Mughal Period

Khooni Bhandara in Burhanpur added to UNESCO’s Tentative List

Context: Khooni Bhandara, built in the historic city of Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh, has been included in UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites.

Architecture of Khooni Bhandara:

It is an ingenious network of 103 well-like structures called Kundis (aqueducts). As the entire system was essentially based on the law of gravity, it ensured a smooth course of water from the first to the last Kundi.
The water recharging system devised for the canal is based on the principle of intercepting the run-off in the subsoil groundwater level through underground channels and collecting it in structures, partly underground and partly above ground, called ‘Bhandaras’.
An underground water management system which is built on Persian qanat approach, in 1615 CE. Out of eight sets of these subterraneous channels, six are still intact.
The groundwater is collected from the underground springs flowing from the adjacent Satpura hills towards the Tapti.
The water coming from the reservoirs: Mool-bhandara, Chintaharan, and Sookha bhandara, are collected at a common point to flow towards Khooni-bhandara from where it was transported to Jali Karanj or Jal bhandara.
Water stored here was then distributed through pipelines to the entire city.
Khooni bhandara provided water to the entire city for as long as 300 years before it collapsed in 1977.
The hint of red colour in this mineral rich water, gave it the name khooni (bloody).
It has been declared as a state protected structure by the State Directorate of Archaeology, Archives and Museums.

(Khandesh Sultanate 1526, with neighbouring polities)

History of Khooni Bhandara

Commencement of Mughal rule in late 16th century:
- Burhanpur became the centre of military activities and commerce as well as the base for the expansion of Mughals in South India.
- Abdul-Rahim Khan-i-Khana was the Governor of the Subah of Khandesh during the reign of Jahangir. His capital was Burhanpur.
- He planned to excavate an underground canal in the vicinity of Burhanpur, to augment the potable water supply of the city.
- The canal was constructed under the supervision of Tabaqat-al-Ardh or the Department of Earth (sciences), which looked after such constructions.
- A Persian geologist, Tabkutul Arz, was invited to investigate the valley in the Tapti plains. After the investigation, he devised a system.
  - This was based on the ancient water supply system that in Arabic is called Qanat (originated 3000 years ago in Persia).
- Qanat or Kariz system: It is built for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct.
Need of an underground water management system:
- Burhanpur was situated on the river banks of the Tapti and Utavali, but its banks were so high that it was difficult and expensive to service water to different parts of Burhanpur city.
- Huge Mughal armies camped here for a prolonged period and caravans engaged in transportation of goods often stopped here.
- Some alternative was urgently needed to overcome the problem of water shortage.
- Since the area also received a fair amount of rainfall, the real issue was to devise a system to effectively tap these sources for an adequate supply of clean water.

About history city of Burhanpur:

Situated: North Bank of Tapti River.

Pre-Mughal period:

Important town under the Rashtrakuta Dynasty from 753–982.
In 1388, Malik Nasir Khan (Faruqi dynasty Sultan of Khandesh), founded Burhanpur (named it after a medieval Sufi saint, Burhan-ud-Din).
Burhanpur became the capital of the Khandesh sultanate (1382-1601).
Miran Adil Khan II of Faruqi dynasty, built a citadel and a number of palaces in Burhanpur.
The city became a major centre for trade and textile production.

Under the Mughals:

Khandesh Sultanate was annexed by Akbar in 1601.
Burhanpur became the capital of Khandesh Subah.
It grew in importance because it was considered the gateway to south India.
Described in the Ain-i-Akbari (the chronicle of the rule of Akbar), by Abul Fazl, as a city of gardens, some of which boasted of sandalwood trees.
Burhanpur was the residence of Khandesh's Mughal governor, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana, during Akbar and Jahangir's rule.
He constructed a new water supply for the town, as well as several gardens.

Maratha conquest:

1705: Santaji Ghorpade attacked Khandesh (during the reign of Rajaram I), which forced the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to deploy more army in Khandesh.
1720s: the town was attacked by the Maratha Peshwa Bajirao during his expedition to Malwa and Delhi.
1750s: Maratha army under Sadashivrao Bhau, who defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad, took control of the town.
Downfall of the Maratha Empire: the town was given to Maratha Sardar Holkar, then Scindia, and finally in 1818, Burhanpur was handed over to the British by the Marathas.

Mughal Water Management works:

The Mughal era brought significant advances in water management due to the need to efficiently utilize scarce water resources in arid and semi-arid regions.
Qanat system: Played a crucial role in the use of groundwater.
A developed irrigation system was made possible by storing well water, surface water as well rain water.
Water from these sources was stored in tanks and then distributed across the vast agricultural lands through a large network of canals.
Some water-lifting devices were also used for utilising the stored water.
In the Doab and Haryana region, the role of canal irrigation became quite significant by the closing decades of the nineteenth century.

Water Management during Akbar’s Rule (reigned 1556-1605)

Hydraulic systems employed to control summer temperature, such as in Fatehpur Siri. Here, the Rahat/Rehat/Rehant system (sometimes called the Persian wheel) was used.
- The technology employed to raise water, had been used in India prior to Mughal rule.
- Thus, the achievement was an engineering feat of scale rather than innovative technology.
Innovation occurred in placing inhabitable water buildings within the two supply systems for raising water, creating buildings that were simultaneously pieces of machinery and social spaces.
‘Ain-i-Akbari’ mentioned that most of the province of Lahore was cultivated with the help of well-irrigation using technologies such as Arhat or Rahat/Saqiya (‘Persian wheel’) to lift water.
Around Agra, the ‘charas’, or the leather bucket lifted out of water by oxen, pulling rope thrown over a pulley was most common.
Dhenkli/Shadoof/Tula/lat/Latha, based on the level principle, was generally used wherever the water-level was close to the surface.
Most of the wells were ‘kachcha’, i.e., made without use of masonry.

Water Management during Shahjahan’s rule (reigned 1628-1658):

Proposed to advance nearly Rs.40,000 to cultivators in Khandesh and the Painghat portion of Berar for the purpose of erecting dams or bunds.
The old channel of the eastern Yamuna Canal was dug in the reign of Shahjahan. Shahjahan decided to re-open it from Khizrabad, to serve the new city of Shahjahanabad at Delhi. This was the famous ‘Nahr-I-Bihist’ or ‘Nahr-i-Faiz’ which irrigated a considerable area.
In Punjab, a small system of canals was brought into existence in the Upper Bari doab. The best known of these was the ‘Shahnahr’.
Taj Mahal originally had sophisticated waterworks to irrigate the garden and an elaborate water channel system was created in the Khan-i-Alam complex on the western side of Taj Mahal.
- The fountain pipes were not connected directly with the copper pipes feeding them, as this would have resulted in gradual decrease of volume and pressure of water.
- Instead, a copper pitcher was provided under each fountain pipe and the same was connected with the water supply line.
- The water first filled the pitcher and rose in the fountains simultaneously.
Excavations at Mehtab Bagh (Charbagh complex in Agra) supposed to have been constructed by Shah Jahan, brought to light a huge tank of octagonal shape.
- The digging of pits revealed that they were built of Lakhauri brick in lime mortar for installing a fountain shaft.
- Lakhauri brick: Red burnt-clay bricks, originating from the Indian subcontinent; became popular element of Mughal architecture during Shah Jahan.

Water Management during Aurangzeb’s rule (reigned 1658-1707):

The Bibi-ka-maqbara, built for Dilras Banu Begum, the wife of Aurangzeb, at Aurangabad also had a remarkable water management system.
There is a huge water tank on the south-east corner of the complex which is known as Hati Haud.
The water channels run on the enclosure walls from the Hati Haud and the water is distributed from the channels to various parts of the complex through terracotta pipes.

Mughal ruler Aurangzeb

Context: The case of Gyanvapi Mosque in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh is caught in the midst of a legal and social controversy. The mosque is said to have been built during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in the 17^th century.

About the news article:

Historian Audrey Truschke, in ‘Political motives, writing in Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth’, mentions that ‘Hindu and Jain temples dotted the landscape of Aurangzeb’s kingdom and these institutions were protected by the state.
- According to Truschke, the support for the temples could be revoked when they acted against the imperial interests or the Mughal state and therefore, targeted destruction of temples were undertaken.
- Truschke also talks about how in 1659, Aurangzeb asked the imperial officials to check for the unlawful harm or disturbances being created for the Brahmins of Benares and nearby places.
Historian Catherine Asher, in ‘Architecture of Mughal India’, portrays the destruction of Temples during the reign of Aurangzeb, as results of several political events.
- As per the historical records, Man Singh’s great-grandson, Jai Singh, helped Shivaji flee from the court of Aurangzeb in 1666.
- As per the writings of Asher, the destruction of Vishvanath temple in Benares in 1669, which was rebuilt by Raja Man Singh (during Akbar’s reign) was largely to punish those who were suspected of supporting Shivaji.
- The Vishvanath temple was built before the entry of the Muslims in India and in the 12th century was attacked by Qutbuddin Aibak.
Scholar, Satish Chandra, in his works has mentioned that the destruction of temples during Aurangzeb’s reign was mainly to check on the spread of subversive ideas against the Mughal state.
- In Maasir-i-Alamgiri ( A Persian language chronicle by Saqi Mustaid Khan) mentioned that, Aurangzeb learned that at Benares, the Brahman disbelievers used to teach false books in established schools to their admirers and students (both Hindu and Muslim).
- In 1669, Aurangzeb took strong actions against some temples in Thatta, Multan and Benares.

History Kashi Vishwanath temple:

Dedicated to Lord Shiva, in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
It is one the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India.
Built in Nagara style of temple architecture which is characterized by its towering spire (shikhara) and intricately carved stone facades.

The twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India are: Somnath in Gujarat; Mallikarjuna at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh; Mahakaleswar at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh; Kedarnath in Uttarakhand; Bhimashankar in Maharashtra; Vishvanath at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh; Trimbakeshwar in Maharashtra; Baidyanath Jyotirlinga in Deoghar, Jharkhand; Nageswar at Dwarka in Gujarat; Rameshwar at Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu and Grishneshwar in Aurangabad in Maharashtra.

Kashi Khand of Skanda Purana is dedicated to the city of Varanasi. As per the Kashi Khanda, there were a total of 1099 temples, out of which 513 were specifically devoted to the worship of Shiva.
The original temple (also known as Adi Vishveshwara Temple) was destroyed by the Ghurids in 1194, when Muhammad ibn Sam defeated Jayachandra of Kannauj near Chandawar and razed the city of Kashi.
In 1230, the temple was rebuilt near the Avi Mukteshwar Temple, away from the main site, during the reign of Iltutmish (Delhi Sultanate ruler, 1211–1266).
It was demolished again during the rule of Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517).
Raja Man Singh built the temple during Akbar's reign, however the orthodox section in Hindus boycotted it as Man Singh’s sister was married to Mughal ruler Akbar
Raja Todar Mal completed the reconstruction of the temple in 1585.
In 1669, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed the temple and built the Gyanvapi Mosque in its place.
In 1780, Ahilyabai Holkar rebuilt the present temple adjacent to the mosque.
In 1835, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire donated gold for plating the temple's dome.

About Mughal ruler Aurangzeb:

Served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636-1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645-1647.
He jointly administered the provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648-1652 and continued the expeditions into neighbouring Safavid territories.
Shahjahan in 1657, nominated Dara Shikoh as his successor. This was not accepted by Aurangzeb. He proclaimed himself as emperor in 1658. Thus, began the war of succession.
In April 1658, the allied army of Dara Shikoh and the kingdom of Marwar was defeated by Aurangzeb at the battle of Dharmat.
Then, at the decisive battle of Samugarh in May 1658, Aurangzeb’s sovereignty and suzerainty was cemented and was acknowledged throughout the empire. He imprisoned Shahjahan (his father) in the Agra fort.
The ‘Fatawa Alamgiri’ was imposed successfully by Aurangzeb as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam.
He reigned for fifty years and during the first twenty-five years he resided in the North and personally occupied the affairs of northern India.
Aurangzeb retained Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) as his capital, but after some two decades the capital was shifted to wherever Aurangzeb would set up camp during his long military campaigns.
In 1681, his son, Prince Akbar, rebelled in Deccan. Aurangzeb from this time onwards was continuously engaged in the region and mainly the “Deccan Ulcer '' kept him engaged. He died at Ahmednagar, Maharashtra in 1707.

Deccan Ulcer:

Aurangzeb’s policy towards Deccan was basically motivated by curtailing the influence of the Marathas, containing the rebellions by Shia kingdoms-Golconda and Bijapur and keeping in check his own son’s rebellions.
He successfully annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). Historians see the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms as the major blunder, as these kingdoms acted as the barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas.
Now, Mughals had to face direct confrontations with the Marathas.
As per the historian, J.N. Sarkar, the ‘Deccan Ulcer’ ruined Aurangzeb.
Shaista Khan and Jai Singh, generals of Aurangzeb, were sent to capture Shivaji.
Jai Singh successfully captured Shivaji, but Shivaji escaped to the Deccan, using the Guerrilla warfare tactics, which was not an integral part of Mughal Army strategies.
The long battle with Marathas severely impacted the Mughal treasury.

Religious Policy of Mughal state under Aurangzeb:

He implemented a religious policy marked by orthodox Islamic principles. His policy had two aspects: to promote the tenets of Islam and to ensure that the people led their lives accordingly and to adopt anti-Hindu measures.
Influenced by the teachings of Ahmad Sirhindi, Aurangzeb aimed to transform India from Dar-ul-harb (land of infidels) to Dar-ul-Islam (Islamic land).
He rejected the Persian concept of kinship (Farr-i-Aizadi) in favour of a rule based on the Quranic concept of kingship.
Aurangzeb banned the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz, discouraged un-Islamic ceremonies, and reinstated the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679.
However, Aurangzeb's emphasis on Sharia conflicted with his acknowledgment that secular decrees (Zawabit) could override Sharia law.
He took measures to promote Islam, such as forbidding the Kalima (Islamic confession of faith), on his coins, as he believed, the holy words might be desecrated under foot or defiled by the non-believers.
He appointed a Censor of Morals (Muhktasib) to enforce Islamic laws.
The ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and silver on his two birthdays (i.e. according to the lunar and solar calendars) was stopped.
Following were the anti-Hindu measures adopted by Aurangzeb:
- Demolishing temples and breaking idols:
  - The Mathura temple was built by Bir Singh Bundela, who had gained Jahangir's favour. Aurangzeb converted it into a large mosque and the name of Mathura was changed to Islamabad.
  - In the first year of his reign, he issued orders to the governor of Orissa to demolish all temples in the province.
  - Mosques were built at the sites of different temples.
  - He destroyed Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and Somnath temple in Kathiawar.
- Imposition of Jizya in 1679, other taxes and conversions:
  - Akbar had abolished this tax on the Hindus but Aurangzeb again levied this tax.
  - Manucci held that the object of the tax was two-fold: first to fill up his treasury which had begun to shrink on account of expenditure on his various military campaigns and secondly to force the Hindus to embrace Islam.
  - For the Hindus the only way to escape from the payment of various taxes like pilgrim tax, trade tax, Jizya, etc. was conversion to Islam. Getting jobs after conversion also became easier. The Hindu prisoners were freed on their conversion to Islam.
  - However, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped, the unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted.
- Discriminatory toll/tax:
  - He enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which was a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code.
  - Later on Muslim traders were totally exempted from the payment of this tax.
- Restrictions on Hindu educational institutions:
  - For destroying the culture of the Hindus, Aurangzeb destroyed their several educational institutions at Varanasi, Multan and Thatta.
  - He placed restrictions on the starting of new Pathshalas.
Despite Aurangzeb's staunch Islamic stance, his imperial bureaucracy employed a higher percentage of Hindus compared to his predecessors.
- Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration increased by half, representing 31.6% of Mughal nobility.
- Many of these officials were Marathas and Rajputs, political allies of Aurangzeb.
- Nevertheless, he encouraged high-ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam, contributing to the complex religious dynamics of his reign.

Results of the religious policy of Aurangzeb:

Weakening the entire structure of the Mughal empire. It led to several conflicts and wars in different parts of the country.

Conflict with the Jats: In 1669, Hindu Jats began to organise a rebellion that is believed to have been caused by the re-imposition of jizya and destruction of Hindu temples in Mathura. The Jats were led by Gokula. By the year 1670, Jat rebels were quelled and the Mughal Army took control of Tilpat region. Gokula was caught and executed.
Conflict with the Satnamis: In 1672, the Satnami sect organised a revolt. Aurangzeb responded by organising a Mughal army of 10,000 troops, artillery, and a detachment of his imperial guards. His army crushed the Satnami rebellion
Conflict with the Sikhs: The ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was opposed to forced conversion of the local population. Approached by Kashmiri Pandits against forced religious conversions, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a message to the emperor that if he could convert Teg Bahadur to Islam, every Hindu will become a Muslim. In response, Aurangzeb ordered the arrest of the Guru. He was then brought to Delhi and tortured so as to convert him. On his refusal to convert, he was beheaded in 1675.
Conflicts with the Rajputs: Aurangzeb’s decision that the jizya (poll tax) should be levied on Hindus of all classes agitated the chiefs of Rajasthan, who had until then served the empire faithfully.

Conclusion:

The opinion of Historians and scholars on the religious policy of Aurangzeb is divided. Historians like Jadunath Sarkar, S.R. Sharma and A.L. Srivastava regarded the policy as being of religious bigotry and persecution, whereas Shibli Nomani, Zahiruddin Faruki and Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi justify most of Aurangzeb's actions as political expedients. Scholars like Satish Chandra and M. Athar Ali, give a neutral analysis without emphasizing the ‘for’ or ‘against’ controversy.

Lachit Borphukan

Context: An animated masterpiece, titled ‘Lachit: The Warrior,’ chronicling the heroic exploits of the iconic Ahom general Lachit Barphukan, has earned a prestigious spot in the Indian Panorama section of the International Film Festival of India (IFFI) 2023, set to unfold in Goa. Crafted over 19 minutes, the film, directed and written by Partha Sarathi Mahanta, an Indian Police Service officer in Assam, is poised to captivate a global audience with its screening.

About Lachit Borphukan:

Lachit Barphukan was born on 24 November 1622 in Charaideo, Assam. He was the son of Momai Tamuli Borbarua and Kunti Moran.
His father Momai Tamuli Barbarua served as the commander-in-chief of the Ahom army and held the prestigious position of the last Barbarua (Phu-Ke-Lung) of upper-Assam under Prataap Singha.
Lachit Barphukan's journey in the service of the Ahom state began with his appointment as the commander of 'Hanstidhara Tamuli' by the state minister.

Battles against the Mughals:

The invasion by Mir Jumla, acting on the orders of Mughal ruler Aurangzeb, marked a dark chapter for Assam.
The Mughals captured Garhgaon, the capital of the Ahom Dynasty, leading to the signing of the treaty of Ghilajharighat in 1663.
This treaty imposed territorial concessions, war indemnities, an annual tribute, and the distressing demand to send the Ahom king's daughter to the imperial harem in Delhi, deeply denting Assamese nationalist pride.
Chakradhwaj Singha, determined to reclaim Assam, initiated extensive preparations by training soldiers, bolstering the armament industry, and constructing boats.
In 1667, Lachit, was entrusted with leading the Ahom army, holding the rank of Barphukan.
Launching a swift and aggressive campaign, the Ahom army, under Lachit's command, destroyed Mughal outposts until reaching the pivotal target of Guwahati.
The subsequent siege culminated in a frontal attack on November 4, 1667, resulting in a victory for the Ahoms and the expulsion of Mughal forces beyond the river Manas.
In 1669, Mughal troops, led by Ram Singh (Battle of Alaboi), arrived to launch an attack.
- Despite the Ahom army not being fully prepared, Lachit Barphukan, with wisdom and readiness, faced the potential threat.
- The Ahom forces suffered losses, but Lachit, though momentarily upset, remained undeterred and resolute in his commitment to duty and bravery.
Utilizing the natural advantage of hillocks along the Brahmaputra, earthen ramparts were erected to create a protective ring around the city.
The subsequent period saw sporadic engagements until the famous Battle of Saraighat in March 1671.
- In the final stages of the Battle of Saraighat, as Mughals attacked from the river.
- Lachit, aboard seven boats, confronted the Mughal fleet, urging his soldiers to fight. His inspiring words reignited their spirit, leading to a desperate battle on the Brahmaputra.
- Lachit's courageous leadership proved triumphant. The Mughals were forced to retreat from Guwahati.
- Following a strategic decision, the Borphukan instructed his men not to attack the retreating Mughal army.

Legacy:

The courage and foresight displayed by Lachit in the Battle of Saraighat continue to resonate in the hearts and minds of the Assamese people, underscoring his indispensable role in shaping their nation.
In recognition of his leadership and valour, the Lachit Barphukan gold medal was instituted in 1999, awarded to the best cadet from the National Defence Academy.

History around the corner- An illuminated view of Khan-E-Khana (Rahim Khan’s tomb) and the Humayun’s tomb

About Rahim Khan

Early Life: He was born in 1556 to Bairam Khan, Akbar's uncle and tutor, and after Bairam Khan was assassinated, Akbar had the child brought to him and arranged for his upbringing.
Career:

He was one of Akbar's Navratans and also served in Jahangir's court. His political and military career began with Akbar's Gujarat campaign.
Emperor Akbar nominated him as Governor of Gujarat in 1575.
He was a composer who created couplets about Lord Krishna since Akbar's wife, Jodha, revered Lord Krishna.
Akbar bestowed the title Mirza Khan upon him. He used Persian, Hindi, and Sanskrit in his poetry.
Over the years, his 700-odd couplets have become a significant feature of Hindi school textbooks.
He was also a leading translator of his time, having translated Babur's autobiography from Turkish to Persian.

Khane-E-Khana

Rahim Khan is credited with funding the creation of attractive structures like as canals, tanks, and gardens. The most impressive of his works is the tomb he made for his wife, Mah Banu, in 1598. It was the first Mughal tomb erected specifically for a woman.
Features:

Material used: The tomb is made of red sandstone, buff sandstone and marble.
Different architectural styles: It is an arch-shaped structure and is decorated using the structure of an inverted lotus. Other styles include- niches, bulbous domes, canopies and Charbagh pattern.
Ornamentation: The tomb has been ornamented with diverse motifs including those seen in other mausoleums as well as those found in Hindu architecture like the peacock and Swastika.

Humayun’s Tomb

Significance of Tomb:

Built in 1570, it is of particular cultural significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent.
The tomb has also been documented as the first ever tomb built for a Mughal emperor.
The structure is considered to be an inspiration for the most well-known example of Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal.

Commissioning

Many scholars have argued that it was Haji Begam, Humayun’s widow who had commissioned this mausoleum.
However, according to Akbar Nama, written by Emperor Akbar’s official biographer Abu’l Fazl, Haji Begam was on a pilgrimage to Mecca during much of the construction period of the tomb. This has been confirmed by both Abu’l Fazl and Father Monserrate, a Jesuit priest who resided in Emperor Akbar’s court during the early 1580s. The monument was built by Emperor Akbar.
Abd al-Qadir Badauni mentioned it was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, an architect of Iranian descent.

It was designated as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1993.
Features:
Persian Influence:

It was the first structure in which the slightly bulbous and double dome, a feature borrowed from Persia and Samarkand, was introduced in India. Persian style is once again evident in this complex in the Char-Bagh (Four Gardens), a quadrilateral garden layout based on the four gardens of Paradise mentioned in The Holy Quran.

Hybrid of Persian and Indian Architectural styles

Topping off the mausoleum is the Persian double dome, flanked by pillared kiosks, or chattris, which are a distinct Indian architectural feature. This combination of Persian and Indian architectural styles works beautifully together and this makes Humayun’s Tomb a great example of a hybrid of styles of two separate cultures.

Four distinct octagonal units separated by four recesses make up the mausoleum, with the entrance located in the recess which is located in the centre of the southern facade.
Contrast is one of the key elements: While the rest of the building is made up of red sandstone, with white and black marble and yellow stone detailing, the exterior dome is of purely white marble.
Dormitory of Mughals: A central domed chamber with the emperor’s tomb in the middle and four corner rooms comprise the first floor. The large corner rooms as well as the numerous cells at the plinth level are a clear indication that the structure was originally designed to accommodate several graves. Over 150 Mughal family members are buried there.
Significance: For the patron of this tomb, Akbar, there were two purposes behind building this great structure, to commemorate his father’s legacy and to make a political statement.

An Englishman in Jahangir’s Court

Context: The entrance of Thomas Roe in the Mughal Court is discussed by Nandini Das in her book ‘Courting India: England, Mughal India, and the Origins of English’. As the English ambassador to the court of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, Thomas Roe arrived in India in 1615.

In the Mughal Court: Sir Thomas Roe

Sir Thomas Roe was a merchant diplomat with the East India Company and England's first appointed ambassador to India.
In September 1615, he arrived at the port of Surat carrying a letter from King James I requesting a commercial deal with the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir. Roe's arrival revealed that his mission's dual goals were to enhance Britain's standing abroad and secure trade and privileges for the Company.
On August 17th, 1616, Jahangir presented Sir Thomas Roe with a "medal of gold as huge as sixpence" to symbolise his status as the emperor's client.
He was identified as belonging to the noble class in the Mughal Court.
Despite not being "a great general, a great organiser, or a great builder" like his predecessors, Thomas Roe wrote in one of his memoirs that the emperor Jahangir who governed from 1605, was "a great lover of the arts, particularly painting and architecture."
Roe's memoirs from his time spent in the Mughal court is a crucial source not only for the factual information it contains but also for the cultural presumptions it exposes. Historians like Michael Brown and Colin Mitchell have shown that Roe did not write with imperialist goals in mind.
Roe's journal, on the other hand, reveals aspects of the society he belonged to, including attitudes on English supremacy and the inferiority of foreign strangers, which later in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries became fundamental elements of English Imperialist culture.

Progress of English in India:

1600: English East India Company was founded.
1609: Captain William Hawkins arrived
1613: Surat became the location of the company's first factory.
Sir Thomas Roe, King James I's envoy, came in 1615. The Emperor Jahangir and Prince Khurram both gave Farmans. Free commerce was made available to the Company with no inland tariffs.
1616: At Masulipatnam, the First Factory in the South was founded.
1633: EIC's first factory in Eastern India was founded in Hariharpur, Balasore (Odisha)
1667: English were awarded farman by Emperor Aurangzeb to trade in Bengal.
In 1717, Emperor Farrukhsiyar issued the Golden Farman, popularly known as the Magna Carta. Many trade concessions were given.

Mughal Paintings:

During the Mughals, the emphasis of paintings moved from representing the god to exalting the emperor and illustrating his life. They concentrated on paintings depicting hunting scenes, historical events, and other courtly subjects.
Indian painters were influenced by the masters of miniature painting, Abdu's Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali, who had travelled to India with Humayun from Central Asia.
The fundamental goal of painting was to provide visuals for textual works. Paintings created by different painters used as illustrations for the Persian texts Akbar-Namah and the Mahabharata.
In Akbar's court, two well-known painters were Daswant and Basawan. Portuguese introduced European painting to Akbar's court.
Rembrandt, a famous Dutch painter, was influenced by Mughal miniatures.
While Shah Jahan carried on the tradition of painting, Aurangzeb's disregard for it resulted in the scattering of the painters to other regions, which in turn promoted painting in the provinces.

During Jahangir’s reign

The Mughal paintings reached its pinnacle under the reign of Jahangir (1605–1627). By nature, he was a naturalist and favoured depictions of flora and wildlife, such as birds, animals, trees, and flowers.
Portrait painting and animal paintings had advanced under Jahangir's reign. He placed a strong emphasis on reviving naturalism in portraiture.
Decorated margins surrounding the paintings that were occasionally as elaborate as the paintings themselves became one of the distinctive themes that emerged during this time.
Ustad Mansoor, who was a master in rendering the features of even the most complex faces, was one of the most well-known artists of his day.

During his rule, illustrations for the animal fable Ayar-i-Danish (Touchstone of Wisdom) were produced.