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India sets eyes on 10% of global Green Hydrogen demand

Context: India aims to capture 10% of the global green hydrogen demand by 2030, with significant progress made through the National Green Hydrogen Mission. The global green hydrogen demand is expected to exceed 100 million metric tonnes (MMT) by 2030. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Types of Hydrogen, National Hydrogen Mission

Mains: Benefits and Challenges in production of Green Hydrogen as a fuel. 

Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel

  • Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe. On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. However, Hydrogen is not present in the free state. Therefore, it must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
  • Hydrogen Fuel: Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct. 
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Green Hydrogen: 

  • Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy sources, such as wind and solar energy, which do not release greenhouse gases when generating electricity. 
  • Green hydrogen is made when water (H2O) is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) via a process known as electrolysis.

Other Types of Hydrogen:

Depending on the type of production used, different colour names are assigned to the hydrogen.

1. Grey Hydrogen: 

  • Grey hydrogen is produced using fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal. Grey hydrogen accounts for roughly 95% of the hydrogen produced in the world today.
  • The two main production methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification. Both of these processes release carbon dioxide (CO2).
  • If the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, then the hydrogen produced is referred to as grey hydrogen.

2. Blue Hydrogen: 

  • Blue hydrogen is similar to grey hydrogen, except that most of the CO2 emissions are sequestered (stored in the ground) using carbon capture and storage (CCS). 
  • Capturing and storing the carbon dioxide instead of releasing it into the atmosphere allows blue hydrogen to be a low-carbon fuel. 
  • Blue hydrogen is a cleaner alternative to grey hydrogen, but is expensive since carbon capture technology is used.

3. Pink Hydrogen: 

  • Pink hydrogen is produced through electrolysis of water but using energy from nuclear power, which does not produce any carbon dioxide emissions.
  • Pink hydrogen facilities can achieve a high capacity factor due to the steady base-load profile of nuclear power (involving both stability and density), as compared to the intermittent supply from renewable sources (solar, wind). 

4. Turquoise Hydrogen: Turquoise hydrogen is made using a process called methane pyrolysis. In this process methane is split into hydrogen and solid carbon with heating in reactors or blast furnaces.

National Green Hydrogen Mission:

  • National Green Hydrogen Mission was launched in 2023 with an outlay of Rs. 19,744 crores from FY 2024 to FY 2030.
  • Aim: To develop India into a global hub for production, usage and export of Green hydrogen and its derivatives.
  • The scheme has set out a goal of at least 5 million metric tonnes (MMT) of annual green hydrogen production capacity by 2030.
  • Initiative of: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).

As part of the mission, the government has awarded 3,000 megawatts of electrolyser manufacturing capacity to 15 companies, signaling a major industrial push.  

Recently, the government has announced that India aims to secure 10% of global green hydrogen demand, or 10 million metric tonnes (MMT) by 2030, which is an aspirational target than that set in the National Green Hydrogen Mission.  

Challenges associated with production of Green Hydrogen:

  • Renewable energy supply crunch: Achieving the target under the National Green Hydrogen Mission requires the installation of 125 GW of dedicated renewable energy and 250,000 gigawatt-hr. units of power (250 TWh), equivalent to about 13% of India’s present electricity generation. 
  • Relying on conventional energy sources: The main concern is that if electrolysers (which split water to produce hydrogen and oxygen) were to run 24x7, they would have to operate even at night when no solar power is available. This would then mean tapping into conventional coal-fired electricity (about 70% of the electricity on the grid is coal-generated).
  • Burning Biomass: India’s standards allow the use of biomass to produce green hydrogen, which results in carbon emissions when burnt.
  • Technological constraints: The challenge is to compress or liquify Hydrogen. It needs to be kept at a stable minus 253°C (far below the temperature of (-) 163°C at which Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is stored; making its ‘prior to use cost’ extremely high.
  • Prohibitive Costs: The production cost of green hydrogen has been a prime obstacle. Research conducted by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) indicates that the cost of its production is about $1.5 per kg by 2030 (for countries with eternal sunshine and huge unoccupied areas) if several conservative measures are implemented.
  • Lack of Manufacturing and deployment of electrolysers: India’s current electrolysers manufacturing capacity is around 0.4 GW, which needs to be scaled to ~200 GW by 2050.
  • High cost of storage system: Fuel cells which convert hydrogen fuel to usable energy for cars, are still expensive.

Way Forward

Development of technology to produce green hydrogen is expensive. However, falling prices for renewable energy and fuel cells and stringent climate change regulations have spurred investment in the sector. 

  • Investing in R&D and promoting private sector participation in the hydrogen economy.
  • Developing standardised procedures, rules and standards for hydrogen economy which will standardise and scale up production. 
  • Mandating large users of hydrogen to shift to green hydrogen such as refineries, iron, and steel plants etc. For example, a minimum green hydrogen mandate can be introduced in such industries. 
  • Green hydrogen facilities can be created at sites where the cost of producing renewable energy is lowest. E.g., in the Thar desert region in Rajasthan and Ladakh etc.
  • Facilitating international trade in clean & green hydrogen.

Also Read: Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: Explained 

China’s Xinjiang-Tibet Railway Project

Context: China has recently set up the Xinjiang-Xizang Railway Co. Ltd. to construct a high-altitude railway line linking Hotan in Xinjiang with Shigatse and Lhasa in Tibet.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: China’s Xinjiang-Tibet Railway Project. 

China’s Xinjiang-Tibet Railway Project

  • The project is part of Beijing’s larger “Go West Strategy” to integrate its underdeveloped western regions.
  • The line will connect two restive and strategically sensitive frontier provinces – the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (northwest) and the Tibet Autonomous Region (south).
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Key Features of the Project: 

  • The Xinjiang-Xizang line will run from Hotan in northwest China’s Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region to Shigatse and Lhasa in Xizang, Tibet.
  • The project is a part of five planned railway corridors into Tibet, aimed at building a comprehensive rail network across the high-altitude region.
  • The route is expected to run close to the Line of Actual Control (LAC) and may pass through Aksai Chin, Indian territory occupied by China since 1962.

Significance of the Project: 

The project has multiple aims including facilitation of the movement of soldiers to harness untapped economic potential in these regions.

  • Political Integration of Frontier Regions: Xinjiang and Tibet are historically prone to separatism and unrest. Enhanced connectivity strengthens the Chinese state’s presence and integrates them more tightly into Beijing’s administrative framework.
  • Cultural Assimilation (Sinicisation): The railway facilitates Han Chinese migration into minority regions. This supports the policy of Sinicisation, which aims to assimilate local Uyghur and Tibetan populations into the dominant Han culture.
  • Military and Strategic Utility: The railway provides the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) with faster troop mobilisation and logistical support in high-altitude areas.
  • Economic Development of the West: The project seeks to unlock resources, promote trade, and generate employment in historically underdeveloped western provinces.

Implications for India:  

  • The railway may pass through Aksai Chin, strengthening China’s control over the Indian territory occupied by China since 1962.
  • It will improve the PLA’s mobility and logistics, giving China a military edge along the LAC.

Taking stock of India-China Bilateral Ties 

Context: Recently, the Chinese Foreign Minister paid a two day official visit to New Delhi, first such visit since 2021. He co-chaired the 24th round of the Special Representatives’ dialogue on the Boundary Question between India and China with India’s National Security Advisor.

Relevance of the Topic : Mains: India and its Neighbourhood: India-China Relations. 

India-China relations constitute one of the most significant bilateral equations in contemporary international politics. Characterised by deep economic interdependence, multilateral cooperation, and persistent strategic distrust, the relationship has been under strain since the 2020 Galwan clashes

Recent talks between Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi and Indian leadership, along with the planned Modi-Xi meeting at the upcoming SCO Summit in Tianjin, indicate renewed efforts to stabilise borders, rebuild economic ties, and restore strategic trust.

Key Developments of Chinese Foreign Minister’s Visit

Border Management and Security: 

  • Both sides agreed to establish new mechanisms under the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC) on India-China Border Affairs:
    • Expert Group to explore early harvest outcomes in boundary delimitation.
    • Working Group to advance effective border management in order to maintain peace and tranquillity in the border areas.
    • General Level Mechanisms in the Eastern and Middle Sectors, in addition to the existing General Level Mechanism in Western Sector. 
  • Both sides reiterated that peace and tranquillity along the LAC is essential for overall ties.

Political and Diplomatic Engagement: 

  • Indian Prime Minister Modi stated that India-China relations must be guided by mutual respect, sensitivity, and shared interests.

Economic and People-to-People Ties: 

  • Agreement to resume direct flight connectivity and finalise an updated Air Services Agreement.
  • Decision to reopen border trade routes at Lipulekh Pass, Shipki La Pass, and Nathu La Pass.
  • China assured India of addressing its needs for fertilisers, rare earth minerals, and tunnel boring machines.
  • Revival of Kailash-Mansarovar Yatra and planning of people-to-people exchanges to mark the 75th anniversary of diplomatic ties in 2025.
  • Agreement to facilitate visas for tourists, businesses, media, and other visitors.

Strategic and Regional Issues: 

  • India strongly raised concerns about cross-border terrorism from Pakistan, with both sides agreeing that SCO must prioritise counter-terrorism.
  • India expressed concerns over China’s mega dam on the Brahmaputra (Yarlung Tsangpo), stressing the need for transparency and data-sharing.
  • On trans-border rivers cooperation, the Chinese side agreed to share hydrological information during emergency situations based on humanitarian considerations. 
  • Both sides agreed to cooperate on multilateral issues, uphold a rules-based WTO system, and promote a multipolar world.
  • India and China pledged reciprocal support for hosting BRICS summits in 2026 and 2027.

Challenges in India-China Relations: 

  • Taiwan Controversy: China’s readout claimed Jaishankar acknowledged Taiwan as part of China. India clarified no change in policy, i.e., relations with Taiwan remain economic, technological, cultural.
  • Trust Deficit from repeated Chinese incursions on the border: Depsang in 2013, Chumar in 2014, Doklam in 2017, Galwan in 2020. 
  • Chinese Projects on Brahmaputra: India remains cautious of hydrological risks and ecological consequences.
  • China-Pakistan Axis: India continues to be wary of China’s all-weather friendship with Pakistan. China’s military cooperation with Pakistan was on display during Operation Sindoor, when the Chinese supplied weapons and live intelligence to the Pakistanis. 
  • China’s export restrictions: India is concerned at China’s export restrictions on rare earths, tunnel boring machines, and fertilisers, which are key to India’s development and food security.

The Wang Yi visit and the upcoming Modi-Xi meeting represent an opportunity for recalibration in India-China relations. The litmus test remains peace and stability on the border. For India, the challenge will be to remain firm on sovereignty while pragmatic on cooperation.

Also Read: India-China Relations: Developments & Challenges 

Election Commission of India: Powers & Criticism

Context: The Election Commission of India (ECI) is constitutionally mandated to conduct free and fair elections. With the ongoing Special Intensive Revision (SIR) controversy in Bihar, the credibility of ECI is being questioned. In a functional democracy, reinforcing trust in ECI is crucial to ensure the principle of one person, one vote.

Relevance: Prelims: Powers and functions of Election Commission of India. Mains: Election Commission: Reforms Needed & Way Forward.

Election Commission of India

  • The Election Commission is a permanent and an independent body established by the Constitution of India directly to ensure free and fair elections in the country. 
  • Article 324 of the Constitution provides that the power of superintendence, direction, and control of elections vested in the Election Commission, related to:
    • Parliament
    • State legislatures
    • Office of President of India
    • Office of Vice-President of India 
  • Article 324 (2): Election Commission shall consist of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and such number of Election Commissioners (ECs), as the President may fix from time-to-time. 
  • Article 324 of the Constitution and the CEC and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023 lay down provisions regarding the appointment, tenure, and removal of the CEC.

Election Commission of India: Powers & Criticism

Powers and functions of ECI: 

The powers and functions of the Election Commission with regard to elections to the Parliament, state legislatures and offices of President and Vice-President can be classified into three categories: Administrative, Advisory and Quasi-Judicial.  In detail, these powers and functions are: 

  1. To determine the territorial areas of the electoral constituencies throughout the country on the basis of the Delimitation Commission Act of Parliament.
  2. To prepare and periodically revise electoral rolls and to register all eligible voters. 
  3. To notify the dates and schedules of elections and to scrutinize nomination papers. 
  4. To grant recognition to political parties and allot election symbols to them.
  5. To act as a court for settling disputes related to granting of recognition to political parties and allotment of election symbols to them. 
  6. To appoint officers for enquiring into disputes relating to electoral arrangements. 
  7.  To determine the code of conduct to be observed by the parties and the candidates at the time of elections.
  8. To prepare a roster for publicity of the policies of the political parties on radio and TV in times of elections.
  9. To advise the President on matters relating to the disqualifications of the members of Parliament.
  10. To advise the governor on matters relating to the disqualifications of the members of the state legislature.
  11. To cancel polls in the event of rigging, booth capturing, violence and other irregularities.
  12. To request the President or the governor for requisitioning the staff necessary for conducting elections.
  13. To supervise the machinery of elections throughout the country to ensure free and fair elections.
  14. To advise the President whether elections can be held in a state under the president's rule in order to extend the period of emergency after one year. 
  15. To register political parties for the purpose of elections and grant them the status of national or state parties based on their poll performance. 

Criticism and Challenges faced by the Election Commission of India: 

  • Executive Control in Appointment: Parliament replaced the SC’s interim tripartite panel (PM + LoP + CJI) with a selection committee (PM + a Cabinet Minister nominated by the PM + LoP) to appoint CEC, creating a built-in 2:1 executive majority. This selection committee design for the appointment of CEC weakens institutional independence of the Election Commission.
  • Limited Safeguards to ensure Independence:
    • Article 324 does not lay out specific qualifications (educational, professional, or otherwise) for appointment of CEC and ECs. 
    • The Constitution does not bar retiring CEC and ECs and from holding further government office. In the past, retired CEC and ECs have been appointed to the posts like Governor etc. This leaves the scope for partisan approach in their conduct in the anticipation of post-retirement allurements. 
  • Lack of Financial Autonomy:  As per the current practice, ECI’s expense is voted and approved by Parliament thereby giving financial discretion to the Parliament. The expenses of ECI are not charged upon Consolidated Fund of India, making EC dependent on the central government in financial matters. 
  • Lack of Security of Tenure to ECs: While CEC can only be removed on the grounds as needed for the removal of a Supreme Court judge; ECs can be removed from office on the CEC's recommendation. This makes ECs vulnerable and affects their ability to act independently.
  • Lack of Permanent Staff: ECI does not have independent staff of its own, and is dependent upon staff of Central and State Governments for administrative staff whenever elections take place. This hampers efficient functioning of the Commission posing incidents like power tussles between ECI and state government staff in certain states.
  • Limited Power to regulate Political Parties: ECI does not have an explicit power to deregister political parties in any event (except on limited grounds such as registration obtained by fraud). ECI does not have any power to enforce internal democracy with political parties and has limited power in regulating party finances.
  • Reduced Transparency: The ongoing SIR controversy in Bihar which led to the exclusion of 65 Lakh voters from the electoral rolls adds to the allegations of manipulation of electoral rolls by ECI. Similar claims of voter roll manipulation including duplicate and bulk registrations have been seen in the past, which undermines the credibility of ECI.  

Way Forward

Recommendations of 255th Law Commission Report (2015):   

  • Need for Parity in the removal process of Election Commissioners.
  • EC’s expense to be charged on Consolidated Fund of India to ensure financial autonomy.
  • Separate and Independent Secretariat: Having powers to appoint, transfer and promote its staff and officers. This will insulate personnel from executive and political interference.
  • Collegium based Appointment: Appointment of all the ECs, including CEC, should be made by the President in consultation with a three-member collegium or selection committee, consisting of Prime Minister; Leader of the Opposition of the Lok Sabha (or the leader of the largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha) and the Chief Justice of India.
  • Elevation of an Election Commissioner should be on the basis of seniority - unless the three member collegium/committee, for reasons to be recorded in writing, finds such Commissioner unfit. 
  • EC must have power to de-register political parties.  
  • Common Electoral Roll for Parliament, Assembly and Local Elections: This will avoid duplicity of effort and resources by EC and SEC.

Governor Can Act Independently: A-G

Context: The Attorney-General of India submitted before a five-judge Bench headed by the Chief Justice of India that a Governor’s power to withhold assent to a proposed State legislation is an act independent of the Council of Ministers.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Constitutional Provisions on Governor’s Role. Mains: Governor: Powers, challenges & way forward. 

Constitutional Provisions on Governor’s Role

  • Article 163: Council of Ministers to aid and advise the Governor.
    • Article 163 (1): There shall be a Council of Ministers led by the Chief Minister to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions, except in matters where the Constitution allows him to act on his own discretion.
    • Article 163 (2): If any question arises with respect to whether a matter falls under Governors' discretionary power or not, the governor’s decision will be final. The validity of anything done by the governor in his discretion will not be called into question.
    • Article 163 (3): The advice given by the Ministers to the Governor shall not be inquired into any court.
  • Article 200: When a bill is sent to the governor after it is passed by state legislature, he can:
    • Give the assent to the bill
    • Withhold the assent to the bill
    • Return the bill (if not a money bill) for reconsideration of the state legislature. However, if the bill is passed again by the state legislature with or without amendments, the governor has to give assent to the bill
    • Reserve the bill for the consideration of the President.

The controversy lies in withholding the assent to the bill- whether it is a discretionary power or subject to ministerial advice. 

Governor Can Act Independently: A-G 

  • The Attorney-General of India submitted before a five-judge Bench headed by the Chief Justice of India that a Governor’s power to withhold assent to a proposed State legislation is an act independent of the Council of Ministers.
  • The Governor cannot be expected to be bound by the advice of the House if the proposed State law was found to be unconstitutional. In such cases, the Governor can act outside the aid and advice of the Council, and even contrary to the mandate of the House/Council of Ministers. 
  • A power to withhold necessarily involves personal independent judgment, guided by settled principles of laws. The 42nd Constitutional Amendment made Article 74 (1) explicit that the President shall act in accordance with the Cabinet advice. But Article 163 (Governors) was not amended to match Article 74. 

Relevant Court Cases: 

  • Shamsher Singh v. State of Punjab (1974): The Supreme Court clarified that the Governor must act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, except in situations where the Constitution explicitly allows the Governor to act in his discretion. 
  • State of Rajasthan v. Union of India (1977): This case dealt with the role of the Governor under Article 356, which is related to President’s Rule. While discussing Article 163, the Supreme Court emphasised that the Governor's discretion is limited and he must act on the advice of the Council of Ministers, except in specific situations provided by the Constitution.
  • S. R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994): Primarily a case on Article 356, it also discussed the role of the Governor under Article 163. The Supreme Court held that the Governor's report to the President under Article 356 must be based on objective material, and the Governor’s actions are subject to judicial review.
  • M. P. Special Police Establishment v. State of Madhya Pradesh (2004): This case dealt with the Governor’s discretion in granting sanction for prosecution. The Supreme Court ruled that in certain circumstances, the Governor may act independently of the Council of Ministers, especially where the ministers themselves are under investigation. 

Issues and Concerns: 

  • Undefined scope of discretionary powers: The Constitution does not clearly define the scope of discretionary powers with the governor, thus leaving the scope for misuse. 
  • Erosion of Federalism: Frequent withholding or reserving of bills can delay state legislations and undermine elected government.   

Hence, this may lead to the situations when governors may have political bias and can act as the agent of the Union government. 

Way Forward

  • Sarkaria Commission (1988): Governor should be a detached figure and not too intimately connected with the local politics of the State. Discretion should be used sparingly; reserve bills only when required by the Constitution (as a last resort).
  • Punchhi Commission (2007): Article 163 does not give the Governor a general discretionary power to act against the advice of the Council of Ministers. The exercise of discretion is limited, and it must be dictated by reason, activated by good faith, and tempered by caution.
  • Nabam Rebia and Bamang Felix vs Deputy Speaker (2016): The Governor cannot withhold assent to a Bill indefinitely, but must return it to the Assembly with a message, and this could include his recommendation for amendments to the Bill.
  • State of Punjab vs Principal Secretary to Governor of Punjab (2023): Governor can not veto the legislature by indefinitely withholding assent to the bill. In case the bill is re-enacted, the governor does not exercise discretion to withhold the re-enacted bill.
  • SC’s Judgment in Tamil Nadu Governor case (2025): SC has prescribed a time limit for the Governor to exercise his powers under Article 200. The court said that a governor must be a friend, guide and philosopher to the State, not a hindrance.
    • The governor has a maximum of one month to withhold the assent based on the aid and advice of the State Cabinet. 
    • The governor has a maximum period of three months to return the bill by specifying reasons, if the bill is withheld contrary to the advice of the Cabinet. 
    • The governor has a maximum period of three months to reserve the bill for the President's consideration against the advice of the Cabinet. 
    • The governor must grant assent to the bill re-passed by the state legislature under Article 200 within a maximum period of one month. 

Hence, there is a need to align the Governor’s role with cooperative federalism, as envisioned by the Constitution.

Also Read: The Governor 

Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Bill 2025

Context: The Union Minister for Commerce and Industry introduced the Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Bill, 2025 or Jan Vishwas Bill 2.0 in the Lok Sabha. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key features of Jan Vishwas Bill 2.0. Mains: Govt. initiatives towards Ease of doing Business reforms. 

Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Bill, 2025

  • The Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Bill, 2025 aims at amending 355 provisions — 288 provisions decriminalised to foster Ease of Doing Business, and 67 provisions proposed to be amended to facilitate Ease of Living.
  • The Bill covers 16 Central Acts administered by 10 ministries/departments. 
  • Aim: To decriminalise and rationalise minor offences under Central Acts to enhance trust-based governance for ease of living and ease of doing business.

Key features of the Bill : 

  • First-time contraventions: Advisory or warning for 76 offences under 10 Acts. E.g., Under Motor Vehicles Act, needless honking earlier attracted fines from the first offence; now a warning will be given for the first instance, and the fine applies only for repeat offences.
  • Decriminalisation: Imprisonment clauses for minor, technical or procedural defaults replaced with monetary penalties or warnings. E.g., Manufacture/sale of Ayurvedic drugs under the Drugs & Cosmetics Act, 1940 earlier attracted 6 months’ imprisonment + fine of ₹10,000. Under the new Bill, imprisonment is removed, replaced with a fine up to ₹30,000.
  • Rationalisation of penalties: Penalties made proportionate, with graduated penalties for repeated offences.
  • Adjudication mechanisms: Designated officers empowered to impose penalties through administrative processes, reducing judicial burden.
  • Revision of fines and penalties: Automatic 10% increase every three years to maintain deterrence without legislative amendments.

Among the laws that will be amended include:  

  • The Motor Vehicles Act 1988  
  • Reserve Bank of India Act 1934 
  • Central Silk Board Act 1948 
  • Road Transport Corporations Act 1950 
  • Tea Act 1953 
  • Apprentices Act 1961 
  • Coir Industry Act 1953
  • The Delhi Municipal Corporation Act 1957
  • New Delhi Municipal Council Act 1994
  • Electricity Act 2003 
  • Textile Committee Act 1963

Jan Vishwas Act 2023

The Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Bill, 2025 builds on the Jan Vishwas Act, 2023, which was the first consolidated legislation aimed at systematically decriminalising minor offences across multiple Central Acts. For instance:  

  • Originally, Section 41 of the Food Corporations Act, 1964 penalised unauthorised use of FCI’s name in any prospectus/advertisement with up to 6 months’ imprisonment or ₹1,000 fine or both. This penal clause was later omitted by the Jan Vishwas Act as part of decriminalisation measures.
  • Similarly, the provision of imprisonment up to 6 months was removed from the Section 33 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927 for tree felling or damage caused by cattle in protected forests, and Rs 500 fine was kept.

Significance of Jan Vishwas Bill 2.0: 

  • Promotes Ease of Doing Business (EoDB): Removes fear of criminal prosecution for small lapses.
  • Facilitates Ease of Living (EoL): Reduces compliance burden for citizens in everyday activities.
  • Trust-based Governance: Shifts from punitive criminalisation to a trust-based model of compliance and correction.
  • Reduces Judicial Burden: Minor defaults handled administratively, freeing courts from trivial cases.
  • Regulatory Modernisation: Omits archaic laws and irrelevant provisions.
  • Economic Growth: Creates a business-friendly, predictable regulatory environment, encouraging investments.

The Bill marks a significant milestone in India’s regulatory reform journey. It reflects the Government’s commitment to “Minimum Government, Maximum Governance” and will catalyse sustainable economic growth and improved ease of doing business.

Also Read: An Analysis of The Jan Vishwas Act 

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When can Courts Order a Recount of Votes?

Context: Recently, the Supreme Court of India overturned the sarpanch election result of a village in Panipat, Haryana. The Court ordered a recount of votes by summoning Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) to its own premises in New Delhi, marking the first known instance of the apex court directly recounting EVM votes.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Legal Framework for Challenging Elections, Grounds for Invalidating an Election, When Courts Can Order a Recount of Votes.Mains: Role of Judiciary in Free and Fair Elections.

Legal Framework for Challenging Elections: 

  • The validity of the results of Parliamentary, Assembly or State Council elections can be challenged by filing an election petition before the High Court of the particular state in which the election was conducted. 
  • In the case of local body elections, such petitions are to be filed before the district-level civil courts.
  • Who can file? A candidate or an elector related to the election.
  • Timeframe: Petition must be filed within 45 days of declaration of results.
  • The petition must contain a concise statement of material facts on which the challenge is based. If it alleges corrupt practices, it must specify the names of the persons involved, the nature of the act, and the date and place of occurrence.
  • The Supreme Court has held that allegations of corrupt practices are quasi-criminal and require strict standards of proof. Vague or ambiguous claims are not entertained, and petitions lacking material facts can be dismissed at the outset.

Grounds for Invalidating an Election

Courts can declare an election void on several grounds. This includes :

  • Bribery, undue influence, such as a candidate failing to disclose their criminal antecedents or promoting enmity among social groups.
  • If the winning candidate was not qualified or was disqualified on the date of their election.
  • Improper rejection of a nomination paper of an electoral candidate.
  • Improper acceptance of a nomination or the improper reception or rejection of votes (but only when it is proven that these actions materially affected the election’s outcome).
  • And non-compliance with the Constitution or any election laws and rules, if such non-compliance materially affected the result.

When can Courts order a Recount of Votes?

A recount of votes is one of the remedies a court can order, but it is not granted lightly. As it involves re-examining ballots, it is seen as potentially compromising the secrecy of the vote, a cornerstone of free and fair elections. Therefore, a court will only order a recount if : 

  • The petitioner presents specific material facts, and
  • Provides sufficient evidence to establish a prima facie case that a counting error is probable and has materially affected the result.

Courts usually order vote recounts to take place at the location where the election was held, unlike in the case of the Panipat sarpanch election dispute, in which the SC recounted the votes at its premises.

Role of Judiciary in Ensuring Free and Fair Elections: 

  • Adjudication of Election Disputes: Under Article 329(b) and the Representation of the People Act, 1951, judiciary acts as the final arbiter of election disputes, upholding the rule of law in the electoral process.
  • Enforcement of Electoral Law: Ensures compliance with the Constitution, statutory provisions, and electoral rules, thereby upholding the rule of law in the electoral process.
  • Checking Electoral Malpractices: Declares elections void in cases of corrupt practices, undue influence, bribery, or disqualification, preventing the erosion of the electoral mandate.
  • Balancing Ballot Secrecy with Electoral Justice: Recounts are ordered only on prima facie proof of irregularities, reflecting judicial restraint while ensuring electoral justice without undermining ballot secrecy.

In Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975), the SC declared free and fair elections as part of the Basic Structure, making electoral integrity non-negotiable.

Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY)

Context: According to the data presented by the Finance Ministry, over 13 crore Jan Dhan Accounts, i.e., 23% of the total 56 crore opened till July 31, 2025 are inoperative. The amount parked in these accounts stands at over ₹2.64 lakh crore.
Under Reserve Bank of India norms, a savings account is classified as inoperative/dormant if no transactions are recorded for over two years.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana.

Mains: Govt. initiatives towards financial inclusion.

What is financial inclusion?

Financial Inclusion refers to universal access to a wide range of financial services at an affordable cost. These include not only banking products (basic savings, deposit accounts, remittance and credit) but also other financial services such as insurance, pension and equity products.

What are the benefits of financial inclusion?

  • Efficient Mobilization of Resources: When more people come under the banking sector, it leads to increased deposits, allowing for easier mobilization of resources for investment and productive purposes.
  • Poverty Alleviation: Access to formal credit and financial services enables poor households to access cheaper credit, which can help in their economic empowerment. It also prevents them from falling into debt traps, which are often associated with informal or exploitative lending practices.
  • Formalization of the Economy: Financial inclusion helps bring more individuals and businesses into the formal financial sector. This can lead to better regulation and tax compliance.

As per census 2011, only 58% of households are availing banking services in the country.

PM Jan-Dhan Yojana

PM Jan-Dhan Yojana

Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) was launched to improve financial inclusion. Under the scheme, a basic savings bank deposit account can be opened in any bank branch or Business Correspondent (Bank Mitra) outlet, by persons not having any other account.

Benefits under PMJDY

  • One basic savings bank account is opened for unbanked person.
  • There is no requirement to maintain any minimum balance in PMJDY accounts.
  • Interest is earned on the deposit in PMJDY accounts.
  • Rupay Debit card is provided to PMJDY account holder.
  • Accident Insurance Cover of Rs.2 lakh is available.
  • An overdraft (OD) facility up to Rs. 10,000 to eligible account holders is available.
  • PMJDY accounts are eligible for all the Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) schemes MUDRA scheme.

Impact of PMJDY

The Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) has been widely regarded as a successful and transformative financial inclusion program in India. Here's an assessment of the key achievements and impact of the PMJDY:

  • Expansion of Banking Access: The scheme significantly increased the number of bank account holders, especially in the unbanked and underbanked segments of the population. As on July 31, 2024, there are 52.99 crore total beneficiaries (account-holders) with total account balance of more than ₹2 lakh crore.
  • Direct Benefit Transfers: The PMJDY has enabled the direct transfer of government benefits, subsidies, and welfare payments directly into the beneficiaries' bank accounts. This has improved the targeting and delivery of government schemes, reducing leakages and improving transparency.
  • Women's Financial Inclusion: The PMJDY has a specific focus on promoting women's financial inclusion, with over 55% of the Jan Dhan accounts being held by women.
  • Financial Literacy and Awareness: The PMJDY has incorporated financial literacy and awareness campaigns to educate the beneficiaries on the use of their bank accounts and various financial services.

Who decides nominations to UT Assemblies?

Context: The Union Home Ministry, in an affidavit before the J&K and Ladakh High Court, submitted that the Lieutenant Governor (LG) of Jammu & Kashmir can nominate five members to the Legislative Assembly of J&K without the aid and advice of the elected Council of Ministers. 

This has revived debates on the constitutional scheme governing nomination of legislators and the principles of democratic accountability in Union Territories (UTs).

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Constitutional provisions for nominated members in Parliament, State legislatures, and UT Assemblies.

Mains: Federal balance between Centre and UTs, Role of LG vs elected government in UTs.

Constitutional and Statutory Provisions on Nominated Members

Indian Constitution provides for nominated members in the houses of Parliament and State legislature. 

  • Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies: The provision for nominating two Anglo-Indian members to the Lok Sabha and one Anglo-Indian member to State Legislative Assemblies was discontinued in 2020 (104th Constitutional Amendment, 2020).
  • Rajya Sabha (Article 80): Rajya Sabha has 12 nominated members. These members are nominated by the President on the aid and advice of the Union Council of Ministers. 
  • States With Legislative Councils (Article 171): In the six States with Legislative Councils, nearly one-sixth of the members are nominated. These members are nominated by the Governors on the advice of the States’ Council of Ministers. 
  • Union Territories: The composition of the Legislative Assemblies of three Union Territories (UT) are governed by Acts of Parliament. 

Provisions on Nominated Members in Union Territories

  • Delhi: The Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi Act 1991 provides for 70 elected members in the Delhi Assembly. There are no nominated MLAs in the Delhi Assembly.
  • Puducherry: The Government of Union Territories Act 1963 provides for 30 elected members in the Legislative Assembly of Puducherry. It also provides that the Union government may nominate up to three members to the Puducherry Assembly. 
  • Jammu & Kashmir:
    • Section 14 of the J&K Reorganisation Act, 2019 (as amended in 2023) provides for a total of 90 elected seats in the Legislative Assembly of J&K.
    • In addition, Sections 15, 15A and 15B provide that the LG may nominate a total of up to five members (two women, two Kashmiri migrants and one displaced person from Pakistan occupied Kashmir) to the J&K Assembly.

What have the Courts ruled? 

K. Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India (2018) case: 

  • The Madras High Court upheld the power of the Union government to nominate three members to the Assembly and such nomination need not be based on the advice of the UT’s Council of Ministers.
  • However, the court also recommended that Parliament should bring statutory amendments to lay down a clear and unambiguous procedure for nomination of MLAs, including who will exercise this power and on what basis.
  • However, the Supreme Court on appeal had set aside the recommendations in this judgment of the Madras High Court. 

Government of NCT of Delhi versus Union of India (2023) case: 

  • The Supreme Court had delved into the concept of ‘triple chain of command’ that ensures democratic accountability.
  • In this ‘triple chain of command’ opined by the court, civil servants are accountable to ministers; ministers are accountable to the legislature; and the legislature is accountable to the electorate.
  • Therefore, it is held that the LG is bound by the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers in all matters, except where the Delhi Assembly does not have legislative powers.
  • Although this case dealt with appointment of officers in the Delhi Government, its reasoning may apply to the nomination of MLAs as well.

Way Forward

A UT does not enjoy the same status of a full-fledged State in the Indian federal set up. However, UTs with Assemblies have their own elected governments that are accountable to its population, therefore 

  • Political differences between the Union government and a UT government should not derail the democratic process in the UTs. 
  • The process of nomination must be based on the advice of the elected Council of Ministers as in smaller assemblies like that of J&K and Puducherry, these nominated MLAs can have the potential of converting a majority government into a minority one and vice versa, thereby rupturing popular mandates. 
  • J&K is a special case as it was a State till 2019 with greater autonomy than others. Though its conversion into a UT has been upheld by the Supreme Court, the Union Government has promised early restoration of statehood. Hence, the LG should nominate five members to the J&K Assembly on the advice of the Council of Ministers to uphold democratic principles.

Removal Process of Chief Election Commissioner of India 

Context: After the Election Commission of India dismissed allegations of electoral fraud as “baseless and invalid”, the INDIA bloc is considering moving a motion of removal of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) during the ongoing session of Parliament.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Removal process of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC). 

About Election Commission of India

  • The Election Commission is a permanent and an independent body established by the Constitution of India directly to ensure free and fair elections in the country. 
  • Article 324 of the Constitution provides that the power of superintendence, direction, and controlof elections vested in the Election Commission, related to:
    • Parliament
    • State legislatures
    • Office of President of India
    • Office of Vice-President of India 
  • Election Commission is an All-India body i.e., it is common to both the Central government and the state governments. 

Chief Election Commissioner of India

Article 324 of the Constitution and the CEC and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023 lay down provisions regarding the appointment, tenure, and removal of the CEC.

  • Article 324(2): 
    • Election Commission shall consist of the Chief Election Commissioner and such number of Election Commissioners, as the President may fix from time-to-time. 
    • Appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners are made by the President, subject to the law enacted by the Parliament. Parliament has enacted the CEC and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023. 
  • The Election Commission was a single-member body when it was set up in 1950. This system lasted until 1989 with the CEC as the lone member. After the Election Commission Amendment Act 1989, it became a multi-member body. Since then, it has been a three-member body (1 CEC + 2 ECs). 
  • Tenure: The CEC has a tenure of up to six years or up to the age of 65, whichever is earlier.

Removal Process of Chief Election Commissioner of India:

  • The CEC or an EC can resign from his office at any time by writing under his hand addressed to the President. 
  • CEC can only be removed from office through the process of impeachment requiring two-thirds majority of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha or on grounds of proven misbehaviour or incapacity.
    • CEC cannot be removed from his office except in like manner and on like grounds as needed for the removal of a Supreme Court judge.
    • A motion supported by 50 MPs of the Rajya Sabha or 100 MPs of the Lok Sabha has to be moved in Parliament and passed by the House with a two-thirds majority of those present.
  • ECs cannot be removed from office except on the CEC's recommendation.

Immunity to Chief Election Commissioner:

  • Clause 16 of the CEC and other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023 grants immunity to the CEC and ECs from any legal action for decisions taken while in office.
  • No court shall entertain or continue any civil or criminal proceedings against any person who is or was a CED or an EC for any act, thing or word, committed, done or spoken by him when, or in the course of act in the discharge of his official duty or function. 

Dibru-Saikhowa National Park

Context: A new study has identified at least two native plants that have joined invasive species to alter the riverine ecosystem of eastern Assam’s Dibru-Saikhowa National Park (DSNP). 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Dibru-Saikhowa National Park. 

About Dibru-Saikhowa National Park

  • Location: Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts, Assam.
  • The park is an island-like formation bounded by the Brahmaputra and Lohit River to the north and Dibru River in the south. 
  • It is the largest salix swamp forest in north-eastern India. 
  • Key Fauna: Only habitat of feral horses in India; Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, clouded leopard, Malayan giant squirrel, Chinese pangolin, Ganges dolphin, capped langur, Hoolock gibbon, Asian elephant, barking deer, Wild water buffalo.
  • Flora: Grasslands, mixed semi-evergreen forests, moist mixed deciduous forests, shrubland. 
image 19

Threats to DSNP’s Riverine Ecosystem:  

  • Invasive species and native grassland invaders (flowering trees known as Simalu and Ajar in Assamese). 
  • Recurring Brahmaputra river floods.
  • Increasing anthropogenic pressures from villages located within its boundaries.

The degradation of riverine ecosystems and forests in DSNP can lead to loss of biodiversity, threaten the survival of local fauna, reduce carbon storage and potentially intensify climate change.

The study recommended a targeted grassland recovery project that would encompass the control of invasive species, improved surveillance, increased staffing, and the relocation of forest villages and support community-based conservation efforts. 

Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology

Context: The global market base for alternative proteins is on the rise. Animal-Free Proteins produced using Recombinant DNA Technology are one such viable option to produce alternative proteins. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims & Mains: Recombinant DNA Technology: About, Applications & Benefits; BioE3 Policy.  

Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology: 

  • Animal-free protein refers to proteins (dairy, egg, meat proteins, other biological products) produced without using animals. The proteins are produced by relying on microbes (bacteria, fungi, yeast) engineered through Recombinant DNA Technology (rDNA). E.g.,
    • Casein (milk protein) produced in labs without cows.
    • Insulin (earlier extracted from a pig’s pancreas) is now developed by bacteria.
    • Collagen (earlier extracted from animal bones) is now produced in labs. 
  • This is also called precision fermentation or microbial fermentation.

Key steps involved:

  • Identification of the gene responsible for making a specific animal protein (E.g. Insulin)
  • Gene Insertion: The gene is inserted into the DNA of a vector (bacteria, fungi, yeast) using Recombinant DNA Technology. 
  • Protein Expression: The vector is now genetically engineered and acts like a mini factory (bio factory) and produces the desired protein. 

Benefits of Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology

  • Efficient: Requires less resources (land, water, feed) compared to traditional animal husbandry. 
  • Sustainable: Reduces dependence on livestock farming (which contributes to over 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions). 
  • Safer: Eliminates the risks of zoonotic pathogens (E.g., prions in mad cow disease, viruses in poultry). Reduced risk of xenobiotic rejection or allergic reactions. 
  • Animal Welfare: No ethical and moral issues.
  • Desired traits: Proteins can be modified for enhanced nutrition (E.g., more digestible Casein; allergen free proteins) 

What is Recombinant DNA Technology?

  • Recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering involves manipulation of the genetic code or DNA of a living organism by combining genetic material from different sources.  
  • Basic principle: Isolating a specific gene or DNA sequence of interest from one organism and inserting it into the genome of another organism, via an appropriate vector. The inserted gene can be from the same species or from a different species.
  • Use case: It is used to obtain desired characteristics (traits) in living organisms or to produce useful biological products.  
image 18

Key steps involved in R-DNA technology: 

  • Isolation of the gene or DNA sequence of interest from the source organism.
  • Fragmenting this DNA using ‘molecular scissors’ (Restriction endonuclease Enzymes).
  • Screening the fragments for a ‘desired gene’.
  • Inserting the fragments with the desired gene into a ‘vector’ (plasmids, bacteriophage, cosmid) to develop a recombinant DNA (done using an enzyme called DNA ligase which acts like molecular glue).
  • Introducing the recombinant vector into the target organism or host cell. The vector integrates into the host's genome and the gene of interest is expressed. 
  • Expression: The target organism produces the protein encoded by the inserted gene.

Applications of R-DNA Technology: 

  • Creation of Genetically modified (GM) crops with desirable traits (resistance to pests, diseases, or herbicides). 
  • Production of therapeutic proteins such as insulin, interferon and human growth hormone (Human insulin was the 1st therapeutic protein to be genetically cloned in E.coli using R-DNA technology). 
  • Creation of Mono-clonal antibodies.
  • Production of vaccines. E.g., Hepatitis-B vaccine
  • Backbone of diagnostic tests for diseases like HIV and Hepatitis. 
  • Produce clotting factors for treating Haemophilia. 
  • Development of synthetic anti-venom, free from animal-derived proteins.
  • Create genetically engineered microorganisms for bioremediation and cleaning up environmental pollutants.

BIOE3 Policy: 

  • BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment) policy was launched in 2024 by the Department of Biotechnology. 
  • Aim: Fostering high-performance biomanufacturing which involves the production of bio-based products across various sectors.
  • India's bio economy has skyrocketed from $10 billion in 2014 to over $130 billion in 2024, with projections to reach $300 billion by 2030. 
  • BioE3 Policy would focus on the following strategic and thematic sectors:
    • Smart proteins and functional foods
    • High value bio-based chemicals, biopolymers, and enzymes
    • Precision biotherapeutics
    • Climate resilient agriculture
    • Carbon capture & its utilisation
    • Marine and space research

Implementation Strategies:

  • Support innovation-driven research and development (R&D) and entrepreneurship.​
  • Establish biomanufacturing hubs, Bio-AI centers, and biofoundries.​
  • Expand India's skilled biotechnology workforce, especially in tier-II and tier-III cities.​
  • Align with initiatives like 'Net Zero' carbon economy and 'Lifestyle for Environment' (LiFE) to promote a circular bioeconomy.

With the launch of the BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment) policy, the government is focusing more on the manufacture of smart proteins, which entail reduced land, water, and energy requirements, while addressing nutritional needs and widespread protein deficiencies. 

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