building a state that protects, not abandons, a nation where every life counts.
Context: During the recent official visit of the Philippines President to India, both nations have elevated their bilateral relationship to Strategic Partnership. The move aims at renewed commitments in trade, defence and maritime cooperation, and digital collaboration.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-Philippines Bilateral ties.
India and the Philippines established diplomatic ties in 1949. Over 75 years, the relationship has grown steadily. In recent years, amid the rising assertiveness of China in the South China Sea, shared democratic values and strategic interests have brought the two nations closer.
Indonesia: Comprehensive Strategic Partner Trade, energy, security.
Singapore: Strategic Partner in finance, defence training.
Philippines: Strategic Partner (2025) in Defence, PTA, maritime.
Trade and Economic Cooperation
Bilateral trade between the countries has crossed over $3 billion annually and is on a rising trajectory.
Decision to start negotiations on a Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) to enhance bilateral trade further.
Both sides committed to expediting the review of the India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement (FTA) to further strengthen regional trade linkages.
This is especially relevant as reciprocal tariffs imposed by the U.S. have impacted India and ASEAN exports, making regional trade cooperation more important.
Defence Cooperation
India’s indigenous defence industry is emerging as a key partner to Philippines’ ongoing military modernisation and regional maritime concerns.
The Philippines has acquired BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles from India in 2022.
The Philippines has expressed interest in other Indian systems like the Akash missile and air defence systems.
Agreement to conduct service-to-service talks for enhanced joint training and information exchange between their armed forces.
Maritime & Indo-Pacific Security:
Both leaders reaffirmed support for freedom of navigation and a rules-based order in the Indo-Pacific region.
The Philippines is seen as an important partner in India’s Act East Policy and MAHASAGAR vision.
Indian naval ships, including a hydrography ship, participated for the first time in a naval exercise in the Philippines during the visit.
The Philippines condemned the Pahalgam terror attack, expressing solidarity with India.
Digital and Scientific Collaboration:
India to support a pilot project to help the Philippines build its Sovereign Data Cloud infrastructure.
Ongoing joint research between the two countries in areas such as virology, AI, and additive manufacturing.
People-to-People & Connectivity Initiatives
Direct flights between India and the Philippines to begin in 2025.
India to offer free e-tourist visas to Filipino nationals for one year starting August 2025.
Strategic Importance of Elevated Partnership:
The partnership comes at a time when both countries are navigating economic challenges due to external trade disruptions and facing shared security concerns in the Indo-Pacific.
Strategic Indo-Pacific Engagement: Strengthens India’s Act East Policy by partnering with a key Southeast Asian nation amid growing tensions in the South China Sea.
Defence Diplomacy and Export Boost: Expands India's role as a defence exporter, with BrahMos as a flagship project, and supports the Philippines' military modernisation through indigenous Indian systems.
Economic Diversification through PTA: Launch of Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) negotiations and ASEAN FTA review offers India a route to reduce dependence on traditional markets amid US tariff pressures.
Technological and Digital Collaboration: Positions India as a reliable digital partner through initiatives like the Sovereign Data Cloud and joint research in AI, virology, and additive manufacturing.
Maritime Security Collaboration: Enhances joint naval operations, coast guard interoperability, and supports freedom of navigation based on international law.
The elevation of ties to a Strategic Partnership marks a major milestone in India-Philippines relations. The particular focus is to deepen defence and maritime cooperation, as both countries seek to navigate their security concerns due to China’s increasing assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific region.
“From the Indian Ocean to the Pacific, we are united by shared values. Ours is not just a friendship of the past; it is a promise to the future.” - PM Narendra Modi
Context: The state government of Maharashtra has recently launched India’s first AI-powered Anganwadi in Waddhamna village, Nagpur district, Maharashtra.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Can be used as an argument/ example to show positive developments in the Early Childhood Education & Health landscape in India.
India’s First AI-Powered Anganwadi Centre
The initiative aims to bridge the digital dividefor rural children as well as attract more children. It ensures that children from remote areas could learn in a modern, engaging environment.
The Anganwadi centre uses VR headsets from Meta, AI-enabled interactive smart boards, tablets, and other digital content to learn poems, songs, and fundamental concepts. The children can now draw on the interactive smart board, learn about animals via VR sets, and save their artwork digitally.
The AI system monitors each child’s progress with gamified learning tools, adjusting difficulty levels based on response times to ensure individual development.
The Anganwadi workers have been trained in smart learning methods. They will also be trained in generative AI tools to create new content such as text, images, and music.
Plans are underway to expand the project to more anganwadis in the state, closely track physical and cognitive developments, and use AI tools to evaluate nutrition as well.
About Anganwadi Services
Anganwadi means ‘courtyard shelter’, a type of rural child care centre in India. The Anganwadi Services Scheme (ACS) was started in 1975 as part of the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) program to combat child hunger and malnutrition.
ACS was restructured as Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0, a centrally sponsored scheme under the Ministry of women and child development.
The Integrated Nutrition Support Programme provides early childhood care and development of the beneficiaries i.e., children in the age group of 0-6 years, address malnutrition in children, adolescent girls, pregnant women and lactating mothers through a large network of Anganwadi workers and Helpers.
Anganwadi workers and Helpers are the basic functionaries of the ICDS, who run the Anganwadi Centres, and implement the ICDS scheme.
Anganwadi Centres: Provide a platform for rendering all services under the scheme.
A single Anganwadi worker, chosen from the community, manages one village or area. These workers undergo training in various areas such as health, nutrition, and childcare.
Context: August 5, 2025 marks the sixth anniversary of the abrogation of Article 370 in 2019, which revoked the special status of Jammu & Kashmir, and led to the effective repeal of Article 35A of the Indian Constitution.
As J&K completes six years as a Union Territory, there have been both positive and negative developments after the abrogation of Article 370.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Article 370; Article 35A. Mains: J&K after Article 370 abrogation: Key developments; Challenges.
On August 5, 2019, the government revoked Article 370 through a Presidential order and reorganised the state. J&K was split into two Union Territories (UTs): J&K (with legislature) and Ladakh (without legislature), effective from October 31, 2019.
What was Article 370?
Enacted in 1952, Article 370 granted erstwhile state J&K a unique degree of autonomy. The provision:
Allowed the state to operate with its own constitution and flag
The state retained the authority to make laws on all matters, except defence, foreign affairs, communications, and finance.
Article 370 was placed under Part XXI of the Constitution, which deals with temporary and special provisions. It also allowed the state’s Constituent Assembly to decide how much of the Indian Constitution would apply. Notably, it included a clause permitting the Assembly to recommend the article’s own repeal.
In practice, Indian laws could not be applied to J&K without the consent of its state government. Indian Parliament’slegislative reach was therefore significantly limited, requiring state concurrence for most matters.
What was Article 35A?
Article 35A, added to the Constitution in 1954, gave special rights and privileges to the permanent residents of Jammu and Kashmir.
Its roots lay in the 1952 Delhi Agreement between then-Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Jammu and Kashmir’s leader Sheikh Abdullah.
It empowered the Jammu and Kashmir state legislature to decide who qualified as a 'permanent resident' of the state. A permanent resident was someone who was a state subject as of May 14, 1954, or had lived in the state for at least 10 years and lawfully acquired property. These exclusive rights included:
It allowed the state to grant special rights to permanent residents in areas like land ownership, government jobs, and education scholarships.
It barred non-residents from permanently settling, buying property, or accessing state benefits.
It had a discriminatory clause against women: if a female resident married someone from outside the state, she could lose her property rights, and the same applied to her children.
The laws made under Article 35A were shielded from judicial scrutiny. No act of the state legislature coming under the ambit of Article 35A can be challenged for violating the Indian Constitution or any other law of the land.
What has changed in J&K after Article 370 Abrogation?
Positive Developments:
Successful elections and participation of voters: For the first time in decades, UT J&K recorded an impressive over 63% voter turnout in the Assembly elections. Additionally, the 2024 Lok Sabha elections witnessed the highest voter participation in the region in the last 35 years.
Major dip in violence and stone pelting: The incidents of stone pelting have completely stopped in the UT (As per the Union Home Ministry data). E.g., In 2023, not a single case of stone pelting or strike was recorded, a significant decline compared to 2010 (over 2600 incidents of stone pelting and 132 strikes).
Infrastructural development and investment: Successful completion of several infrastructural projects.
Inauguration of Rs 42,500 crore Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link. It features the world’s highest rail bridge over the Chenab River. This bridge connects the Jammu region with Kashmir valley, and is crucial for regional integration, economic growth and defence mobility.
Projects worth over Rs 76000 crore are currently in the pipeline in the UT. Centre approved 19 road and tunnel projects worth over Rs 10,000 crores in June 2025.
Tourism boost: Post Article 370 abrogation, the UT has witnessed a major boost to tourism and local economy. E.g., Over 21.1 million people visited the UT in 2023. However, the recent Pahalgam attack has caused a brief hiatus.
Pertaining Issues:
Security Concerns and Terrorism in J&K:
Selective killings: Targeting tourists, non-local employees & entrepreneurs (those being issued domicile certificates) for derailing measures to promote industrial development and tourism. E.g., Recent targeted attacks in Pahalgam.
Improvised weapons: Reliance on IEDs to avoid confrontation with security forces, using sticky bombs (detonated from distance) & simulated training conditions.
New modes of weapon delivery: Air-dropping of bombs using UAVs by Pakistan-backed terror outfits.
Economic Slowdown of J&K’s economy as a centrally administered unit:
Decline in GSDP: The growth in Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) has declined both in nominal and in real terms. As a result, the contribution of J&K to the national GDP has declined to 0.77%.
Slowdown in income growthand high unemployment: In 2025, in the 15-29 age bracket, the unemployment rate of UT J&K is more than 30%, which is almost double the national average.
Poor Fiscal Health:
Decline in fixed and invested capital, accompanied by a sharp rise in borrowings. Despite better revenue mobilisation, J&K’s fiscal health has deteriorated significantly with higher debt and deficits compared to pre-2019.
Internal debt has almost doubled in just five years. Total outstanding liabilities of the UT are now almost 60% of the GSDP.
Fiscal deficit is around 6%, way above the stipulated FRBM limits.
The economy is heavily reliant on central grants (up to 70% of expenditure), and core sectors like agriculture and industry contribute far less than services.
The road ahead lies in the restoration of J&K’s statehood to usher in participatory democracy in J&K, confer more political, administrative and economic powers to the state government and will uphold federal principles.
