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Informalisation within the Formal Sector 

Context: In recent decades, India has witnessed a sharp rise in the use of contract labour within the formal manufacturing sector.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Contractualisation. Mains: Informalisation with formal sector - Reasons, Impact, Way Forward.

According to the Annual Survey of Industries (ASI), the share of contract workers in the manufacturing workforce has doubled from 20% in 1999-2000 to 40.7% in 2022-23. 

This trend reflects the informalisation of the formal sector, raising concerns over worker exploitation, wage inequality, and declining productivity.

What is Contractualisation?

  • It refers to the employment of workers on temporary, often third-party contracts, rather than permanent, directly employed roles. 

Why Firms Prefer Contract Labour? 

  • Operational Flexibility: Allows firms to hire or fire workers based on market demand.
  • Cost Savings: Wages and benefits are significantly lower than for permanent workers.
  • Regulatory Evasion: Firms bypass rigid labour laws and industrial regulations.
  • Short-Term Efficiency: Contract workers may fill temporary skill gaps or meet seasonal demand.

However, these apparent benefits mask deeper structural challenges and long-term inefficiencies.

Challenges associated with Contractualisation: 

  • Legal Exclusion & Vulnerability: Contract workers are generally excluded from key protections under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, such as safeguards against arbitrary dismissals and retrenchment. Hired through third-party contractors, they lack bargaining power and often face exploitative work conditions.
  • Wage Disparities: In 2018-19, on an average, the contract workers earned 14.47% less than regular employees. In some sectors, employers' labour cost on contract workers was up to 85% lower than on regular workers.
  • Impact on Labour Productivity: Though intended to provide flexibility, over-reliance on contract labour can undermine productivity, especially in labour-intensive and small-to-medium enterprises. ASI Plant-Level Data (1999-2019) shows that Contract Labour-Intensive (CLI) enterprises had 31% lower productivity than Regular Labour-Intensive (RLI) enterprises.

Why Productivity Declines?

  • Principal-Agent Problem: Contractors may not align with the firm's long-term interests.
  • Moral Hazard: Low job security may lead to worker disengagement.
  • Poor skill development: Frequent exit and replacement of workers in a company or industry over a short period of time prevents skill development and innovation.
  • No On-the-Job Training: Firms avoid investing in temporary workers.

Exceptions:  

  • Labour productivity was 5% higher in high-skill Contract Labour-Intensive (CLI) enterprises when compared to their low-skill counterparts, with the productivity advantage increasing significantly to 20% in large high-skill CLI enterprises. 
  • Similarly, large-size capital-intensive CLI enterprises recorded a 17% gain in labour productivity. 

However, such types of enterprises account for only about 20% of the total formal manufacturing. The remaining 80% of the enterprises were adversely affected by contractualisation.

Policy Landscape and Reforms:

Labour Code on Industrial Relations 2020: 

  • The code allows firms to hire non-regular workers on fixed-term contracts directly without third party contractors. Aims to provide greater flexibility in hiring and firing. 
  • It also seeks to curb the exploitation of non-permanent workers by mandating the provision of basic statutory employment benefits. 
  • Yet to be fully implemented; trade unions fear it may further increase informalisation.

Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Protsahan Yojana (2016-2022):

  • Aim: To incentivise job creation in the formal sector by bearing employer’s contribution (12%) to Employees’ Pension Scheme (EPS) and Employees’ Provident Fund (EPF). 
  • Though over one crore employees benefitted from the scheme, it was discontinued in 2022.

Way Forward

  • Policymakers can incentivise firms to adopt reasonably longer fixed-term contracts by offering concessions in social security contributions or subsidised access to government skilling programmes. This could enhance workforce stability and support skill accumulation, while also assuaging labour union fears about the potential rise in the precarious employment. 
  • Reviving and extending support under the PMRPY could help curb the misuse of contract labour and promote formalisation in the manufacturing sector.

Inequality in India: Beyond the Gini Index

Context: The Gini Index ranked India among the world’s most equal societies by giving the score of 25.5. The claim is widely criticised for ignoring the country’s stark and multidimensional inequalities.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of inequality and Gini Index. Mains: Forms of inequality in India.

Gini Index

  • The Gini Index (or Gini Coefficient) measures income inequality within a population on a scale from 0 (perfect equality) to 100 (perfect inequality).
  • India's score of 25.5 suggests relatively equitable income distribution. However, this assessment is based on limited income tax data, which covers only about 10% of the adult population, due to the predominance of informal work and non-taxable incomes.
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Forms of Inequality in India

Wealth Inequality: 

  • According to a study titled ‘Income and Wealth Inequality in India 1922-2023: The Rise of the Billionaire Raj’, in FY 2022-23, 22.6% of the national income went to just the top 1% of the population.
  • Large scale informal employment - low income and lower bargaining power. 
  • Large portion of the population remains outside the income tax net, making accurate representation difficult. This itself is a reflection of structural inequality in the economy.

Gender Inequality:  

  • Women constitute only 35.9% of the workforce. Gender roles and familial expectations continue to limit female participation in economic, educational, and digital spheres.
  • In leadership positions, their representation drops further- just 12.7% in senior or middle management.
  • Despite India having the third-largest startup ecosystem, only 7.5% of active startups are led by women.
  • Digital gender divide: Only 25% of rural women have internet access compared to 49% of rural men.

Digital Inequality: 

Though internet penetration has improved, a severe digital divide remains.

  • Only 41.8% of households across rural and urban India have broadband. 
  • Digital inequality reinforces educational and economic disparities, and restricts access to employment opportunities. This technological gap ensures that only certain socio-economic classes stay competitive in the job market, pushing others into low-skill roles.

Educational Inequality: 

Educational inequality is deepened by unequal digital access.

  • Only 52.7% of schools have functional computers, and 53.9% have internet access.
  • Students from low-income or rural backgrounds lack access to digital skills, which are crucial for higher education and employment. E.g., In cities like Delhi, where schools close during winter pollution, only children with internet access can continue learning.

Bridging these divides requires inclusive policies, better data collection, and focus on structural reforms that ensure opportunity reaches every corner of India. Only then can we truly call ourselves an equal society. 

Pralay Missile System

Context: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted two consecutive flight tests of the Pralay missiles from Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Island, off the coast of Odisha. 

The missile followed a desired quasi-ballistic trajectory, demonstrated mid-air manoeuvres, and struck its designated target with hit-to-kill accuracy and pin-point precision.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Pralay Missile System. 

Pralay Missile System:

  • Pralay is a short-range surface-to-surface missile developed for tactical battlefield use. 
  • The missile system is designed to meet the specific operational needs of the Indian Army and incorporates several indigenous technologies.

Key features of Pralay Missile: 

  • Propulsion system: Two-stage solid-propellant rocket motor with Manoeuvrable Re-entry Vehicle (MaRV) technology in the terminal stage.
  • Speed: Capable of reaching speeds between Mach 1 and Mach 1.6.
  • Range: Operational strike range of 150-500 kilometres.
  • Weight: Approximately five tonnes.
  • Flight trajectory: Quasi-ballistic and low-altitude trajectory, allowing it to evade early detection.
  • Guidance: Equipped with an inertial navigation system and integrated avionics for high-precision targeting and real-time trajectory correction.
  • Launch platform: Can be fired from an 8x8 BEML Tatra Transporter Erector Launcher, providing mobility and rapid deployment capability. 
  • Defence penetration: The missile can manoeuvre mid-flight, oscillate during travel, and alter its trajectory to evade enemy interception systems.
  • Survivability and effectiveness: Designed to resist interception, deliver precision strikes on short- and medium-range targets, and enhance battlefield readiness.
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Significance: 

The MoD has already cleared orders for Pralay missiles for the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force (IAF). 

  • The missile fills the gap of a conventionally armed ballistic weapon system and remains unaffected by the 'no first use' nuclear policy. 
  • Flexible and precise strike option that can be deployed rapidly in response to evolving threats. Deployed with conventional warheads along the borders, the missile can target radar and communication installations, command and control centres, and advanced airfields.
  • Enhances India’s tactical deterrence capabilities, strengthens India's strategic posture and promotes greater self-reliance in advanced defence technologies.

The successful completion of the phase-1 flight tests marks a crucial step toward the missile’s eventual induction into the Armed Forces. 

Kaziranga Tiger Reserve records third-highest Tiger Density in India

Context: As per the latest large-scale assessment of Tiger population, Assam’s Kaziranga Tiger Reserve has the third-highest density of tigers in India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve; Tiger Conservation initiatives; Key facts about Tigers. 

Kaziranga Tiger Reserve records third-highest Tiger Density in India

  • Assam’s Kaziranga Tiger Reserve has secured its position as India’s third-highest tiger density hotspot. 
  • The tiger population in the reserve has increased to 148, and the density of tigers stands at 18.65 tigers per 100 square kilometers, trailing only after:
    • Bandipur Tiger Reserve (19.83) in Karnataka
    • Corbett National Park (19.56) in Uttarakhand
  • The implementation of advanced technology, such as M-STrIPES, Drones, and Electronic Eye surveillance systems has significantly improved monitoring, anti-poaching measures, movement tracking, and habitat monitoring, leading to better data. 
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Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve

  • Location: Assam 
  • 70% of the area of National Park is covered by grasslands.
  • The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River, which forms the northern and eastern boundaries and Mora Diphlu, which forms the southern boundary. Other notable rivers within the park are the Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri.
  • Kaziranga has an estimated 2613 one-horned rhinos and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 
  • Key Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, Indian Elephant, Wild water buffalo, Swamp deer, Sloth Bear, Hoolock Gibbon. 
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Key Facts about Tiger

  • Tiger is an umbrella species. Its conservation automatically ensures the conversation of a large number of flora and fauna and entire ecosystems.
  • India is home to 75% of the global tiger population. 
    • The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts a tiger census across India every 4 years.
    • Latest Tiger Census Report (2022): India has 3682 tigers. (2967 in 2018)
    • Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers (785) in India, followed by Karnataka and Uttarakhand. 
  • Conservation status: 
    • IUCN Red List: Endangered 
    • Wildlife Protection Act: Schedule 1
    • CITES: Appendix 1

First-ever Grassland Bird Census in Kaziranga Tiger Reserve 

Context: The first-ever grassland bird census was conducted in Assam’s Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve with the use of passive acoustic recording monitoring technology.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve; Key fauna. 

First-ever Grassland bird census in Kaziranga Tiger Reserve

  • Aim: To document and conserve rare and endemic grassland birds threatened by habitat loss.
  • The survey prioritised 10 species that are either globally threatened or endemic to the Brahmaputra floodplains:
    • Bengal Florican (Critically Endangered), Swamp Francolin, Finn’s Weaver, Swamp Grass Babbler, Jerdon’s Babbler, Slender-billed Babbler, Black-breasted Parrotbill, Marsh Babbler, Bristled Grassbird, and Indian Grassbird. 
  • The survey recorded a total of 43 grassland bird species, including 1 Critically Endangered, 2 Endangered, and 6 Vulnerable species.

Methodology used in the Census: 

  • Surveying these small, shy, and highly camouflaged birds is very difficult using traditional methods like visual counting. 
  • So, the acoustic recorders were placed in tall trees near grasslands during the breeding season of the birds (between March and May). This is the season when the birds are very vocal, calling out for mates and with males defending territory. The instruments recorded all the birds singing in the landscape. Then, software was used to create a spectrogram, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) was used to identify the birds based on the recordings.

An AI tool called Birdnet was used which uses machine learning to try and identify species by bird song. Grassland birds are an indicator of good health of the grassland ecosystem. The presence of these birds tells us that the habitat is healthy.

Threats to the habitats of Grassland Birds: 

  • In the past four decades, Assam has lost around 70% of its grasslands. The reasons include:
    • Anthropogenic factors such as overgrazing and clearing of grasslands for cultivation. 
    • Natural phenomenon called ecological succession (which is basically an instinct for grasslands to gradually transition to forests).
    • Climate Change 

Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve

  • Location: Assam 
  • 70% of the area of National Park is covered by grasslands.
  • The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River, which forms the northern and eastern boundaries and Mora Diphlu, which forms the southern boundary. Other notable rivers within the park are the Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri.
  • Kaziranga has an estimated 2613 one-horned rhinos and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 
  • Key Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, Indian Elephant, Wild water buffalo, Swamp deer, Sloth Bear, Hoolock Gibbon. 

Smart Meters

Context: The Power Ministry has extended the deadline for installing 25 crore smart meters across the country under the Revamped Distribution Sector Scheme (RDSS) by two years till March 2028.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Smart Meters; Revamped Distribution Sector Scheme.

Revamped Distribution Sector Scheme

  • Initiative of: Ministry of Power
  • Duration: 5 years i.e., from FY 2021-22 to FY 2025-26. Extended by two years till FY 2027-28.
  • Aim: To reduce the Aggregate Technical & Commercial (AT&C) losses to pan-India levels of 12-15% and Average Cost of Supply (ACS)-Average Revenue Realised (ARR) gap to zero by 2024-25.
  • The scheme has two parts: 
    • Part-A: Upgradation of distribution infrastructure and Pre-paid Smart Metering & System Metering. The Smart Meter National Programme under RDSS envisages the installation of 25 crore Smart Meters across the country.
    • Part-B: Training & Capacity Building and other Enabling & Supporting Activities.
  • Progress: As of July 2025, a total of 20.33 crore smart meters have been sanctioned under the RDSS, out of which 2.44 crore smart meters have been installed throughout the country.

Smart Meters:

  • Prepaid Smart Meters are the new generation of energy meters that are used to record electricity consumption in real-time. As they are connected to the internet, users and utilities can easily track and monitor electricity usage and get accurate bills. They can:
    • Eliminate the need for manual inspection, making them highly efficient and convenient.
    • Tell about electricity use during different times of the day, months and seasons.
    • Alert in case of insufficient/low balance or abnormal usage to best optimize their consumption on a user-friendly web portal or mobile app.
    • Notifies about changes in power tariffs that can help to plan activities during low-tariff periods.
    • Point towards appliances that are using more electricity than they should and suggests options to replace them with new, efficient ones.
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How does the Smart Meter Work?

Smart meters are digital devices that measure and record electricity (or gas or water) consumption in real time and relay the information to utility companies.

  • Metering device: For electricity meters, sensors measure the voltage and current flowing through the electrical circuits. These values are then multiplied to calculate the power consumption (measured in watts). By integrating the power consumption over time, the meter can determine total electricity use (measured in kilowatt-hours).
  • Transmit usage information: After recording energy consumption data, the communications module is responsible for transmitting usage information to the company, by using one of the following methods:
    • Radio frequency (RF) signals to transmit data. This method is cost-effective and allows for long-range communication. However, RF signals can be susceptible to interference from other wireless devices and might require more infrastructure, such as repeaters or gateways, to ensure reliable communication.
    • Cellular networks: Some smart meters rely on existing cellular networks (for example, 4G or 5G) to transmit data. This approach offers widespread coverage and can be more resistant to interference than RF signals.
    • Broadband connections  like DSL and fiber-optic networks are another option for smart meter communication.
    • Power line communication technology allows smart meters to transmit data over existing power lines, eliminating the need for additional communication infrastructure.

Way Forward:

As India marches towards its vision of a financially sound and digitalised power sector through smart metering interventions, it must pursue a user-centric design and deployment strategy. 

  • Spread Awareness: The Ministry of Power should drive a nationwide campaign to educate consumers about smart meter benefits and improve the uptake of smart meter apps. The apps should be accessible to users from diverse socio-economic backgrounds and provide actionable tips and information.
  • Capacity Building: The majority of smart meters in India are being deployed by the Advanced Metering Infrastructure Service Providers (AMISPs), responsible for installation and operation of the AMI system for the project lifetime (10 years). Discoms must closely work with AMISPs to ensure a smooth installation and recharge experience for users, to leverage smart meter data for revenue protection and consumer engagement. For this, discoms will need to strengthen their internal capacity through suitable staffing and training interventions.
  • Foster Innovation: Discoms, system integrators and technology providers should collaborate to devise innovative and scalable data solutions. Effective use of smart meter data is fundamental to unlocking their true value proposition. This would require an ecosystem that fosters innovation in analytics, data hosting and sharing platforms, and enables key actors to collaboratively test and scale new solutions.
  • Strengthen Regulatory framework: Policymakers and regulators must strengthen regulations to empower consumers to unlock new retail markets.
    • Currently, important provisions concerning the phase-out of paper bills, arrear adjustment, frequency of recharge alerts, buffer time, rebates, and data privacy are scattered across different regulatory orders or simply missing. Their incorporation within existing State frameworks will be crucial for a positive technology experience for end users.
    • Regulators must also enable simplification and innovation in tariff design and open the retail market to new business models and prosumagers (producers, consumers, and storage users). 

Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules 2025

Context: The Union Ministry of Environment has notified Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules 2025 to address chemically contaminated sites across India. 

Relevance of the Topic:  Prelims: Salient Features of Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025. 

Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules 2025

  • Notified by the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
  • First formal legal mechanism in India to address the issue of contaminated land.
  • Aim: To establish a comprehensive legal and procedural framework to identify, assess, and remediate chemically contaminated sites across India.

Contaminated Sites:

  • According to the Central Pollution Control Board, contaminated sites are those where hazardous and other waste had been dumped historically.
  • These sites may include landfills, dumps, waste storage and treatment sites, spill sites, and chemical waste handling and storage sites.
  • India has identified 103 such sites, but remedial operations have been initiated in only seven. 
  • Some of the sites were contaminated when there was no regulation on management of hazardous waste.

Salient Features of the Rules:

The rules define a step-by-step legal procedure to identify and clean up contaminated sites. Under these rules: 

  • The district administration would prepare half-yearly reports on suspected contaminated sites.
  • A State Board, or a reference organisation, would examine these sites and provide a preliminary assessment within 90 days of being informed. Following these, it would have another 3 months to make a detailed survey and finalise if these sites were indeed contaminated. 
  • A reference organisation, basically a body of experts, would be tasked with specifying a remediation plan. 
  • The State Board would also have 90 days to identify the person(s) responsible for the contamination. Those deemed responsible would have to pay for the cost of remediation of the site. Else, the Centre and the State, under a prescribed arrangement, would arrange for the costs of clean-up. 
  • Any criminal liability, if it is proved that such contamination caused loss of life or damage would be under the provisions of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (2023).

India’s 1st Private Test Facility for Heavy Water Upgrade

Context: Mumbai-based TEMA India has been entrusted with testing the equipment required for upgrading of depleted heavy water, a crucial requirement for Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors in India. It is a significant step towards speeding up the operationalisation of nuclear power plants. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: India’s 1st private test facility for Heavy Water Upgrade; Heavy Water; Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors. 

India’s 1st Private Test Facility for Heavy Water Upgrade

  • Until now, the assembling and testing of equipment for heavy water upgrade were centralised and done by Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).
  • TEMA India has inaugurated its test facility at Achchad in Palghar district, Maharashtra, where it will manufacture equipment such as distillation columns and integrate and test them before sending them to reactor sites for installation.
  • The facility was designed and built by TEMA India’s nuclear vertical under technology transfer from BARC and a ‘purchase order’ from Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL).

Significance:  

  • Single-point solutionfor upgrading heavy water:
    • Till now, the distillation columns and modules were manufactured by other vendors, and then assembled and tested by BARC. The entire process took 7-8 years. 
    • The decentralisation will reduce the time period by at least one to two years, and thus speeden up the operationalisation of nuclear power plants. 

What is Heavy Water?

  • Heavy water (D2O) is a form of water (H2O) with deuterium (a heavier isotope of hydrogen), instead of regular hydrogen. 
  • It is used as a coolant as well as moderator for slowing down fast-moving neutrons during a chain reaction essential for sustaining the nuclear fission process.
  • D2O needs to be 99.9% pure for working efficiently. With time it gets contaminated with light or regular water, thus requiring the depleted D2O to be upgraded back to 99.9% using a distillation process. 
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TEMA India has dispatched the first batch of tested distillation column sections for deployment at a unit of the Rawatbhata Nuclear Power Plant (RAPP-8) in Rajasthan, which is scheduled to go critical by December 2025.

Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor:

  • Fuel: Natural Uranium (unenriched) 
  • Moderator and Coolant: Heavy water is used as both moderator and coolant. 
  • Cooling System: Uses a combination of heavy water and light water to cool the reactor. Heat is transferred to a secondary loop, which then generates steam to drive turbines.
  • Control Rods: Boron or Cadmium control rods.
  • Fuel requirement: Annual requirement of fuel (UO2) of a 700 MW PHWR (at 85% Capacity Factor) is about 125 tons. 
  • Advantages: Uses natural Uranium fuel, produces less high-level radioactive waste, and operates at lower pressures compared to some other reactor types.
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India’s Nuclear Energy Generation Target

  • India has set its eyes at achieving 100 GW of installed nuclear energy capacity by 2047. 
  • There are 24 nuclear reactors operational in India with an installed capacity of 8780 MW. 
  • The government had approved construction of 10 more nuclear reactors in 2015- of which one has come onboard, while the rest (with a combined capacity of 13.6 GW) are under construction. 
  • The immediate target is to achieve 22.4 GW of installed capacity by 2032. 
  • The government has also launched a 20,000-crore Nuclear Energy Mission to develop Small Modular Reactors.

Also Read: Nuclear Energy Sector in Union Budget 2025-26 

Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill

Context: Maharashtra Legislative Assembly passed the Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill aiming to combat the perceived rise of "Urban Naxalism", and the activities of left-wing extremist (LWE) frontal organisations in the State.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill.

Mains: Impacts of such legislations on the Right to Freedom of Expression.

Maharashtra has become the fifth State after Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha to enact a Public Security Act for more effective prevention of unlawful activities of such organisations.

Why was the Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill introduced?

  • Maharashtra government claims that the State has become a safe haven for ‘Urban Naxal’ organisations. 
  • As per the State government, Over 60 Naxal-linked "frontal organisations" operate in the State, providing shelter, logistics, and support to armed Maoists.

What is Urban Naxal?

  • Urban Naxal is a political and security term used to describe individuals or groups in urban areas who are alleged to be sympathisers, supporters, or facilitators of Maoist ideology and Left-Wing Extremism (LWE).

Key Provisions of the Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill: 

  • The Bill empowers the government to declare organisations ‘illegal’ without due process.
  • Allows the government to extend ban on an organisation without any limit on the duration.
  • Section 2(f) of the Bill criminalises speech (spoken or written), signs, gestures or visual representations which ‘tend to interfere’ with public order or ‘cause concern’.
  • Excludes lower courts from jurisdiction, effectively closing off easy judicial remedies.
  • Allows the suppression of facts in public interest.
  • Provides full protection to State officials acting in good faith.
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Criticism of the Bill: 

  • The Bill empowers the government to declare organisations ‘illegal’ without due process and allows suppression of facts in ‘public interest’.
  • Vague terms like “tend to interfere with public order” or “cause concern” could criminalise dissent, satire, protests, or criticism. 
  • The ambiguity in the Bill has given rise to fear that it might be used against farmers’ organisations, students’ groups, civil rights groups, political opponents and critics under the label of ‘threat to public order’.
  • Critics argue that stringent laws like UAPA and existing State laws are already sufficient to tackle left-wing extremism.
  • It allows the government to extend a ban on an organisation without any limit on the duration. By excluding lower courts from jurisdiction, the Bill limits judicial remedies and violates principles of natural justice.

The argument in favour of the Bill is that it seeks to prevent Maoists from brainwashing youth, professionals, and civil servants through front organisations, and the new law would only target those who try to undermine the constitutional order. However, this does not deny the probability of misuse of the legislation.

Kudavolai System: Chola Ballot Pots 

Context: In a recent address at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Prime Minister of India highlighted Chola empire's indigenous democratic tradition, contrasting it with the often-cited Magna Carta of 1215 CE in Britain.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Chola Empire, Kudavolai System.

Mains: Features, relevance, and limitations of Cholas governance system.

Chola Empire

  • The Chola Empire (9th to 13th centuries CE) is one of the longest-ruling dynasties in South India. It is known for its maritime power, temple architecture, and democratic administrative systems. 
  • Long before the enlightenment in Europe birthed the ideals of representative governance, the Cholas had rules for local self-rule, literally inscribed into stone. 

Chola Democratic System

  • The Chola model of statecraft relied heavily on decentralised administrative systems. It was built on two core village-level institutions:
    • Sabha: Found in Brahmadeya villages (settlements gifted to Brahmins). Composed exclusively of Brahmin male members. Functioned through various committees (variyams) like garden committee, tank committee, justice committee, etc. Selection to these committees was often through the Kudavolai system.
    • Ur: For non-Brahmin villages. Peasant (Vellvangai) settlements were called Ur. Landholders of Ur (peasant village) acted as members of assembly Urar. Urar were entrusted with upkeep of temples, maintenance of tanks and managing water, and oversaw administrative functions like collection of revenue, maintenance of law & order. Less formal structure than Sabha, but still crucial to village-level decentralisation.
  • These were not symbolic councils, but functioning elected bodies with substantial powers over revenue, irrigation, temple management, and even justice.
  • The ‘Uttaramerur Inscription’ issued by Prantaka Chola offers detailed information about the world’s earliest surviving evidence of a formal electoral system called Kudavolai System.

Kudavolai System: Ballot Pot Elections

  • The Kudavolai system, meaning “ballot pot”, was an early electoral method used in Chola village assemblies.
  • Under this method:  
    • The names of eligible candidates were inscribed on palm leaves and placed inside a pot. 
    • A young boy, typically chosen for his impartiality, would draw the lot in full public view. 
    • The selected individual would assume a position in the village assembly.
  • This randomised draw was not a game of chance, but a civic ritual rooted in transparency, fairness, and collective consent. 
  • To ensure that power was not monopolised by dynastic elites, eligibility criteria under the system were strict. 

Eligibility & Disqualification Criteria:

  • Candidates had to own tax-paying land, be between 35 and 70 years old,
  • Possess knowledge of Vedic texts or administration, and 
  • Have no record of crime or domestic abuse. 
  • Debt defaulters, alcoholics, and close relatives of sitting members were disqualified. 

Accountability Mechanism

  • Annual audits were mandatory.
  • Misappropriation of funds or dereliction of duty could lead to disqualification from future office, a radical mechanism even by modern standards.
  • Inscription no. 24 from Epigraphia Indica details the dismissal of a treasury officer over embezzlement, followed by a fine.
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Trade:

  • By empowering merchant guilds such as the Manigramam and Ayyavole, and sustaining local assemblies, the Cholas expanded both trade and legitimacy. 

Limitation of Cholas Administration:

  • However, the Chola system was far from egalitarian in the modern sense. It excluded women, labourers, and landless groups. 

Also Read: Imperial Chola 

SC panel proposes power corridors through Great Indian Bustard habitat

Context: The Supreme Court panel has proposed power corridors to reroute overhead power lines in Bustard habitats in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The idea behind creating power corridors is to ensure that birds, especially in high-risk habitats are not forced to repeatedly navigate through a maze of criss-crossing power lines.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Great Indian Bustard. 

Great Indian Bustard

  • A large bird of the bustard family, it is one of the heaviest flying birds in the world.
  • Physical characteristics and behaviour:
    • Black crown on the forehead contrasting with the pale neck and head. 
    • The body is brownish and the wings are marked with black, brown and grey. 
    • Males and females generally grow to the same height and weight but males have larger black crowns and a black band across the breast. 
    • They breed mostly during the monsoon season when females lay a single egg on open ground. 
    • Males play no role in the incubation and care of the young, which remain with the mother till the next breeding season.
    • They feed on grass seeds, insects like grasshoppers and beetles, and sometimes even small rodents and reptiles.
  • Habitat: 
    • Bustards generally favour flat open landscapes with minimal visual obstruction and disturbance, therefore adapt well in grasslands. 
    • They avoid grasses taller than themselves and dense scrub like thickets.
  • Distribution: Its population is confined mostly to Rajasthan and Gujarat. Small populations occur in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
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Threats

The estimated population of the large bird- once considered a candidate for national bird- is below 150. 

  • Owing to its poor vision, the GIB is at high risk of injury and death due to collisions with high tension electric wires. 
  • Hunting and Occasional poaching for eggs outside Protected Areas 
  • Fast moving vehicles 
  • Free-ranging dogs in villages. 
  • Habitat loss and alteration as a result of widespread agricultural expansion and mechanised farming.
  • Infrastructural development such as irrigation, roads, electric poles, as well as mining and industrialisation.

Conservation Status:

  • IUCN Status: Critically Endangered
  • Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule I 
  • CITES: Appendix-I 
  • Declared as the state bird of Rajasthan. 

Conservation Efforts by Government of India

  • Listed in Schedule-I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, thereby accorded the highest degree of legal protection from hunting.
  • Important habitats of Great Indian Bustards are designated as National Parks/ sanctuaries for their better protection.
  • Identified for conservation efforts under the component ‘Species Recovery Programme’ of the Centrally Sponsored Scheme- Development of Wildlife Habitats. 
  • Conservation breeding has been undertaken in collaboration with Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra Forest Departments with technical support of Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
  • A satellite conservation breeding facility has been established at Sam, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.

Mangroves and role of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation

Context: July 26 is observed as the International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem. At the national level, M.S. Swaminathan was instrumental in revolutionising India's management of Mangroves.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Mangroves.

Mains: Significance of Mangroves and role of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation.

What are Mangroves ?

  • Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in intertidal coastal zones, where the land meets the sea, especially in tropical and subtropical regions.

Key Features of Mangroves:

  • Halophytes: They thrive in salty brackish water.
  • Aerial Roots (Pneumatophores): Help in breathing in oxygen-poor (anaerobic) soil.
  • Vivipary: Seeds germinate while still on the parent tree- a unique adaptation.
  • Buttress and Prop Roots: Provide stability in loose, waterlogged soils.
  • Habitat: Found in estuaries, lagoons, backwaters, and river deltas.

Ecological Importance:

  • Coastal Protection: Act as natural barriers against tsunamis, cyclones, storm surges, and erosion.
  • Carbon Sink: Store large amounts of carbon- called "blue carbon".
  • Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide breeding grounds for fish, crabs, mollusks, and migratory birds.
  • Water Purification : Filter sediments and pollutants from water flowing to the sea.

Mangroves in India

  • According to the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023, the total mangrove cover in India is 4,991.68 sq. km, which constitutes 0.15% of the country’s total geographical area.
  • Compared to ISFR 2019, there has been a net increase of 16.68 sq. km in mangrove cover across India.
  • Mangroves are known by different local names across various regions of India: Sundari Forest in West Bengal, Tivar Forest in Gujarat, Kandal Forests in Kerala etc.  
image 52

Contribution of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation

M.S Swaminathan played a pivotal role in mangrove restoration, conservation and management. 

  • Highlighted mangroves as a key solution to rising sea levels and cyclones at a Tokyo conference on climate change, at the climate change and Human Responses Conference in Tokyo in 1989.
  • Proposed sustainable mangrove management as a climate adaptation measure, rooted in:
    • Ecology- preserving coastal ecosystems
    • Economics- protecting livelihoods
    • Equity- involving local communities
  • Proposed using mangrove genes to develop salt-tolerant crops like rice.
  • Co-founded the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) and served as its first president (1990-93). ISME conducts assessment of economic and environmental values of mangrove forests, organises workshops on mangrove conservation and sustainable utilization, public World Mangrove Atlas.
  • Co-created the Charter for Mangroves and included it in the World Charter for Nature, prepared by the United Nations conference on Environment and Degradation. 
  • Supported creation of the Global Mangrove Database and Information System (GLOMIS) to document mangrove experts, research, and species.
  • Guided the evaluation of 23 mangrove sites across nine countries, leading to a global network of Mangrove Genetic Resource Centres.

Revolutionised India's Management of Mangroves: 

  • Moved attention from blaming local communities to identifying ecological causes of mangrove degradation, instead highlighted clear-felling and altered bio-physical conditions as the real cause of mangrove degradation.
  • Introduced the fishbone canal method, a hydro-ecological technique successfully tested in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal. This technique is used to artificially inundate areas that do not get regular tidal inundation.
  • Advocated for Joint Mangrove Management (JMM) involving local communities and State Forest Departments, 
  • His efforts led to increased government investments in mangrove conservation, especially after the 1999 Odisha cyclone and 2004 tsunami.

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