Current Affairs

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Jellyfish: Spineless Foe of Nuclear Power Plants 

Context: Recently, France’s Gravelines Nuclear Power Station (Europe’s largest) had to shut down four reactors after a massive swarm of jellyfish clogged its cooling system.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: How do Jellyfish disrupt Nuclear Plants; Jellyfish. 

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Similar incidents have been reported globally since the 1990s. In 2011 alone, jellyfish paralysed plants in Israel, Japan, and Scotland. Such incidents are now on the rise as climate change and marine pollution have increased the jellyfish population.

How do Jellyfish disrupt Nuclear Plants?

  • Nuclear power plants require a continuous inflow of millions of gallons of water per minute to cool their reactors, turbines, and boilers.
  • To ensure smooth functioning, the water intake pipes of these plants are fitted with screens that block solid waste and aquatic organisms from entering.
  • The problem arises when a massive bloom of jellyfish (millions of individuals) is sucked into the intake system. Within minutes, these jellyfish clog the intake screens, cutting off the essential flow of cooling water.
  • A sudden disruption in water flow creates a risk of overheating and potential reactor damage, forcing operators to shut down the reactors to avoid accidents.
  • The situation worsens when dead jellyfish decompose into a gel-like substance, which can sometimes bypass the screens and reach deeper parts of the plant’s cooling system.
  • Cleaning these clogged pipes is a time-consuming process that may take up to 48 hours, during which power generation remains suspended.

Why are such incidents rising?

  • Climate Change: Rising ocean temperatures have boosted plankton growth, the main food of jellyfish, and extended their breeding season leading to population surges.
  • Overfishing: Depletion of predators like tuna and turtles has removed natural checks on jellyfish, while reducing competition for plankton.
  • Plastic Pollution: Jellyfish tolerate low-oxygen waters caused by pollution. Floating plastic waste often serves as a breeding surface, enabling jellyfish to reproduce close to coastlines and near power plant intake systems.

About Jellyfish

  • Jellyfish are marine invertebrates. They are spineless, soft-bodied, and mostly transparent.
  • About 95-98% of their body consists of water.
  • Jellyfish have two main stages in life: the polyp (attached to surfaces) and the medusa (free-swimming).
  • They are tolerant to low-oxygen environments and polluted waters which allows them to thrive where other species decline.
  • Some jellyfish can glow in the dark due to bioluminescence.
  • Some species are edible and used in Asian cuisine.
  • Their numbers increase rapidly during “blooms”, often triggered by warm waters (climate change), abundant plankton, or low predation (due to overfishing) and marine pollution.

Ecological role: 

  • They feed on plankton, small fish, and other microscopic organisms.
  • Serve as food for sea turtles, some fish, and other predators.
  • Act as bioindicators of changes in marine ecosystems. 
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Brain-eating Amoeba

Context: Kerala has reported a spike in the fatal primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) cases, caused by Naegleria fowleri (a brain-eating Amoeba), along with a few fatalities since the beginning of the year. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Naegleria fowleri; Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis; Amoeba.

What is Naegleria fowleri?

  • Naegleria fowleri is a free-living amoeba or a single-celled living organism that causes a rare brain infection known as Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM).
  • It lives in warm fresh water and soil and infects people when it enters the body through the nose. It then travels up to the brain, where it causes swelling and destroys the brain tissue.
    • The amoeba can be found in warm freshwater, such as lakes and rivers, swimming pools, splash pads, surf parks, or other recreational venues that are poorly maintained or minimally chlorinated.
    • Higher temperatures of up to 115°F (46°C) are conducive to its growth and it can survive for short periods in warm environments. 
  • However, people cannot get infected with Naegleria fowleri from drinking water contaminated with the amoeba. PAM is also non-communicable. 
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Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PEM):

  • Symptoms: In the initial stage, the symptoms include headache, fever, nausea and vomiting. Later on, the patient may have a stiff neck and experience confusion, seizures, hallucinations and slip into a state of coma.
  • Fatality: Most people with PAM die within 1 to 18 days after symptoms begin. It usually leads to coma and death after 5 days.
  • Treatment: No effective treatment for the disease has been identified yet. At present, it is treated with a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.
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Facts about Amoeba: 

  • Amoebas are single-celled, eukaryotic organisms that belong to the kingdom Protista. They are found in a variety of aquatic and moist environments.
  • They have a simple, jelly-like body without a fixed shape. They move and feed by extending temporary projections called pseudopodia (false feet).
  • They reproduce asexually through binary fission where the cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
  • They are heterotrophic, meaning they obtain nutrients by engulfing and digesting organic matter, bacteria, and other microorganisms using their pseudopodia.
  • They have a simple internal structure, including a nucleus, vacuoles for osmoregulation, and various organelles for digestion and other cellular functions.
  • Some species of amoebas, such as Entamoeba histolytica, are parasitic and can cause diseases in humans, like amoebiasis.
  • Amoebas are important in aquatic food webs, serving as both predators and prey. They play a role in the cycling of nutrients in their ecosystems.

Election Commission Appointments: Independence under Question

Context: The Election Commission of India (ECI) plays a pivotal role in conducting free and fair elections, regarded as the bedrock of Indian democracy. Recent legal and legislative changes have brought the independence and impartiality of ECI under scrutiny.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Article 324; Election Commission of India.

Mains: Issues in appointment of Election Commissioners.

Appointment of Election Commissioners

  • Article 324 of the Constitution vests the superintendence, direction and control of elections to Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice-President in the Election Commission of India.
  • Article 324 does not provide a clear mechanism for appointing the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commissioners (ECs). As per Article 324(2), the appointment method is left subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament.
  • Traditionally, appointments are made by the Executive, raising concerns about bias and autonomy.

Landmark Case: Anoop Baranwal vs. Union of India (2023)

  • The Constitution Bench interpreted Article 324 of the Constitution, which provides for the appointment of Election Commissioners.
  • It held that exclusive executive control over appointments compromises the independence of the ECI.
  • To prevent a pliable ECI, the Court directed that appointments must be made by a Selection Committee comprising:
    • Prime Minister of India
    • Leader of Opposition
    • Chief Justice of India 

Parliament’s Reaction: The Chief Election Commissioner and Other ECs Act, 2023

  • The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners Act, 2023 was enacted to nullify the Baranwal verdict. 
  • The Act removed the CJI from the Selection Committee and added a Cabinet Minister nominated by the PM.
  • So, effectively the government dominates the Committee (2:1 majority: Prime Minister + Cabinet Minister vs Leader of Opposition).
  • Criticism: This ensures that the ECI is under the control of the ruling regime.

The Act was challenged in multiple writ petitions. Petitioners sought an interim stay before the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.

However in Dr. Jaya Thakur & Ors. v. Union of India (2024), Supreme Court refused to grant stay, citing the principle of “presumption of constitutionality” of laws.

Issues and Concerns: 

  • The exclusion of the judiciary from the appointment process raises concerns about the independence of the ECI.
  • Executive control over appointments increases the risk of biased or partisan decision-making.
  • Exclusion of the judiciary from the selection committee weakens the system of checks and balances.
  • Public trust in the electoral process may decline if the ECI is perceived as partisan. 

Global Comparison

  • Many modern constitutions have created independent “fourth branch institutions” (in addition to the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary which are autonomous and independent of the ruling dispensation) to safeguard democracy from executive dominance.
    • E.g., Constitution of South Africa envisages a cluster of state institutions for “supporting constitutional democracy”. The Chapter Nine institutions (as they are called) include the Electoral Commission of South Africa.

The Supreme Court’s judgment in Anoop Baranwal can be seen as an attempt to transform the ECI into such an institution by insulating it from executive control. However, the enactment of the 2023 Act and the refusal of the Court to stay its implementation have weakened this progress.

The independence of the Election Commission of India is central to preserving democratic legitimacy. Hence, there is a need to revisit the appointment mechanism for the Election Commission of India. The inclusion of the Chief Justice of India or another independent authority in the Selection Committee would strengthen the neutrality of the process.

India’s Strategic Engagement with Namibia 

Context: Namibia is a valued and trusted African partner with which India is seeking to boost bilateral cooperation and partnerships. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India’s engagement in Africa; India-Namibia bilateral relations; Global South diplomacy. 

India’s Engagement with Namibia

India and Namibia have a shared anti-colonial heritage and enjoy warm and cordial relations.

Diplomatic Engagement: 

  • India was among the first nations to raise the question of Namibian independence in the UN in 1946. 
  • At the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) summit, India offered full diplomatic recognition to SWAPO (South West Africa People's Organisation), which led Namibia’s liberation struggle, accompanied by material assistance and military training.
  • The first SWAPO Embassy (South West Africa People’s Organisation led Namibia’s liberation struggle) abroad was established in New Delhi in 1986. 

Bilateral Trade & Investment: 

  • Bilateral trade has grown from less than $3 million in 2000 to almost $800 million in 2025, supported by a $12 billion development partnership across Africa. 
  • Indian companies have invested in mining, manufacturing, diamond processing and services in Namibia.

Digital Infrastructure & Capacity building: 

  • Namibia became the first country in Africa to adopt India’s Unified Payments Interface (UPI). 
  • India’s targeted investments in capacity-building include, India-Namibia Centre of Excellence in IT at the Namibia University of Science and Technology, and the ‘India Wing’ funded by a $12 million grant. These efforts leverage India’s strengths in IT and respond to Namibia’s youthful population and digital readiness.
  • Namibia’s recent accession to the Global Biofuels Alliance and the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) aligns with India’s global vision of resilient infrastructure. 

Translocation of Cheetahs

  • Eight cheetahs from Namibia were translocated to Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh in 2022, the world’s first intercontinental translocation of a major carnivore species.
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Significance of Namibia to India: 

  • Namibia’s rich mineral resources, particularly Uranium, Copper, and rare earth metals, can meet strategic critical mineral requirements to India. 
  • Gateway in Southern Africa: Namibia’s ports and connectivity provide India with an entry point into southern Africa’s markets.
  • Global South Diplomacy: Namibia is a key collaborator in the Global South’s broader effort to reshape international rules and usher reforms in global governance. This is in line with India’s advocacy for rules-based international order. 

Challenges

  • Lack of Consistent Engagement: India’s developmental ambitions in Africa are often criticised for uneven implementation and long lapses. This is evident in the recent visit to Namibia by an Indian head of government, the first in nearly three decades.
  • Lack of major agreement or strategic framework to access Namibia’s critical mineral reserves. 

To further the engagement, India needs to overcome structural and operational issues by consistent engagement matched by sustained investment and institutional coherence. The upcoming India-Africa Forum Summit could serve as a vital platform to formalise and solidify these diplomatic efforts through institutional cooperation.

India's first Sustainable Aviation Fuel Plant

Context: Indian Oil's Panipat refinery has received ICAO ISCC CORSIA certification for producing sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) from used cooking oil. became the first company in India 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: India’s indicative blending Target for SAF; CORSIA framework.

Mains: Sustainable Aviation Fuel: Advantages & Challenges. 

India's first Sustainable Aviation Fuel Plant

  • IOC will have the capacity to produce 35,000 tonnes per year of SAF from used cooking oil by the end of 2025. 
  • Feedstock: The used cooking oil will be sourced by engaging aggregators from large hotel chains, restaurants, and sweets and snacks majors, which is otherwise discarded after use. 
  • The capacity (35,000 tonnes per year) will be sufficient to meet the country’s 1% SAF blending requirement (for international flights) by 2027. 

IOC has become the first company in India to receive the ISCC CORSIA certification for SAF production at its Panipat refinery in Haryana. 

ISCC CORSIA Certification System:  

  • ISCC CORSIA is a certification system for compliance with the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) criteria for SAF. It is a prerequisite for commercial SAF production. 
  • The certification sets a benchmark for other domestic refiners and industry players to scale up SAF production.

About Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)

  • SAF is a biofuel that is produced from sustainable feedstocks. SAF has chemistry and properties similar to conventional aviation turbine fuel (ATF) or jet fuel (derived from crude oil) but with a smaller carbon footprint. 
  • It can be blended at different levels with limits between 10% and 50%, depending on the feedstock and how the fuel is produced. 
  • Sources of SAF: 
    • Oil seeds, other fats, oils, and greases
    • Agricultural residues, Forestry residues, Wood mill waste
    • Municipal solid waste streams, Wet wastes (manures, wastewater treatment sludge)
    • It can also be produced synthetically via a process that captures carbon directly from the air. 

Advantages of SAF: 

  • Engine compatibility: Existing aircraft engines can easily use the SAF-ATF blend (up to 50% blend) without modification. 
  • Fewer greenhouse gas emissions: It is estimated that SAF alone is likely to account for over 60% of the global aviation industry’s decarbonisation efforts.
  • Sustainable: Raw feedstock does not compete with food crops or water supplies, or is responsible for forest degradation. 
  • More flexibility: SAF is a replacement for conventional jet fuel, allowing for multiple products from various feedstocks and production technologies.

Challenges Associated with SAF:  

  • SAF is about three-four times more expensive than the price of regular jet fuel.
  • SAF success will require using a greater diversity of feedstock and production methods.

Moreover, collection of SAF would be a challenge. While it is easy to collect from large hotel chains, a solution needs to be found for collection from small users, including households. 

Key Facts:

  • International Civil Aviation Organisation's (ICAO) is dedicated to reducing carbon emissions from international civil aviation.
  • To mitigate the environmental impact of aviation, ICAO has set several aspirational goals:
    1. Two Percent Annual Fuel Efficiency Improvement: Targeted through 2050.
    2. Carbon Neutral Growth: Striving for no net increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from international aviation. 
    3. Net Zero CO2 Emissions from aviation by 2050. 
  • These goals are encompassed under two major initiatives: Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) and the Long-Term Aspirational Goals (LTAG). 

CORSIA Implementation Phases: 

CORSIA will be implemented in three phases:

  1. Pilot Phase (2021-2023): Voluntary participation by States.
  2. First Phase (2024-2026): Also voluntary, but with expanded participation.
  3. Second Phase (2027 onwards): Mandatory for all ICAO member states, including India.

India’s indicative blending Target for SAF: 

  • In line with the CORSIA framework, India’s National Biofuel Coordination Committee (NBCC) has set the initial indicative targets for blending of SAF with jet fuel 2027 onwards, starting with international flights. The indicative targets are:
    • 1% SAF indicative blending target in 2027 (Initially for International flights)
    • 2% SAF blending target in 2028 (Initially for International flights)
    • 5% by 2030. 

The success of SAF will require using a greater diversity of feedstock and production methods. This includes areas such as investing in carbon offset programmes and the diversification of SAF feedstocks. 

IOC is also working to set up units based on the alcohol-to-jet pathway, which involves using ethanol as a feedstock to make SAF. 

10x jump in Whale Stranding along South-West coast in India

Context: The ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) has documented a nearly tenfold rise in whale strandings along India’s south-west coast over the past decade. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Species in news (Bryde’s whale, Blue whale); Whale strandings.

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Whale Stranding or beaching is the phenomenon where whales or other mammals (E.g., dolphins), either dead or alive, often come onto the shore because they are old, sick, injured and/or disorientated.

Key Findings of the Study

  • The annual proportion of whale strandings along the south-west coast of India increased nearly tenfold to around 3% per year during 2014-2023.
  • Primary Hotspots: Kerala, Karnataka, and Goa emerged as the primary hotspots together accounting for the majority of reported whale strandings.
  • Stranded species:
    • Bryde’s Whale (IUCN: Least Concern) was identified as the most commonly stranded species
    • Blue Whale (IUCN: Endangered) strandings were recorded only occasionally.

Causes behind rise in Whale Strandings : 

  • High vessel traffic, intense fishing activity, noise pollution, and shallow coastal shelves significantly contributed to the increased stranding risk.
  • Elevated Chlorophyll-A levels during the South-West monsoon, indicating higher ocean productivity, were linked to whales moving closer to the coast to feed.
  • Rising sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and climate change. 

Way Forward

  • Real-time alerts and marine megafauna conservation networks, training for fishers and officials and improvement of citizen science platforms for data collection. 
  • Expedited building robust marine mammal conservation infrastructure, especially in biodiversity hotspots like the southwest coast. 

Government Plans to revise Income Limits for Marginalised Students’ Scholarships

Context: Ahead of the upcoming financial cycle (FY 2026-27 to FY 2030-31), the Union government is considering revising the parental income limit for eligibility in availing post and pre-matric scholarships administered to students from marginalised castes and tribes.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Welfare schemes by the government. 

Marginalised Students’ Scholarships

  • The post and pre-matric scholarships for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Castes (OBCs) run as centrally sponsored schemes by the government. They are funded by both the Union and State governments on a 60:40 ratio (Union: States), except for in northeast States where the ratio is 90:10.
  • Post-matric scholarships for SCs, STs, and OBCs, require the student to be an Indian national studying at the post-matric stage (after 10th grade). 
  • Pre-matric scholarships are mostly available to students of grades IX and X. For SCs pre-matric scholarships are available from grades 1 to X, if their parent or guardian is involved in an unclean or hazardous occupation. 
  • Both post and pre-matric scholarships require students’ annual parental income to be below ₹2.5 lakh to become eligible.

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is looking to raise parental income limit to ₹4.5 lakh for post and pre-matric ST scholarships, and the Social Justice Ministry is discussing revising the limits for post and pre-matric scholarships for SCs), Other Backward Castes (OBCs), and Denotified Tribes (DNTs).

In addition, discussions are also on to raise the parental income limit of college and school scholarships for OBCs, and DNTs. 

Reasons for Revising the Parental Income Limit

  • Falling Number of Beneficiaries: Government data shows significant drops in beneficiaries for both pre-matric and post-matric scholarships across SCs, STs, OBCs, EBCs, and DNTs.
  • Too Low Existing Limit: The Parliamentary Committee on the Welfare of OBCs and the Parliamentary Committee overseeing the Ministries of Tribal Affairs & Social Justice observed that the current ₹2.5 lakh limit is too low, excluding many families even when they face financial stress.
  • Parliamentary Panel Recommendations: OBC Welfare Committee recommended doubling the income limit for OBC scholarships and expanding pre-matric coverage from Class IX-X to Class V onwards. The Joint Committee on Tribal Affairs & Social Justice recommended revising the parental income limits for ST scholarships and similar schemes for other marginalised groups.

Panels stressed that revising the limit would allow the scholarships to reach more beneficiaries who genuinely require them.

Aadhaar and Voter ID are Not Proof of Citizenship

Context: Recently, the Bombay High Court ruled that owning an Aadhaar card, PAN card, voter ID, or even a passport are not proof of Indian Citizenship, which is determined solely under the Citizenship Act, 1955.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Indian Citizenship & Citizenship Act, 1955. 

The Bombay High Court ruled that: 

  • Documents like Aadhaar, PAN, Voter ID and Passport are not conclusive proof of citizenship. These documents are meant for identification or availing services, but they do not override the basic legal requirements of citizenship as prescribed in the Citizenship Act, 1955.

Indian Citizenship is determined by the Citizenship Act, 1955

Citizenship can be acquired only via the five modes under the Citizenship Act, 1955.

  • By birth: If a person is born in the territory of India, he shall be a citizen of India.
  • By descent: A person born outside India to Indian citizen parents can acquire citizenship by descent. 
  • By registration: Certain individuals (like those married to Indian citizens or persons of Indian origin residing in India) can apply for citizenship through registration.
  • By naturalisation: Citizenship is acquired by making an application to the central government.
  • By incorporation of territory: If any territory or state becomes part of India, then the central government shall declare it as part of the Union of India. 

Electoral processes (E.g., Bihar’s Special Intensive Revision of rolls) may accept documents like birth certificates for voter registration, but this does not automatically confer citizenship.

Burden of Proof Is on the Individual

  • Under the Foreigners Act 1946, if the state presents credible evidence that raises doubt about a person’s citizenship, it is the individual’s responsibility to prove they are Indian.
  • The Laws Involved:
    • Citizenship Act, 1955: Defines how citizenship is acquired and the documents needed to prove it.
    • Foreigners Act, 1946: Places the burden of proof on the person suspected of being a foreign national.
    • Representation of the People Act: Governs voter ID issuance, which is not linked to a citizenship verification process as rigorous as the Citizenship Act.

Why is Aadhaar and Voter ID not Enough? 

  • Aadhaar is only proof of identity and residence, but not nationality.
  • PAN cards are for tax purposes, even foreign nationals can obtain one.
  • Voter ID is linked to electoral rolls; errors or fraudulent enrolment can occur. 
  • Passport requires some citizenship verification but can be obtained fraudulently.

Hence, these documents are valid for day-to-day identification but are not decisive proof of nationality in a court of law.

SC issues notice to introduce ‘creamy layer’ in SC/ST Reservation

Context: The Supreme Court has decided to examine a petition to introduce a “system”, similar to the creamy layer concept for the Other Backward Classes (OBC). This seeks to achieve equitable distribution of reservation benefits among the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Provisions for Reservation in India, Concept of creamy layer. Mains: Creamy layer in SC/ST reservations: Pros & Cons.

The petition contends that the present system of reservation disproportionately benefits economically better-off members within SC/ST groups, while the poorest and most marginalised sections remain excluded from real upliftment.

Reservation in India

Reservation in India is primarily caste-based, intended to address historical discrimination and social exclusion.

  • Articles 15(4): Allows the State (Union or State governments) to make special provisions, including reservations in education and other affirmative measures for:
    • Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs)
    • Scheduled Castes (SCs)
    • Scheduled Tribes (STs)
  • Article 16(4): Permits the State to make laws or policies for reserving appointments or posts in public employment in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the State’s opinion, is not adequately represented in its services.
  • Article 46: Directive Principle (DPSP) urging the State to promote educational and economic interests of SC/STs.
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Creamy layer concept in Reservation: 

  • The creamy layer concept was introduced in Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992) for OBCs, excluding the economically advanced among them from availing reservation benefits.
  • SC/ST reservations have so far been exempted from the creamy layer concept on the grounds that social discrimination against them operates regardless of income or education.

Over the years, concerns have been raised that within SC/ST communities, relatively affluent sections are cornering a disproportionate share of the opportunities.

Petition’s Key Proposals: 

  • The petition sought the introduction of a two-tier reservation system to be implemented within SC/ST categories, prioritising individuals from economically weaker sections before extending benefits to those who are relatively well-off.
  • The proposal for restructuring does not involve any reduction in the current percentage of reservation for SC/ST or other minority communities but refine it by introducing income-based prioritisation.

Arguments in Favour of Applying Creamy Layer to SC/STs: 

  • Ensures equitable distribution of benefits within the community.
  • Prevents the perpetuation of inequality within SC/ST groups.
  • Direct reservation benefits to those in greatest need of upliftment.
  • Aligns with economic justice principles in the Preamble.

Arguments Against:

  • Caste-based discrimination can persist despite economic advancement.
  • Risk of diluting the original purpose of SC/ST reservations which is to counter historical social exclusion, not just economic deprivation.
  • Practical difficulty in defining and implementing economic criteria fairly.
  • Potential to trigger social and political unrest within SC/ST communities.

Way Forward

  • Commission an empirical study to assess intra-community disparities in SC/ST groups.
  • Develop transparent and uniform income criteria if creamy layer is to be applied.
  • Maintain affirmative action for socially disadvantaged while ensuring economic prioritisation.
  • Consider phased implementation with extensive stakeholder consultation to avoid social backlash.

The proposal to apply the creamy layer principle to SC/ST reservations is a significant policy shift that attempts to reconcile social justice with economic fairness. 

However, it must be approached with constitutional sensitivity, robust data, and political consensus to ensure that the most marginalised within these communities are not left behind.

Mains Practice Question:  

Q. The introduction of a creamy layer within SC/ST reservations may improve the equitable distribution of benefits but risks undermining the core objective of affirmative action. Critically analyse. 

Dhirio: Bull Fight in Goa 

Context: The legislators across party lines in Goa state Assembly have demanded the legalisation of bull fighting in Goa, known locally as Dhirio. Despite being banned, the bull fights continue to be clandestinely held in Goa. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about traditional animal-based sports in India. 

About Dhirio

  • The bull fighting, locally referred to as Dhirio or Dhiri, is an integral part of Goa’s cultural fabric. Such fights were organised after the harvest season.
  • Bullfighting involves pitting two bulls against each other in a violent and often bloody confrontation. It is a straight fight till one bull falls or flees. A fight can be over in a few minutes or stretch for more than an hour. 
  • These bull fights have traditionally been held in paddy fields and football grounds of Goa, with village shepherds bringing in their animals.
  • Bull fights have been taking place in Goa for generations going back to the time of the Portuguese. 

Legal Status of Dhirio: 

  • The Goa bench of the Bombay High Court banned Dhirio in 1997, citing violations of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. However, the bull fights continue to be organised clandestinely especially in coastal villages in South Goa and coastal belt in North Goa.

Argument in Support of Ban on Dhirio: 

  • The goal is to incite violence between the animals for entertainment and often gambling. These events subject the animals to significant physical and psychological harm, including fractures, puncture wounds, and severe stress. 
  • Agitated bulls may also charge at spectators, causing grievous injuries.

Important Court judgements in the context

  • In Jallikattu Case 2014 (Animal Welfare Board of India vs A. Nagaraja): The Supreme court ruled that animal life falls within the meaning of Article 21 of the Constitution. The SC noted that all living creatures (including animals) have inherent dignity, right to live peacefully and the right to protect their well-being. 
  • Legal backing to Jallikattu: In 2023, a five judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court dismissed petitions challenging constitutionality of Jallikattu, and upheld the validity of 2017 Tamil Nadu law for allowing bull taming sport Jallikattu. 

So, the legislators in Goa demand a similar exception to Dhirio, like Jallikattu citing the traditional continuity of the sport in the state. 

Also Read: Naangarni Spardha 

India’s first private constellation of Earth Observation Satellites

Context: The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe) announced the selection of a consortium led by Google-backed PixxelSpace to design, build and operate India’s first fully-indigenous commercial Earth Observation (EO) satellite constellation, under the public-private partnership (PPP) model.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about India’s first private constellation of Earth Observation Satellites. 
Mains: Commercialisation of the Space Sector in India. 

India’s first private constellation of Earth Observation Satellites

  • India’s first private constellation of Earth Observation (EO) Satellites will be built by a consortium led by Google-backed PixxelSpace. It also includes Piersight Space, Satsure Analytics India and Dhruva Space. 
  • The consortium will invest more than ₹1,200 crore over the next five years to launch a constellation of 12 EO satellites. 
  • The 12 EO satellite constellation will be entirely designed, manufactured, and operated in India. The constellation will be deployed in a phased manner over the next four years. 
  • The satellites will be equipped with panchromatic, multispectral, hyperspectral and microwave synthetic aperture radar (SAR) sensors.
  • Applications: Deliver analysis-ready data and value-added services for applications in:
    • Climate Change Monitoring
    • Disaster Management 
    • Agriculture
    • Infrastructure and Urban Planning
    • Marine Surveillance 
    • National Security 

Under the PPP framework, the government will provide strategic, technical and policy support, while the consortium will own and operate the EO system, including satellite manufacturing, launches from Indian soil, ground infrastructure and commercialisation of data services.

Significance: 

  • Demonstrates the capability of Indian private space companies to lead largescale, technologically advanced and commercially viable space missions that serve both national and global markets.
  • Advance world-class space-tech capability that will deliver analysis-ready data and value-added services to serve India, as well as the whole planet. 
  • Enhance India’s data sovereignty, reduce dependence on foreign imagery and ensure that all satellites are manufactured domestically, launched on Indian rockets and controlled from within the country.  

The project is also expected to create thousands of high-skill jobs and contribute to India’s target of growing its space economy from $8.4 billion in 2022 to $44 billion by 2033.

Also Read: What is Synthetic Aperture Radar? 

CBSE plans Open-Book Exams 

Context: The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has approved the introduction of Open-Book Assessments (OBE) for Class 9 from the academic year 2026-27. This follows a 2023 pilot study which revealed strong teacher support for the move. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: What is the Open book exam and how is it conducted? Mains: Open Book Exam: Need, Advantages, Disadvantages.

The reform aligns with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) vision of moving away from rote memorisation towards competency-based learning.

What are Open Book Exams? 

  • An open book exam is an assessment in which students are allowed to use approved resources (textbooks, class notes, reference material) during the exam.
  • E.g., In science facts may be given in the book, but students must link them logically to arrive at a conclusion.
  • Purpose: To test conceptual understanding, analytical ability, and application of knowledge, rather than memorisation.

History of Open Book Exams: 

  • Hong Kong became one of the earliest adopters of OBEs in 1953, integrating them into school assessments.
  • In the US and UK, trials between 1951 and 1978 allowed students to use textbooks, notebooks, and lecture notes across various university courses, using formats from multiple-choice to essay-type questions.
  • Studies from this period found that OBEs encouraged deeper internalisation of concepts rather than rote memorisation and often benefited weaker students.
  • Despite early experiments, OBEs remained rare in high-stakes secondary exams worldwide, with most boards (E.g., UK GCSEs, US SATs) retaining closed-book formats.
  • The COVID-19 pandemic marked a turning point, as universities globally adopted open-book, open-note, and even open-web assessments for online examinations, though many reverted to traditional exams post-pandemic.

History of OBE in India: 

  • In 2014, CBSE introduced the Open Text-Based Assessment (OTBA) for Class 9 in Hindi, English, Mathematics, Science, and Social Science, and for Class 11 in subjects like Economics, Biology, and Geography, with students receiving reference material four months in advance.
  • By 2017-18, CBSE discontinued OTBA, concluding it had not succeeded in developing the critical thinking abilities it had aimed to promote.
  • In 2019, the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) approved the use of OBEs in engineering colleges after expert recommendations.
  • During the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2022), universities such as Delhi University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Aligarh Muslim University, and IITs in Delhi, Indore, and Bombay adopted OBEs in online mode.
  • More recently, Kerala’s Higher Education Reforms Commission proposed using the OBE format only for internal or practical assessments.

What does Research say about OBE?

  • A Norwegian study in 2000 found that students taking OBEs were more likely to seek connections between ideas instead of just recalling facts.
  • Research at AIIMS Bhubaneswar reported that medical students experienced lower stress levels when taking OBEs.
  • At Delhi University, a study found that students scored higher in OBEs even without specific training in skills required for the format.
  • Another Research emphasises that real gains from OBEs require training in breaking down questions, analysing concepts, and applying knowledge rather than just looking up answers. 
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However, many students pointed out patchy internet connectivity as a significant drawback during online OBEs. 

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