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NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar

Context: The NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) satellite was successfully launched on 30th July 2025 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh.

The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-F16) successfully lifted and precisely injected the NISAR satellite weighing 2,392 kg into its intended sun-synchronous orbit.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) Mission.

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About NISAR: 

  • NISAR is a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) observatory which will be placed in sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 747 km and an orbit inclination of 98.4°. 
  • It is a joint project between NASA and the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) to develop and launch a radar imaging satellite. The satellite will be the first to use dual frequencies.
  • Duration: Baseline mission duration of three years. 
  • Estimated Mission Cost: $1.5 billion.
  • The Earth observation satellite is capable of penetrating cloud cover and operating day and night regardless of the weather conditions, expected to revolutionise earth-observing capability. NISAR will observe nearly all the planet’s land and ice surfaces twice every 12 days. 
  • The 2,800 kilograms satellite consists of both L-band and S-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) instruments, which makes it a dual-frequency imaging radar satellite.
    • L-band SAR operates at a frequency of around 1 to 2 GHz. The lower frequency (higher wavelength) of L-band SAR allows it to penetrate through vegetation and soil, making it useful for monitoring changes in forest cover, soil moisture etc. 
    • S-band SAR operates at a frequency of around 2 to 4 GHz. S-band SAR has a higher resolution than L-band SAR and is typically used for applications where higher resolution is required, such as monitoring changes in urban areas or coastal zones.

Significance:

  • NISAR will observe natural processes and changes in earth’s complex ecosystems.
    • Study Earth’s dynamic land and ice surfaces in greater detail and observe subtle changes in Earth’s surfaces. E.g., Track flow rates of glaciers and ice sheets, landslide-prone areas and changes in the coastline etc.
    • Spot warning signs of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes and landslides.
    • Measure groundwater levels, agricultural mapping, vegetation biomass, natural resource mapping and monitor Earth’s forest and agricultural regions to improve understanding of carbon exchange. 

Pralay Missile System

Context: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted two consecutive flight tests of the Pralay missiles from Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Island, off the coast of Odisha. 

The missile followed a desired quasi-ballistic trajectory, demonstrated mid-air manoeuvres, and struck its designated target with hit-to-kill accuracy and pin-point precision.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Pralay Missile System. 

Pralay Missile System

  • Pralay is a short-range surface-to-surface missile developed for tactical battlefield use. 
  • The missile system is designed to meet the specific operational needs of the Indian Army and incorporates several indigenous technologies.

Key features of Pralay Missile: 

  • Propulsion system: Two-stage solid-propellant rocket motor with Manoeuvrable Re-entry Vehicle (MaRV) technology in the terminal stage.
  • Speed: Capable of reaching speeds between Mach 1 and Mach 1.6.
  • Range: Operational strike range of 150-500 kilometres.
  • Weight: Approximately five tonnes.
  • Flight trajectory: Quasi-ballistic and low-altitude trajectory, allowing it to evade early detection.
  • Guidance: Equipped with an inertial navigation system and integrated avionics for high-precision targeting and real-time trajectory correction.
  • Launch platform: Can be fired from an 8x8 BEML Tatra Transporter Erector Launcher, providing mobility and rapid deployment capability. 
  • Defence penetration: The missile can manoeuvre mid-flight, oscillate during travel, and alter its trajectory to evade enemy interception systems.
  • Survivability and effectiveness: Designed to resist interception, deliver precision strikes on short- and medium-range targets, and enhance battlefield readiness.
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Significance

The MoD has already cleared orders for Pralay missiles for the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force (IAF). 

  • The missile fills the gap of a conventionally armed ballistic weapon system and remains unaffected by the 'no first use' nuclear policy. 
  • Flexible and precise strike option that can be deployed rapidly in response to evolving threats. Deployed with conventional warheads along the borders, the missile can target radar and communication installations, command and control centres, and advanced airfields.
  • Enhances India’s tactical deterrence capabilities, strengthens India's strategic posture and promotes greater self-reliance in advanced defence technologies.

The successful completion of the phase-1 flight tests marks a crucial step toward the missile’s eventual induction into the Armed Forces. 

Flash Floods in India 

Context: Flash floods were recently reported in several districts of Himachal Pradesh due to intense rainfall over a short duration.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Flash Floods and affected regions. Mains: Key drivers of Flash Floods and mitigation strategies.

What Are Flash Floods?

  • According to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): Flash floods are sudden and high-intensity floods that occur within six hours of a triggering event such as heavy rainfall, dam breach, cloudburst, or landslide. These floods are highly localised, short-lived, and destructive. 
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Key Drivers of Flash Floods:  

  • Extreme Precipitation: According to the study, only 25% of the flash floods that occur in India are directly caused by extreme precipitation. The rest of them are a result of a combination of extreme rainfall and the condition of the soil before precipitation.
  • Pre-wet Soil Conditions: Saturated soil cannot absorb new rainfall, leading to instant runoff.
  • Geomorphological Factors: In the Himalayas, geomorphological factors such as steep slopes, and high relief contribute to flash floods. 
  • Flashiness of Sub-basins: River basins that react quickly to rainfall lead to sudden floods. In the West Coast and Central India, flash floods are driven by the high flashiness of sub-basins, meaning water levels peak quickly after heavy rainfall. Prevailing soil conditions significantly influence how fast water infiltrates these sub-basins.
  • Multi-day Rainfall Events: The study notes that an extreme rainfall event leads to immediate flash floods (within six hours) only 23% of the time. Usually, it is the prolonged (multi-day) low-intensity and high-intensity rainfall which results in these floods.
  • Climate Change: With rising global temperatures, extreme weather events such as flash floods are increasing in frequency and intensity across the world. For every 1 degree Celsius rise in average temperature, the atmosphere can hold about 7% more moisture, leading to more intense precipitation which exacerbates the risk of flash floods.

Increasing Frequency and Regional Spread of Flash Floods: 

Recent flash floods in Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Goa, and parts of Central India highlight their increasing frequency and regional spread across diverse terrains. A study by researchers based at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)- Gandhinagar has found: 

  • Notable increase in flash flood events since 1995. Flash floods are mainly centred in the Himalayas, the west coast, and Central India.
  • Most of the flash floods occurred in the Brahmaputra River basin, followed by the Ganga and Krishna River basins.
  • The sub-basins located in the Himalayan regions and the southern parts of the Ganga River basin are highly prone to flash floods, whereas the sub-basins in the central regions of the Ganga River basin exhibit low flash flood susceptibility.

Way Forward

  • Adopt Region-Specific Adaptation strategies based on factors such as topography and soil conditions, and not just extreme rainfall events. This can help in developing better early warning systems, targeted disaster preparedness, and long-term adaptation plans.
  • Identify potential flash flood hotspots and take measures like building climate-resilient infrastructure to limit the impact of the extreme weather event.
  • Enhance land-use and flood planning in the wake of rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns.

SC questions Age Restriction for Surrogacy

Context: The Supreme Court has reserved its verdict in a group of petitions challenging the age cap for couples seeking to have a child through surrogacy. The petitioners are especially those couples who had started the surrogacy process before the enactment of the present legal framework for surrogacy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021. Mains: Challenges In Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021. 

Surrogacy in India: Concept and Legal Provisions

  • Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 defines surrogacy as a practice where a woman gives birth to a child for an intending couple with the intention to hand over the child after the birth to the intending couple. 
  • Surrogacy can be classified into:
    • Altruistic surrogacy entails no financial compensation for the surrogate.
    • Commercial surrogacy involves paying the surrogate for bearing the child, implying a profit
    • Compensated surrogacy simply involves covering the incurred expenses and loss of wages.
  • The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021 and the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021, prescribe the legal framework for surrogacy.

About Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021

  • The Act prohibits commercial surrogacy, but allows altruistic surrogacy. 
  • Rationale: To prevent the commodification of reproductive labour and to impose procedural safeguards to ensure that surrogacy is used only in cases of medical necessity.
  • The Act permits surrogacy to: 
    • Intending couple who suffer from proven infertility (Intending woman must be between 23-50 years of age; fathers must be between 26 and 55).
    • Indian woman who is a widow or divorcee between the age of 35 to 45 years and who intends to avail the surrogacy.
  • Surrogacy clinics are prohibited from conducting surrogacy or any associated procedures unless they receive registration approval from the relevant authority.
  • The National Surrogacy Board (NSB) and State Surrogacy Boards (SSBs) shall be established by both the central and state governments, respectively.
  • For a surrogate mother to be eligible for a certificate from the appropriate authority:
    • she must have a familial relationship with the intending couple
    • not have served as a surrogate mother previously
    • possess a certificate confirming her medical and psychological health
    • be an ever-married woman having a child of her own, and be 25 to 35 years old.
  • The surrogate mother is not allowed to use her own eggs for the surrogacy process.
  • An order concerning the parentage and custody of the child to be born through surrogacy, has to be passed by a Magistrate's court.
  • Insurance coverage for a period of 36 months covering postpartum delivery complications for surrogate. 

Issue of Age Restriction on Surrogacy: 

In Devika Biswas v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that Right to Reproduction is an essential facet of the ‘Right to Life’ under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

  • The legal framework for surrogacy has a certain age limit for the married couple or single married widowed women intending to have a child through surrogacy. 
  • The petitioners argue that the age limit creates an unreasonable classification:
    • violating Article 14 of the Constitution. 
    • interferes with reproductive autonomy which has been recognised as an aspect of personal liberty under Article 21.

The government has defended the age restrictions on grounds of medical safety, citing that the statutory age caps are based on recommendations from medical experts, and align with practices in reproductive health. The argument is that: 

  • Surrogacy age limits align with natural reproductive timelines and are necessary for protecting the welfare of the child.
  • Advanced parental age influences both an unborn child’s health through genetic and epigenetic changes, and also the filial love that a child requires for 20 years of their life.

Challenges In Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021: 

  • Exclusionary: The provisions deny this opportunity to LGBTQ+ persons, live-in couples, unmarried women and single parents. The definition of single women excluding unmarried women is arbitrary and violative of Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution.
  • Altruistic surrogacy is Paternalistic: It expects a woman to go through the physical and emotional tolls of surrogacy free of cost and only out of ‘compassion’. Thus reinforcing the age old patriarchal norm of no economic value to the women’s work. 
  • It does not respect the bodily autonomy of women: By shifting from right based to need based approach, it snatches away the right of a woman to decide upon her reproductive choices. Further, it is violative of her fundamental rights under Articles 14 (right to equality) and 21 (right to life) of the Constitution. 
  • Impetus to black marketing: Blanket ban on commercial surrogacy may lead to creation of unregulated, exploitative underground/black markets.
  • Does not define close relative: The Act does not define ‘close relative’, which is a condition to be fulfilled by the surrogate mother. Thus, scope for confusion and exploitation of loop holes is always there.
  • Reproductive liberty to the couples: Several restrictions in form of eligibility criteria etc. restrict the surrogacy option to intending couples, which is a denial of reproductive liberty to them.
  • No power to make a decision on abortion: The Intending couple does not have final say in the consent to abort a surrogate child, even if the child being born out of a surrogacy arrangement is at the risk of physical or mental abnormalities. 
  • Identity and emotional aspect: Several times couples do not want to reveal their plans of opting for surrogacy, now putting the condition of close relative to be a surrogate clearly ignores this aspect and restricts the choices. Further, familial bonds and interaction may involve high emotional complications between surrogate mother and intended parents.
  • Definition of infertility: Infertility is restricted to failure to conceive, does not cover other issues that a woman may face in delivering a child. 

Way Forward

  • The government should remove the time limit for IVF treatment before permitting surrogacy, taking into consideration medical circumstances and concerns that deter some women from childbirth.
  • The issue of postpartum depression should be addressed by implementing provisions for its management, and maternal benefits should be accessible to all mothers.
  • The government should provide a clear definition of close relative and infertility.
  • With appropriate safeguards, expanding the surrogacy sector to include commercial surrogacy will benefit individuals who long for the experience of parenthood.
  • The government should include live-in couples, unmarried women, and single parents in this Act, as Right to Reproduction is a fundamental right. 

Long-term Air Pollution Exposure increases Dementia Risk

Context: A new large-scale study by Cambridge University researchers has found that long-term exposure to air pollution is linked to an increased risk of developing dementia. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Major Pollutants and associated Health risks; ROS. 

The data from the World Health Organisation (WHO) shows that 99% of the world’s population breathes air containing high levels of pollutants. 

Long-term Air Pollution Exposure increases Dementia Risk: Highlights of the Study

S. No. Pollutants Description Associated Risks
1.PM 2.5Extremely fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less. 


Predominantly produced by vehicle emissions and thermal power plants. 		For every 10 micrograms per cubic metre (µg/m³) of long-term exposure to PM2.5, an individual’s relative risk of dementia would increase by 17% from the baseline. 
2.Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Produced primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels by vehicles, thermal power plants, and various industrial processes. For every 10 μg/m³ of long-term exposure to nitrogen dioxide, the relative risk of dementia increased by 3%.
3.Soot Soot or Black Carbon comes from sources such as vehicle exhaust emissions and burning wood.  The study reported that dementia risk jumped by 13% for each 1 μg/m³ of long-term soot exposure.

What is Dementia?

  • Dementia is a term for several diseases that affect memory, thinking, and the ability to perform daily activities. The illness gets worse over time, and mainly affects older people. 
  • According to WHO, ~57 million people worldwide had dementia in 2021. The number is expected to increase to at least 150 million cases by 2050. The rise in air pollution, especially in developing countries, might lead to an even sharper rise in cases. 
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How Air Pollution causes Dementia?

  • When pollutants are inhaled, the body’s immune system fights back through the release of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). ROS are the chemicals used by immune cells to neutralise foreign substances. When larger concentrations of pollutants are inhaled, greater amounts of ROS are released.
  • However, ROS is damaging for the body’s cells as well. Therefore, as a natural counter-defence mechanism, the body produces another set of chemicals called antioxidants, that protect the cells against ROS.
  • But Antioxidants are present in small quantities, and take time to build up. So, while they are able to effectively deal with smaller amounts of ROS, they are helpless when ROS is produced in large amounts. 
  • Thus, oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and the body’s ability to detoxify them- leading to cellular damage from excess ROS.
  • Both oxidative stress and resulting inflammation in the brain play a well-established role in the onset and progression of dementia. Air pollution triggers these processes through direct entry of pollutants to the brain or via the same mechanisms underlying lung and cardiovascular diseases.

These findings underscore the need for an interdisciplinary approach to dementia prevention. That means along with healthcare interventions, there is a need to strengthen urban planning, transport policy, and environmental regulation.

Sacred Buddhist Piprahwa gemstones repatriated to India

Context: A collection of 349 gemstones, part of the sacred Piprahwa Buddhist relics, was repatriated to India, 127 years after they were taken during colonial times.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Piprahwa Relics. 

These relics had appeared for auction at Sotheby’s Hong Kong, but were acquired and brought back to India through a private initiative led by Pirojsha Godrej of Godrej Industries.

What are the Piprahwa Relics?

  • The Piprahwa relics were discovered in 1898 during a British-era excavation at Piprahwa, near the India-Nepal border in Uttar Pradesh. Piprahwa is believed to be the part of ancient Kapilavastu, the homeland of Lord Buddha
  • The excavation uncovered a Buddhist stupa containing:
    • Bone fragments believed to be of Lord Buddha.
    • Jewel-encrusted reliquaries (349 gemstones).
    • Caskets made of soapstone and crystal, and a sandstone coffer.
    • Most relics were placed in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, but the jewels ultimately went to auction houses.

Why is the Repatriation Significant?

  • Cultural and Religious Value: The relics are deeply sacred to the Buddhist community worldwide. Their discovery and preservation strengthen India’s identity as the cradle of Buddhism.
  • Geopolitical Messaging: By reclaiming Buddhist heritage from Hong Kong (under Chinese influence), India reinforces its Buddhist soft power against China’s attempts to project itself as a guardian of Buddhist legacy.

A large portion of the collection will be displayed at the National Museum Delhi.

Judicial Discretion and Bail in POCSO Cases

Context: In recent years, courts have begun considering nuances while granting bail on the POCSO cases. Bail may be considered favourably if the relationship appears to be consensual, and especially where the victim has recorded a statement before the Magistrate to that effect.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act.

Mains: POCSO Act: Implementation Issues. 

Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act

  • The POCSO Act is a special law in India enacted in 2012 to protect children (under 18 years) from sexual abuse and exploitation. 
  • It is a gender-neutral law. The Act defines a child as "any person" under the age of 18.
  • Implementation: Ministry of Women and Child Development.

Key Provisions of Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act

  • The Act criminalises both penetrative and non-penetrative sexual assault, sexual harassment, and child pornography.
  • It deems all minors under 18 incapable of ‘consent’, and any sexual activity with a person under 18 is automatically considered abuse, even if the child agrees. The accused bears the burden of proving his innocence. 
  • Typically, the trauma that child sexual abuse victims endure prevents them from voicing their complaints immediately. In 2018, the Union Ministry of Law and Justice clarified that there is no time or age bar for reporting sexual offences under the POCSO Act.
  • It mandates child-friendly procedures like special courts, in-camera trials, and video-recorded testimonies. 

With strict penalties, a presumption of guilt on the accused, and time-bound trials, the Act aims to fill critical legislative voids and deliver swift, victim-centric justice.

POCSO and Age of Consent

  • POSO does not recognise consent below the age of 18. Any sexual act with a teen, even if voluntary, is treated as an offence. This creates a legal grey zone in cases where teenagers enter into consensual relationships that later attract criminal charges.

Judicial Discretion and Bail in POCSO Cases: 

Recently, a special POCSO court in Mumbai granted bail to a 40-year-old female teacher accused of sexually assaulting a teenage boy, noting the consensual nature of their relationship.

  • Bail in POCSO Cases: POCSO offences are cognizable and non-bailable; Arrests can be made without a warrant, and bail is not automatic. But the law does not contain specific statutory guidelines on bail.
  • Judicial discretion in Bail: In recent years, courts have begun considering nuances while granting bail. Bail may be considered favourably if the relationship appears to be consensual, and especially where the victim has recorded a statement before the Magistrate to that effect. Examples include:
    • Deshraj @ Musa vs State of Rajasthan case (2024): The SC granted bail to an 18-year-old boy who had been in jail for five months in a POCSO case involving a 16-year-old girl. The relationship appeared to be consensual.

Also Read: SC recent judgment and deviation from POCSO Act   

These decisions reaffirm that bail under POCSO remains a matter of judicial discretion where courts weigh constitutional liberties against the risk to the victim.

Key challenges to the Implementation of POCSO Act

  • Disclosure of identities: Though the act banned it, there have been numerous instances when the identity of child victims has been revealed by the media or court themselves while giving verdict. 
  • Mandatory reporting provision: The mandatory reporting provision of crimes under the Act proved to be counterproductive as victims of sexual abuse or their families may hesitate to approach medical professionals for fear of being drawn into a criminal case, thereby negatively impacting their right to health and medical care. It hinders adolescents’ access to safe and legal sexual and reproductive services, including legal abortions and contraceptives.
  • Applicability to consensual relations in minors: The POCSO Act made any sexual activity involving a child an offence under the Act. By rendering teenagers incapable of giving consent to sexual relationships, consensual ‘romantic relationships’ between teenagers often get criminalised. Most of such cases often resulted in acquittal because the adolescent girl failed to testify against her sexual partner.
  • Delay in investigation: The pendency of POCSO cases is extremely high due to slow pace of police investigations and delay in submitting the reports by forensic laboratories.
  • Lack of Special Courts in all Districts: Though the POCSO Act came into force in 2012, designation of Special Courts (as mandated by the Act) did not happen at the expected pace. States were lagging behind in designating these courts causing the Supreme Court to intervene.
  • Inadequate compensation to the victims: The payment of compensation to victims under the POCSO Act is a complex issue because there is often a lack of clarity on procedures for disbursing the compensation, especially in cases where the child has no family support, or resides in a childcare institution without parental support, or there is apprehension that the compensation so awarded may be misused. 

Debate on bringing down the Age of Consent: 

  • In an ongoing case, Senior Advocate Indira Jaising has requested the SC to bring down the age of consent from 18 to 16. 
  • Rationale: The criminalisation of adolescent relationships is a direct infringement of fundamental rights of the person. 
  • However, the Central government responded that such changes, even in the name of reform or adolescent autonomy, would undermine the legal protections designed to safeguard minors and potentially increase the risk of child abuse. 

Way Forward

  • Increase awareness about the Act by including age appropriate information about POCSO in school curriculum, including information on helplines like Childline.
  • Appropriate amendments to the law to decriminalise adolescent sexuality. 
  • Stipulate a time limit for consideration of disbursement of compensation to the victim. 
  • Set up more Forensic laboratories while improving the capacity and infrastructure of existing ones. 

Also Read: Law Commission Report On Pocso Act 

The Child Adoption Crisis in India

Context: The latest data obtained through a recent Right To Information (RTI) application shows asymmetry in child adoption in India. Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA), the country’s nodal adoption agency, has struggled to effectively manage the adoption process. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA). Mains: The Child Adoption Crisis in India. 

Adoption is India are governed by two laws

  • Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956 (for Hindus, Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists). 
  • Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015. CARA comes into the picture for parents taking the JJ Act route.

Central Adoption Resource Authority

  • Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA) was set up in 1990 by the Ministry of Women & Child Development to oversee child adoption procedures for Indians and non-resident Indians living abroad.
  • CARA attained the status of a statutory body in 2016 under the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015.  
  • CARA is the nodal body regulating the adoption of orphaned, surrendered and abandoned children in India. 

Mandate and Functions of Central Adoption Resource Authority

  • CARA is mandated to monitor and regulate in-country and inter-country adoptions in accordance with the provisions of the Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption, 1993, ratified by Government of India in 2003.  
  • These procedures include centralising registration for children and prospective parents, conducting home study reports, referring children, preparing orders and conducting post-adoption follow-ups.
  • CARA is also mandated to frame regulations on adoption-related matters from time to time as per Section 68 of the JJ Act, 2015.  

In 2018, CARA allowed individuals in a live-in relationship to adopt children from and within India. 

Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption, 1993:

  •  The international agreement facilitates adoption beyond borders. 
  • It helps find a permanent family for a child for whom a suitable family cannot be found in his or her State of origin and to prevent the abduction, the sale of, or traffic in children. 
  • India ratified the convention in 2003.

Juvenile Justice Act and Adoption Process

  • The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 empowered CARA to streamline the process and infuse transparency and efficiency into the system.
    • It included setting up an e-governance system (CARINGS) to facilitate adoption, allowing prospective parents to track applications and setting out times for domestic and inter-country adoptions to ensure early deinstitutionalisation of such children.
    • The streamlined process meant that once CARA gave a no-objection certificate (NOC) to childcare institutions and civil society organisations, they could directly give a child for adoption, minimising the possibility of trafficking and corruption. 
  • The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Amendment Act, 2022 authorised local District Magistrates (DMs) to issue adoption orders in order to ensure speedy disposal of cases and enhance accountability, thus decentralising responsibilities. The DMs would also be charged with inspecting the functioning of local childcare institutions, child welfare committees, juvenile justice boards, etc.

Benefits of Adoption: 

  • Adoption can provide a child with the critical resource needed for a healthy and stable living. 
  • Allows mothers to continue pursuing their goals without putting their education or career on hold.
  • Relieves the financial and emotional stress of unplanned pregnancy and single parenting.
  • Gives an opportunity to help hopeful parents who would not be able to have a child otherwise.  

Challenges in Child Adoption Process in India: 

  • Growing gap and imbalance in Adoption: In 2022, a Parliamentary panel called the imbalance in adoption a paradoxical situation:
    • As per the 2020 World Orphan Report, India has an estimated 3.1 crore children who were orphans. But as of 2025, only 2652 children were legally free for adoption.  
    • While a significant number of parents are willing to adopt, only a limited number of children are legally cleared for adoption. As of 2025, there are 13 prospective parents for every child free for adoption. 
  • Time-consuming adoption process: Average delay for prospective parents to get an adoption referral in India has increased from 3 years by 2022 to about 3.5 years in 2025. This delay could force prospective parents to adopt children via illegal means. 
  • Implementation Challenges:
    • Over-Centralisation: CARA’s centralised processes and requirement for multiple NOCs and home studies cause delays and discourage many adoptions, especially inter-country adoptions. 
    • Tedious legal formalities: Exhaustive paperwork and court procedures often lead to attrition of prospective parents in the adoption process pipeline.
    • Infrastructure constraints: Implementation is a huge challenge due to resource limitations, lack of training, and a gap in linkages between adoption agencies and the Child Care Institutions (CCI).
    • Shortage of babies/young children: High demand-supply skew exists for healthy infants/toddlers (aged 0-2 years) amid prevalent societal prejudices. Most children tend to be older in age or have special needs, who are less likely preferred by prospective parents.

In 2023, the Supreme Court “expressed displeasure” over the time-consuming adoption process.

Way Forward

  • Digitalisation of the records of children with Child Care Institutions (CCI) to speeden the process of bringing children to legal adoption pool.
  • Address Legal Complexities: Simplify procedures, make court processes child-friendly avoiding intimidating environments. Set time-bound frameworks at each step to fasten the adoption process. 
  • Mandatory formal training and counseling for prospective parents, particularly those adopting children with special needs. 
  • Enhance Monitoring and Quality enhancement mechanisms for Child Care Institutions (CCI), including mandatory licensing and annual grading on indicators like resource availability and child protection norms compliance. 
  • A Parliamentary Standing Committee (2022) has recommended district-level surveys to ensure that orphan and abandoned children found begging on the streets are made available for adoption at the earliest.
  • Robust post-adoption tracking systems are also needed.

Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act (HAMA), 1956 which allows Hindus to adopt without involving agencies remains a popular mode of child adoptions. However, it adds to concerns as adoptions under HAMA may bypass child welfare checks leading to potential misuse about trafficking and illegal adoptions.  

Hence, India needs a robust child adoption process that is child-centric, less time consuming and  institutionalised. 

Flood Vulnerability in Informal Settlements: Global South Crisis

Context: A recent global study highlights how flood risk disproportionately affects vulnerable communities, especially slum dwellers in the Global South.

Relevance of Topic: Prelims: Urbanisation trends Mains: Flood Vulnerability in Informal Settlements - reasons, consequences, suggestions.  

According to a 2024 Moody’s Report

  • More than 2.3 billion people are exposed to flooding every year.
  • In India, more than 600 million people are at risk of coastal or inland flooding.

According to Nature Cities Study: 

  • In the Global South, around 33% of informal settlements (housing over 445 million people) are located in flood-exposed regions.
  • India has the world’s largest number of slum dwellers living in vulnerable settlements in floodplains (over 158 million), most of them concentrated in the naturally food-prone delta of the Ganga river.
  • The largest concentrations and largest numbers of such people are in South Asian countries; northern India leads in absolute numbers, followed by Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. 
  • Other notable ‘hotspots’ include Rwanda and its neighborhood, northern Morocco, and the coastal regions of Rio de Janeiro.

Regional Urbanisation Trends: 

  • Latin America & Caribbean: Highly urbanised (80%); most settlements are urban.
  • Sub-Saharan Africa: Less urbanised; 63% of informal settlements are rural.
  • In India, 40% of slum dwellers live in urban and suburban areas.

Why do people settle in Floodzones?

People settle in, or are forced to settle in, floodplains due to a combination of factors including : 

  • Access to jobs, social vulnerability, and financial constraints.
  • In the Global South flood zones offer cheaper land and housing, pushing low income households into more vulnerable areas. 
  • Absence of inclusive urban policies.
  • Flood-prone localities are not preferred by large builders for gated communities or IT parks, so those areas are available for migrant workers and informal settlements as they are cheaper.
  • However in wealthier regions like Europe, subsidised flood insurance premiums in high risk areas promotes the desirability of floodplain areas like beachfronts and water views.

Consequences of Living in Flood-Prone Areas: 

  • Floods result in the loss of livelihoods for vulnerable residents, especially those in informal employment.
  • Flooding disrupts essential services, such as sanitation, water, and electricity.
  • Poor drainage and waste systems heighten vulnerability to infectious diseases.
  • Informal settlements are typically tin-sheet, tent, or tarp housing, which are structurally weak and highly exposed to flood damage.

Way Forward

  • Adopt a human-centric approach instead of location-focused to improve inadequate infrastructure.
  • Governments should collaborate with communities, rather than relying only on traditional disaster preparedness.
  • Skill improvement in areas like sanitation, waste management, and installing drainage systems. It could enhance the resilience to not just foods but also other risks like infectious disease, while providing jobs.
  • Use data and machine learning for early-warning systems and future flood risk prediction.

The need of the hour is to prioritise action as the 2030 SDG deadline nears, especially goals on poverty, clean water, and climate action.

Indian PM’s visit to Maldives

Context: The Prime Minister of India visited Male, Maldives on July 25-26 for the 60th anniversary of the Independence Day of the Maldives. It also marks the 60th anniversary of establishment of diplomatic relations between the two nations.

This visit signals renewed effort to strengthen bilateral ties amidst regional concerns. Earlier, the Indian PM had emphasised that Maldives represents concrete expression of India’s Neighbourhood First Policy.

Relevance:Mains: India and Neighbourhood relations: India-Maldives. 

Key Highlights of Indian PM’s visit to Maldives

  • India reiterated its commitment to further deepen ties with Maldives in keeping with its ‘Neighbourhood First’ and Vision MAHASAGAR policies. 
  • ​The leaders took stock of the progress in the implementation of the India-Maldives Joint Vision for a ‘Comprehensive Economic and Maritime Security Partnership’, adopted during the State Visit of the President of Maldives to India in 2024. 
  • There was a call to further strengthen defence and maritime security cooperation between the countries under the Colombo Security Conclave.
  • As Global South partners, the countries emphasised to continue working on issues such as climate change, promotion of renewable energy, disaster risk reduction and weather science.
  • The countries witnessed exchange of 6 MOUs in the fields of fisheries and aquaculture, meteorology, digital public infrastructure, UPI, Indian pharmacopoeia and concessional Line of Credit. 
  • India extended a new Line of Credit offering Rs 4850 crores (approx USD 550 million) in support of infrastructure development and other activities in Maldives. 
  • An Amendatory Agreement for the existing LoCs was also exchanged. It reduces Maldives’s annual debt repayment obligations by 40%. 
  • The countries exchanged Terms of Reference of the proposed Free Trade Agreement.

Ties between India and Maldives hit a rough patch over the India Out campaign that Mr. Muizzu had backed during his campaign (2023), and the Boycott Maldives social media campaign that followed over criticism of Mr. Modi by Maldivian Ministers. 

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India - Maldives: Evolution and Contemporary Issues

Importance of Maldives:

  • Strategic location: In the Indian Ocean, Maldives archipelago comprising 1,200 coral islands lies next to key shipping lanes of communication which ensure uninterrupted energy supplies to countries like China, Japan, and India. More than 97% of India’s international trade by volume and 75% by value passes through the region.
  • Member of SAARC: It is important for India to have the Maldives on board to maintain its leadership in the region. Maldives was the only SAARC country which seemed reluctant to follow India's call for a boycott of the SAARC summit in Pakistan after the Uri attack.
  • Blue Economy: Maldives has an intrinsic role in advancing blue economy through sustainable management and utilisation of marine resources.
  • Regional Security: India has the ambition to be a Net-security provider in the Indian Ocean region and this calls for close military and naval ties with Maldives so that India protects its own interests as well of its neighbours in the Indian Ocean region.

Area of Cooperation between India and Maldives

Economic Relations:

  • Tourism development: Maldives' economy is heavily reliant on tourism (over 28% of GDP). State Bank of India has supported economic development of Maldives since 1974 by providing loan assistance for promotion of island resorts, export of marine products and business enterprises.
  • Financial Assistance: India has provided substantial financial assistance to Maldives in the past, including-
    • ₹3,000 crore currency swap arrangement under the SAARC framework.  
    • $1.4 billion financial assistance (2018) to help Maldives manage its mounting debt.
    • India extended currency swap facility (2024) to help Maldives with its debt servicing and mitigate foreign exchange crises. 
  • Livelihood development: India developing High Impact Community Development Projects (HICDPs) in areas of livelihood and income generation, health, education, gender and child empowerment, sports and sustainable development. Over 45 HICDPs have been implemented across Maldives. 

Defence Relations:

  • Defence cooperation between India and Maldives ranges from-
    • Providing training to Maldivian Defence Personnel in Indian Military Academy
    • Supply of military equipment (E.g., Handover of two Dhruv helicopters and Dornier aircraft to Maldives National Defence Force for aerial surveillance)
    • Provision of patrol vessels and coastal radar systems
    • Joint combat exercises to help in maritime surveillance
  • Exercise DOSTI- Maritime Search and Rescue (M-SAR), Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR), Marine Pollution Response (POLRES), and Anti-piracy operations.
  • Exercise EKUVERIN: This bilateral annual exercise commenced in 2009 at Belgaum, India.

Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR): 

  • Operation Cactus: India saved Gayoom’s regime from a coup in 1984. 
  • 2004 Tsunami Relief: India was the first country to respond with aid, naval and air force assistance. 
  • COVID-19 pandemic: Supply of Made-in-India vaccines E.g., Covishield (first country to donate vaccines to Maldives. 

People-to-People Relations:

  • Indians are the second largest expatriate community in the Maldives. About 25% of Doctors and Teachers in Maldives are Indian nationals.
  • India Cultural Center (ICC) in Male conducts courses in yoga, classical music and dance. Also, Hindi commercial films, TV serials and music are immensely popular in Maldives.

Present Challenges:

  • Chinese Investment & Maldives-China FTA:
    • Maldives’ growth is driven by massive infrastructure projects funded by China, including the development of Hulhule Island, Friendship bridge connecting it to Male etc. 
    • Maldives has also signed an FTA with China. This raises concerns regarding Chinese debt-trap policy.
  • Political Instability: Internal political dynamics in Maldives lead to change in its foreign policy orientation. This has the potential to complicate its relations with India. 
  • Religious Radicalisation: Its political instability has also challenged overall security of the Indian Ocean by increasing radicalisation, with reports of Maldivians joining the Islamic State.

Way Forward

  • Both countries need to enhance regional cooperation by using common platforms such as the Indian Ocean RIM Association and Indian Ocean Naval Symposium.
  • India needs to implement its ‘Neighbourhood First Policy’ with strategic sensitivity and keeping vigilance about China's growing influence. 

Boost the capacity of Legal Aid System in India 

Context: Legal services institutions established under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, are tasked with the mandate of providing free legal aid to nearly 80% of India’s population. However, the actual reach remains modest. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about NALSA.

Mains: Issues in India’s legal aid system.

Legal Aid System in India: Constitutional and Statutory Mandate

  • Access to Justice is a fundamental right. Article 39A of the Indian Constitution mandates the State to ensure that no citizen is denied justice due to economic or other disabilities. 
  • To fulfill this constitutional vision, the Legal Services Authorities Act 1987 established a framework to deliver free legal aid to the weaker and vulnerable sections of society. The Act establishes a three-tier structure of legal services institutions:
    • National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) at the National level
    • State Legal Services Authorities (SLSAs) at the State level
    • District Legal Services Authorities (DLSAs) at the District level

Who is Entitled to Free Legal Aid?

  • Under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, the following categories of persons are eligible for free legal aid in India:
    • Women and Children
    • All members of SC and ST communities
    • Victims of Trafficking or Begging
    • Persons in Custody: Includes undertrials, prisoners, and persons in psychiatric institutions
    • Persons with Disabilities
    • Industrial Workmen
    • Victims of Natural Disasters or Mass Disasters
    • Persons with an Annual Income below a Prescribed Limit: Income threshold varies by State (generally ₹1 lakh to ₹3 lakh per annum)
    • HIV/AIDS Patients
  • Services include: Legal advice, representation in court, mediation, and legal awareness.

Institutional Framework: 

  • Legal services institutions operate front offices in court complexes and legal aid clinics in rural and remote areas, serving as first points of contact for legal advice and guidance.
  • A panel of qualified and trained lawyers is empanelled to provide free legal representation to eligible beneficiaries.
  • The Act promotes the deployment of trained para-legal volunteers to spread legal awareness and assist in dispute resolution at the grassroots level.
  • The Act empowers legal services authorities to organise Lok Adalats for amicable settlement of disputes. Also promotes mediation and conciliation as part of Alternate Dispute Resolution (ADR).
  • Regular legal literacy camps, awareness drives, and training programmes are mandated to educate citizens about their rights and remedies.

The Performance Gap: 

However, the implementation and impact remain modest, exposing a critical gap between policy intent and on-ground realities.

  • Between April 2023 and March 2024, only 15.5 lakh individuals accessed legal aid, even though nearly 80% of India’s population is eligible.
  • Since 2019, the national per capita spending on legal aid has doubled from roughly ₹3 to ₹7.

Key Challenges in Legal Aid System

Low Budget and Underutilisation of Funds: 

  • The budget for legal aid comprises less than 1% of the total justice budget (police, prisons, judiciary, and legal aid). 
  • During 2017-18 to 2022-23, NALSA’s funds fell from ₹207 crore to ₹169 crore. The utilisation of NALSA funds has dropped from 75% to 59%.

Rigid Expenditure Guidelines: 

  • As per the NALSA Manual 2023, the State Legal Services Authorities (SLSAs) have been barred from incurring expenditure from the NALSA fund on certain items without prior approval. These include:
    • hiring project or front office staff
    • purchasing or hiring vehicles and equipment
    • engaging outsourced personnel
    • expenses related to victim compensation
    • food distribution, and tree plantation.
  • Funds are to be used only for specific functions with ceilings: 50% for legal aid and advice, 25% for awareness and outreach, and 25% for Alternate Dispute Resolution and mediation.

Declining Para-Legal Volunteers:

  • Low budgets constrict the ability to deploy para-legal volunteers (PLVs) on the ground. The total number of para-legal volunteers dropped by nearly 38% between 2019 and 2024. From 5.7 per lakh population, there were only 3.1 per lakh population in 2023.
  • Reluctance of States to revise honorariums for para-legal volunteers. Most PLVs receive honorarium far below minimum wages (as less as ₹250 per day in certain states). Poor pay leads to high attrition rate among PLVs, who form the backbone of last-mile legal access.

Implementation Challenges in the Legal Aid Defence Counsel (LADC) Scheme: 

  • Introduced in 2022, the LADC scheme is a dedicated legal aid initiative for representing only accused persons, based on the public defender model. It aims to ensure quality legal representation for accused/convicts and reduce the burden on the assigned counsel system.
  • In 2023-23, ₹200 crore was specially earmarked for LADCs by NALSA and it was fully utilised. However, in 2024-25, the allocation has dropped to ₹147.9 crore.

Way Forward

  • Financial Reforms: 
    • Increase budgetary allocation, especially for frontline workers.
    • Remove fund utilisation bottlenecks- allow flexibility to SLSAs and DLSAs.
    • Ensure uniform and fair honorariums for PLVs.
  • Human Resources: Recruit and retain more para-legal volunteers and legal aid lawyers. Upgrade training and monitoring mechanisms for better outcomes.
  • Infrastructure: Expand Legal Aid Clinics, especially in rural areas. Ensure tech-based legal access via mobile apps, kiosks, or tele-law.
  • Monitoring & Accountability: Introduce independent audits and feedback mechanisms. Regularly assess impact and outcomes, not just inputs.

It is essential to boost the capacity of legal aid systems to make them truly effective. Without these resources, the system falls short of providing the quality of justice enshrined in the Constitution.

Also Read: Who are entitled to receive free legal aid? Assess the role of the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) in rendering free legal aid in India. 

Five years of National Education Policy 2020

Context: The National Education Policy, India’s third such policy since Independence was cleared by the Union Cabinet in July 2020. The NEP promised a sweeping reset of both school and higher education.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Key facts, Progress and Challenges. 

National Education Policy (NEP) 2020

  • The NEP 2020 outlines the vision of the new education system of India. It replaces the previous National Policy on Education of 1986. 
  • The NEP 2020 is based on five key pillars: Access, Equity, Quality, Affordability, and Accountability.
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Read More: National Education Policy 2020 

Five years of National Education Policy

1. Key reforms which have been undertaken:

  • Changing School Curriculum: The 10+2 system has been replaced with a new structure- foundational (pre-primary to class 2), preparatory (classes 3-5), middle (6-8), and secondary (9-12). In 2023, the National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE) laid out the learning outcomes and competencies for each stage.
  • New Textbooks: NCERT has produced new textbooks for classes 1-8 based on the new framework. E.g., Social Science is now taught as a single book covering history, geography, political science, and economics, replacing separate textbooks for each subject. New books for classes 9-12 are expected next.
  • Early Childhood Care and Education: NEP aims to make pre-primary learning universal by 2030. The Women and Child Development Ministry has issued a National Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) curriculum; NCERT’s Jaadui Pitara learning kits are already in use.
  • Minimum Age for Admission: Delhi, Karnataka, and Kerala will soon enforce the minimum age of six for class 1 entry.
  • National focus for Foundational Skills: NIPUN Bharat, launched in 2021, seeks to ensure every child can read and do basic math by the end of class 3. A recent government survey found average scores were 64% for language and 60% for math.
  • Credit-based flexibility: NEP suggested the Academic Bank of Credits (ABC). The National Credit Framework (NCrF) has been jointly developed by different institutions including CBSE, NCERT, the Ministry of Education, DGT, and the Ministry of Skill Development.
    • NCrF brings flexibility to school students, where learning hours (including skill-based ones) translate into credits. CBSE invited schools to be part of an NCrF pilot last year.
    • UGC rules published in 2021 allowed students to earn and store credits digitally, even across institutions, making it possible to move between courses or exit and re-enter. The system allows students to earn a certificate after one year, a diploma after two, or complete a four-year multidisciplinary degree.
  • Common test for college entry: NEP 2020 had suggested that multiple college entrance exams should be replaced with a single national test. Common University Entrance Test (CUET) introduced in 2022 is a key route to undergraduate admissions. 
  • Indian campuses abroad and vice versa:
    • IIT Madras, IIT Delhi, and IIM Ahmedabad have set up international campuses in Zanzibar, Abu Dhabi, and Dubai respectively. 
    • University of Southampton recently opened in India, after two other foreign universities at GIFT City, Gujarat. 
    • Another 12 foreign universities are in the process of being approved under UGC regulations, plus two more at GIFT City.

2. Key reforms under implementation: 

  • Changes in Board exams:
    • NEP envisages less high-stakes board exams. Starting 2026, CBSE plans to allow class 10 students to sit for board exams twice a year. E.g., Karnataka has experimented with the new pattern. 
    • The NEP idea of offering all subjects at two levels (standard and higher) is limited to class 10 math, which CBSE introduced in 2019-20.
  • Holistic report cards: PARAKH, a unit under NCERT, has developed progress cards that go beyond marks, and include peer and self-assessment. But some school boards are yet to make the shift.
  • Slow progress for four-year UG degrees: Central universities are rolling out NEP’s idea of four-year undergraduate degrees with multiple exit options, and Kerala has followed.
  • Mother tongue in classrooms: NEP encourages the use of mother tongue as the medium of instruction till at least class 5. CBSE has asked schools to begin this from pre-primary to class 2, with classes 3-5 retaining the option of staying or switching. NCERT is working on textbooks in more Indian languages.

3. Lack of Progress: 

  • Issues in Teacher Education overhaul:
    • The National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education which was due in 2021, is yet to be released. 
    • The four-year integrated B.Ed course has been announced under the Integrated Teacher Education Programme (ITEP), but colleges offering existing programmes like Bachelor of Elementary Education (B.El.Ed) are pushing back.
  • UGC’s proposed successor delayed: A 2018 draft bill proposed scrapping the UGC Act and replacing it with an umbrella Higher Education Commission of India (HECI). NEP formalised the idea that HECI would handle regulation, funding, accreditation, and academic standards across higher education, excluding medical and legal. But the Education Ministry is still in the process of drafting the Bill.
  • No breakfast in schools: NEP recommends breakfast along with midday meals. But in 2021, the Finance Ministry rejected the Education Ministry’s proposal to add breakfast for pre-primary and elementary classes. 
  • Policy divide between Centre and states: Some states have pushed back against key NEP provisions.
    • Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal have refused to sign MoUs with the Centre to set up PM-SHRI schools, citing clauses that require full adoption of NEP.
    • Three-language formula: NEP proposes three languages in school, at least two of them must be Indian. Certain states like Tamil Nadu (which follows a Tamil-English model) sees this as an attempt to impose Hindi.
    • Kerala and Tamil Nadu argue that since education is on the Concurrent List, the Centre cannot mandate these changes unilaterally. The Centre has withheld Samagra Shiksha funds from these states, saying the money is tied to NEP-linked reforms.

Other challenges include providing better training for Anganwadi workers, and improving infrastructure and teaching quality in early education centres. 

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