Prelims Nuggets

Govt. eases procurement norms for Research Labs

Context: The government has relaxed procurement rules for scientific institutions, allowing faster and more flexible access to high-quality research equipment.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Supporting R&D in India: significance of new procurement reforms.

Amid complaints from scientists on sub-standard equipment affecting their research, the Finance Ministry issued a circular allowing select institutions to buy equipment outside the GEM portal.

Key Reforms

Bypassing GEM Portal:

Existing rules required all government purchases- from laptops to furniture to be made with the cheapest vendor identified through the Government e-marketplace (GEM) portal. GEM is an initiative of the Ministry of Commerce to prioritise made-in-India equipment.
Updated rules allow Directors of select institutes and Vice-Chancellors or Chancellors of universities to procure equipment outside the GEM portal, as it was unable to meet the requirement of high quality customised equipment needed by scientists.

Autonomy in Global Tenders:

Updated rules allow the heads of scientific institutions to approve global tender enquiry up to ₹200 crore.
Earlier, departmental Secretaries were required to issue such clearances. This usually led to a pile-up of requests and concomitant procurement delays.

Increased Purchase Limits:

Updated rules have doubled the ceiling on goods that can be procured by scientific departments without quotations from ₹1 lakh to ₹2 lakh.

However, all of these concessions are strictly for scientific equipment and consumables, and meant only for: Organisations affiliated to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of Atomic Energy and Space, Indian Council of Medical Research, Indian Council for Agricultural Research and educational institutions conducting postgraduate research under various Ministries.

Significance of easing the rules for procurement:

The reforms are being hailed as a landmark decision as reforms would:

Enhance autonomy and flexibility for research institutions empowering them to innovate faster.
Speeds up procurement for time-sensitive research.
Ensures quality by allowing global sourcing.
Reduces bureaucratic delays and red tape.

Chenab Bridge - World’s Highest Railway Arch Bridge

Context: Successful completion and inauguration of Chenab Bridge, world’s highest railway arch bridge.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Chenab Bridge.

About Chenab Bridge

Location: Reasi district of Jammu and Kashmir
Total length: 1315 metres (1.3 kms) with a 467-metre-long arch.
The world’s highest railway arch bridge stands 359 metres above the Chenab River and is 35 metres taller than the Eiffel Tower.
It is a vital link in the ambitious 272 km Udhampur - Srinagar - Baramulla Rail Link railway project, which aims to connect J&K with the rest of the country by rail.
Built by: Indian Railways at a cost of ₹1400 crore. The construction was done by a joint venture between Afcons Infrastructure, South Korea’s Ultra Construction & Engineering Company and VSL India, and the arch was designed by Germany-based Leonhardt Andra and Partners.
The bridge has a lifespan of 120 years and is designed to handle trains running at 100 km per hour.
Chenab Bridge was approved in 2003, it took 22 years to complete the construction, due to the tough and challenging terrain, topographical constraints and political climate.

Significance of Chenab Bridge:

Strategic Importance for National Security:

Critical from the national security perspective as it will help in transporting security personnel and material to the border areas during times of conflict.

Economic Significance:

Chenab Bridge is expected to give a huge boost to the economy of J&K.

By integrating this region through rail with the rest of the country, it will enable movement of goods by rail and more business opportunities.
Easier market access to local businesses, especially to markets in central and southern India. It will particularly benefit the horticulture industry of J&K, especially apple growers who earlier had to rely on road transport to send their produce out of J&K.

Boost to the tourist industry with greater inflow of tourists from other parts of India.
Freight traffic through rail is also expected to increase, improving logistics and trade in the region.

Pakistan’s Appointment to Key UNSC Counter-Terror Panels

Context: In June 2025, Pakistan assumed significant roles in multiple influential committees under the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), creating concerns for India.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Implications of Pakistan’s appointment to key UNSC Counter-Terror Panels for India and strategic options available to India.

Recently, Pakistan has been appointed to multiple influential committees under the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), including:

Chair of the Taliban Sanctions Committee: Committee established under Resolution 1988 (2011) oversees the implementation of sanctions against Taliban.
Vice-Chair of the Counter-Terrorism Committee: CTC monitors implementation of Resolution 1373 (2001), a core component of the UN’s global counter-terrorism architecture.
Co-chair of the Working Group on Sanctions and the Informal Working Group on Documentation: The sanctions group is tasked with evaluating and improving the structure and effectiveness of the UN’s sanctions regimes, while the documentation group works to enhance the UNSC’s transparency, efficiency and inclusiveness.

This development has raised serious concerns in India, given Pakistan’s historical association with terrorist organisations.

Why is Pakistan's appointment problematic?

The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) kept Pakistan under its grey list from 2018 to 2022 for terror financing deficiencies. This adds to global concerns about Pakistan's credibility and transparency in implementing anti-terror mechanisms.
Pakistan has long been accused of harboring and supporting terror groups, including the Taliban, Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM).

Implications for India:

Diplomatic Setback despite Proactive Outreach: Undermines India’s longstanding efforts to project Pakistan as the epicentre of global terrorism. Shows the limited success of India’s recent diplomatic missions to UNSC capitals and multilateral forums and the growing clout of Pakistan-China diplomatic synergy, especially in multilateral decision-making.
Increased Risk of Anti-India Propaganda: With Pakistan’s appointment to these key UNSC counter-terror panels, there is a real risk projecting India as a source of terrorism, especially in Balochistan. The counter-terror committee could ask for reports on terrorist activities in Balochistan.

Strategic options available to India:

Use Friendly Chairs and Vice Chairs to block Anti-India moves: Engage with co-chairs and vice-chairs to counterbalance Pakistan’s influence. E.g.,
- France and Russia: co-vice-chairs of CTC alongside Pakistan
- Guyana and Russia: Vice-chairs of the Taliban Sanctions Committee
- Greece: Co-chair of the Sanctions Working Group etc.
- Denmark: Chair of the powerful 1267 ISIL-Al Qaeda Sanctions Committee (Russia and Sierra Leone as co-chairs)
Continue to raise India’s concerns in the UNSC and multilateral fora.

India is hoping that these co-chairs and vice-chairs will act as a counter-balance and counter-weight to keep Pakistan’s anti-India propaganda moves in check.

Flue Gas Desulphurisation

Context: A high-powered committee of experts, led by Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) has recommended that India should scrap its policy of mandating coal-fired thermal power plants (TPPs) to install Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units. FGD units are fitted in TPPs to cut harmful sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions.

92% of India’s 600 TPPs have not yet installed FGD units. Instead, the committee recommends limiting FGD unit requirement to plants that use imported or high-sulphur (>0.5%) coal, as these contribute more significantly to SO₂ pollution.

Instead, the study recommends limiting this requirement to plants using imported or high-sulphur (>0.5%) coal, as these contribute more significantly to SO₂ pollution.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Desulphurisation.

Rationale behind the Suggestions

The rationale underlying the analysis is that 92% of the coal used in Indian plants has low sulphur content (0.3%-0.5%).
- SO2 levels in ambient air across the country are around 10-20 micrograms/cubic metre, well below India’s air quality norms of 80 micrograms/cubic metre.
- SO2 levels in cities near plants with operational FGD units do not differ significantly from those without these units.
- Particulate Matter samples in urban areas show low levels of elemental sulphur (max 8 micrograms/cubic metre) which is not a significant concern. Thus, FGD units may offer limited benefits in reducing PM pollution.
Norms mandated by the Central Pollution Control Board that require stack heights (exhaust columns) in the thermal power plants be a minimum 220 metres, coupled with Indian climatic conditions, ensure that SO2 emissions do not threaten local air quality.
A study by IIT-Delhi in 2024 found that acid rain, the most visible consequence of high SO2 emissions, was not a significant issue in India.
Installing FGD in all coal plants would increase power consumption as well as freshwater consumption in the plants, resulting in an additional 69 million tonnes of CO2 (2025-30), while reducing SO2 emissions by 17 million tonnes.
Unintended benefit of Sulphate Aerosols: When SO₂ is released into the atmosphere, it reacts with water vapour and other compounds to form sulphate aerosols. These aerosols reflect incoming solar radiation (shortwave radiation) back into space, which results in radiative cooling of the Earth's surface. This cooling effect masks or offsets part of the warming caused by greenhouse gases.

Flue Gas Desulphurisation

Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) is a clean technology system that separates the sulphur dioxide from the exhaust flue gas of coal-fired thermal power plants.
FGD systems utilise various methods, including wet scrubbing with limestone slurry or dry scrubbing with a dry sorbent, to absorb SO2 from the flue gas.

How FGD Works?

Flue Gas Collection: Flue gas, containing SO2 and other pollutants, is collected from the power plant's boiler or other combustion sources.
SO2 Removal: The collected flue gas is then passed through an FGD system.
- In wet scrubbing, the gas is sprayed with a limestone slurry. The SO2 reacts with the limestone, forming a calcium sulfite or sulfate, which can be removed as a by-product or waste.
- In dry scrubbing, a dry sorbent, like lime or activated carbon, is introduced to the flue gas, where it absorbs the SO2.
Waste Product Handling: The by-products or waste generated during FGD, such as gypsum or a dry waste product, are collected and either disposed of or utilized in other applications.
Cleaned Flue Gas, now with reduced SO2 levels, is discharged into the atmosphere through the stack.

Aravalli Green Wall Project

Context: On the World Environment Day 2025, the Prime Minister of India planted the first sapling (Sindoor/Vermillion tree) in Delhi's Ridge to officially launch the Aravalli Green Wall Project to restore the Aravalli mountain range.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Aravalli Green Wall Project; United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD); National Action Plan to Combat Desertification and Land Degradation.

Aravalli Green Wall Project

Aim: Restore the 700-km Aravalli mountain range’s ecology through reforestation and conservation efforts across Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
To create a 1400 km-long, 5 km-wide green belt inspired by Africa's Great Green Wall.
The project will use innovative plantation techniques, and that all plantation activities will be geo-tagged and monitored via the Meri LiFE portal to ensure transparency and effectiveness.

Key initiatives under the Project:

Plant native species, revive 75 water bodies, and bolster soil conservation targeting 1.1 million hectares by 2027.
Expand green cover in a 5-km buffer zone along the Aravalli range
Develop around 1,000 nurseries to support continuous plantation drives and engage local communities.
Transform the region into a thriving hub for eco-tourism and sustainable travel.

Significance:

Green barriers would prevent eastward expansion of the Thar Desert, prevent soil erosion, desertification and dust storms.
Enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services by planting native tree species, providing habitat for wildlife and improving water quality and quantity.
Help in carbon sequestration and mitigating climate change.
Promote sustainable development and livelihood opportunities by involving local communities in afforestation, agro-forestry and water conservation activities.
Contribute to India's commitments under various international conventions such as:
- UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification)
- CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity)
- UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change).
Enhance India's image as a global leader in environmental protection and green development.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD):

Established in 1994, UNCCD is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management.
The convention addresses specifically the arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, known as the drylands.
UNCCD is committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating desertification and land degradation.
The member parties work together to improve the living conditions for people in drylands, to maintain and restore land and soil productivity, and to mitigate the effects of drought.
UNCCD collaborates closely with the other two Rio Conventions: UNCBD and UNFCCC to meet these complex challenges with an integrated approach and the best possible use of natural resources.

National Action Plan to Combat Desertification and Land Degradation:

The National Action Plan to Combat Desertification 2023 takes due consideration of India’s commitments for:
- Restoration of 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
- Generating an additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030 through additional forest and tree cover.
- Initiative for enhanced South-South Cooperation to share experiences on Sustainable Land Management (SLM) strategies.
India is a party to the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

Aravalli Mountain Range

Oldest mountain ranges (fold mountains) in the world having its origin in the Proterozoic era.
It runs approximately 700 kms from north-east to south-west direction, in western India.
Range States: Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat
Divided into two sections: Sambhar-Sirohi ranges and Sambhar-Khetri ranges.
Highest Peak: Guru Shikhar on Mount Abu.

Threats:

Decades of deforestation, mining, livestock grazing, and human encroachment have severely degraded the range.
Of the total degraded area, 81% is in Rajasthan alone, followed by Gujarat, Haryana and Delhi.
It has led to drying lakes, damaged aquifers, reduced biodiversity, and increasing desertification risks.

Significance of Aravalli Mountain Range:

Vital ecological barrier that prevents the eastward expansion of the Thar desert and protects cities such as Delhi, Jaipur and Gurugram from desertification.
Gives rise to several rivers including Banas & Sahibi (Tributaries of Yamuna), Luni (flows into Rann of Kutch), Chambal, Sakhi, and Sabarmati.
Performs the role of an aquifer with its highly fractured and weathered quality rocks allowing water to percolate and recharge the groundwater.
Its forests, grasslands and wetlands support endangered plant and animal species.
Rich in natural resources including minerals such as rock phosphate, lead-zinc-silver, talc, pyrophyllite, asbestos, etc.

What caused the massive eruption of Italy’s Mount Etna?

Context: Recently, Mount Etna, the largest volcano in Europe erupted.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Mount Etna and cause behind its eruption.

About Mount Etna:

Location: Mount Etna is located on the east coast of Sicily. Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, situated just off the toe of the Italian “boot” (Southern Italy).

Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe.
It is an active Stratovolcano.
Mount Etna has the highest peak in Italy south of the Alps.
Etna has been a World Heritage Site since 2013.
It is known for frequent eruptions. Since 1600, at least 60 flank eruptions and many more summit eruptions have happened.
Etna’s summit has five craters, which are responsible for most of the volcano’s eruptions.

What caused the massive eruption of Italy’s Mount Etna?

Experts suggest that the eruption began with an increase in pressure inside the volcano due to expanding gases, which led to the collapse of the southeast crater, resulting in hot lava flows.

What kind of eruption did it have?

Scientists typically classify eruptions based on how explosive they are.

According to Italy’s National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) Etna Observatory, the volcano was witnessing a “Strombolian” eruption.

Strombolian eruption:

This type of eruption is usually characterised as discreet moderately explosive bursts which can eject chunks of rock and cinders that can travel hundreds of metres into the air. It occurs due to the presence of gas in the magma chamber within the volcano.
The Strombolian eruption is named after another Italian volcano called Stromboli, which produces minor eruptions every 10 to 20 minutes.

However, some volcanologists believe that Mount Etna did not experience a Strombolian eruption but rather a Plinian eruption, in which hot gas, ash, and rock can explode high enough to reach the stratosphere.

Thermophile Bacteria

Context: Researchers have discovered thermophilic bacteria capable of producing antimicrobial compounds, particularly from the Actinobacteria group in the Rajgir hot spring in Bihar.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts of Thermophiles bacteria.

Thermophilic Bacteria

Thermophiles are heat-loving bacteria that can survive in extreme temperatures ranging from 45°C to 70°C. They thrive in hot springs, deep-sea vents, and compost piles, etc.
To compete with other microbes, some thermophiles produce strong antibiotics. These antibiotics kill or suppress other bacteria, helping thermophiles survive better.

Findings from Rajgir Hot Spring Study:

Using a method called 16S rRNA metagenomics, researchers identified one major group of bacteria- Actinobacteria.
Actinobacteria constituted 40-43% of the microbial diversity in the lake, a much higher share than typically observed in hot springs (generally ~20%).
This group of bacteria is well-known for producing antibiotics like streptomycin, tetracycline, and erythromycin. However, not all thermophiles can produce antibiotics.
Seven strains of Actinobacteria were found that produced potent antimicrobial compounds. These antimicrobial compounds are capable of inhibiting the growth of several pathogenic bacteria, including E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus.
Researchers have succeeded in isolating a compound called diethyl phthalate from Actinomycetales bacteria found in the hot spring. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), they identified its antibacterial activity against Listeria monocytogenes, a serious foodborne pathogen. This finding highlights the potential use-case of hot spring microbes.

Significance of Thermophiles:

Produce antibiotics: Discovering antibiotic-producing thermophiles offers a promising solution to combat antimicrobial resistance, which could add $1 trillion to global healthcare costs by 2050.
Produce enzymes for diagnostics: Enzymes from thermophiles like Thermus aquaticus are used in PCR testing, which became a backbone of COVID-19 diagnostics.
Heat-resistant enzymes from thermophiles are used in biotechnology, molecular biology, and chemical industries.
Biofertilisers: A 2018 study by Banaras Hindu University found that thermophiles from Chumathang hot spring in Leh enhanced plant growth, suggesting application in biofertilisers and heat-stress resistant crops.

What are Building-Integrated Photovoltaics?

Context: Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) is an emerging alternative to conventional rooftop solar power installations.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts about BIPVs- benefits, challenges.

With over 17 GW of installed rooftop solar (RTS) capacity as of April 2025, India has made commendable progress in its renewable energy mission.
In space-starved urban areas, RTS systems face limitations due to insufficient shadow-free rooftop space. Nearby buildings, trees, water tanks etc. obstruct the direct sunlight. This structural challenge necessitates a shift from conventional rooftop installations to Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV).

Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV)

BIPV are solar panels integrated into the structure of buildings, such as facades, roofs, windows, and balconies, replacing conventional construction materials while simultaneously generating electricity.

Benefits of BIPV:

Dual Use: Generating electricity and also working as a structural part of a building. BIPV can turn entire buildings into power generators by integrating solar elements directly into architectural elements. This needs replacing conventional construction materials such as glass, tiles, and cladding with solar alternatives.
Efficient Space utilisation: In space-constrained high-rises, BIPV can generate 3-4 times more power by utilising facades and other building surfaces, compared to limited rooftop solar capacity.
Inclusive Solar access: BIPV enables solar adoption beyond rooftops, ideal for independent homes and apartments with no roof access. Balcony-integrated systems, already popular in Germany, can help households save up to 30% on electricity bills.

What is the status of BIPVs in India?

India has some BIPV installations. E.g., Datacenters building in Navi Mumbai, Renewable Energy Museum in Kolkata, Jindal Steel & Power Ltd. facility in Angul, Odisha (hosts one of the largest BIPV installations in India), and is also incorporated into some railway stations.
However, BIPVs adoption in India has been limited by high initial costs, policy gaps, inadequate technical capacity, and reliance on imports. Low awareness, lack of dedicated incentives, and absence of clear standards also pushed BIPV out of early building-design considerations.

How can BIPV uptake be scaled up?

Expand Financial Incentives: Increase subsidies for BIPV under schemes like the PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana (currently ₹78,000 for a 3-kW system). Introduce dedicated incentive schemes for commercial and industrial BIPV adoption, similar to Seoul’s model with up to 80% subsidy.
Policy Integration: Integrate BIPV in the National Building Code, Energy Conservation Building Code, and Eco Niwas Samhita.
Pilot Projects: Demonstrating BIPV through pilot projects in public infrastructure (via public-private partnerships) can improve visibility and catalyse wider acceptance.
Boost Local Manufacturing: Extend PLI schemes and invest in R&D for customised, India-specific BIPV products.
Awareness & Capacity Building: Train architects, planners, and builders; run public campaigns to mainstream BIPV.
Innovative Financing Models: Financial arrangements such as Renewable Energy Service Company model, and long-term power purchase agreements can help enhance project reliability and enable large-scale BIPV deployment.
Adapt successful global models such as- Europe’s Energy Performance of Buildings Directive mandating solar use in new buildings. South Korea’s urban solar subsidies, making BIPV cost-competitive in cityscapes.

To achieve its 300 GW solar target by 2030, India must look beyond rooftops and embrace land-neutral solutions like BIPV, which has an estimated 309 GW potential in existing buildings alone.

Artificial Nanozyme to prevent abnormal Blood Clots

Context: Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc.) have developed an artificial metal-based nanozyme that can be used to prevent abnormal blood clotting caused by conditions like pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE).

Relevance of Topic: Prelims: Scope of artificial metal-based nanozyme; Applications of Nanotechnology.

Clotting of blood under normal conditions:

When a blood vessel is injured, specialised blood cells called platelets get activated and cluster together around the vessel to form protective blood clots to stop bleeding. This is the normal blood clotting cascade (haemostasis).
Haemostasis involves a complex series of protein interactions triggered by exposure to proteins like collagen (from the damaged vessel wall) and enzymes like thrombin (key enzyme in clot formation; activates fibrinogen and stabilises the clot.

Under diseases like PTE or COVID-19:

In conditions like PTE or diseases like COVID-19, the oxidative stress and levels of toxic Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) increases in the body, leading to over-activation of platelets.
This triggers the formation of excess clots in the blood vessel contributing to thrombosis (life-threatening causes blockages in blood vessels).

Artificial metal-based Nanozyme:

To tackle this challenge, researchers have developed a nanomaterial that mimics the activity of natural antioxidant enzymes.
This artificial nanoenzyme is spherical vanadium pentoxide (V2O5). It scavenges reactive oxidative molecules, controls ROS levels, and thereby prevents the over-activation of platelets.

Thus, artificial metal-based nanozyme will help in reducing ROS levels, preventing over-activation of platelets and controlling abnormal blood clotting.

France's Nuclear Sharing Proposal in Europe

Context: Recently, the French President has stated that France is open to dialogue on potentially stationing its nuclear weapons in other European countries to strengthen deterrence. This development occurred amid security concerns in Europe due to the ongoing Russia-Ukraine war.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Nuclear Sharing Model; Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

Why is France offering a broader Nuclear Role in Europe?

France’s willingness to consider stationing its nuclear weapons in other European countries is rooted in its long-standing vision of European strategic autonomy- the idea that Europe should be able to defend itself independently of outside powers, especially the United States.
The US President earlier stated that the US might not always protect NATO allies unless they spend 2% of their GDP on defence. This made European countries look for other ways to ensure their security.

What is the Nuclear Sharing Model?

Nuclear sharing involves a nuclear-weapon state stationing nuclear weapons on allied non-nuclear-weapon states’ territory with specific arrangements for potential use.
For example, within NATO, the US has maintained such arrangements for decades. Currently, B61 tactical nuclear gravity bombs (of the US) are deployed in five NATO states: Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey. Under these arrangements, the US retains legal ownership and custody of the warheads. The US President also retains the power to make the decision to use these weapons, following NATO consultation.
This Cold War-era posture aims to demonstrate alliance solidarity, and share nuclear risks.

Is it legal under International Law?

The 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is the primary legal instrument for regulating nuclear weapons.
Article I of the treaty prohibits nuclear-weapon states (like France) from transferring nuclear weapons or control over them.
Existing NATO nuclear sharing is justified by participants as being NPT-compliant because no transfer of legal ownership or control occurs in peacetime; the US maintains custody.
However, the non-proliferation advocates and various research institutions have consistently challenged this legality.

Security Implications of France’s decision:

Deploying additional nuclear weapons in Europe has varied security implications:

Proponents argue it could enhance deterrence against Russia by increasing NATO’s nuclear assets and demonstrating European resolve.
Russia would likely view such deployments as a significant escalation, potentially leading to military-technical measures in response as Russian officials have repeatedly warned against NATO’s eastward military expansion. Russia’s 2023 stationing of tactical nuclear weapons in Belarus is cited by some as a preceding escalatory step.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT):

NPT is a multilateral treaty aimed at limiting the spread of nuclear weapons including three elements: (1) Non-proliferation, (2) Disarmament (3) Peaceful use of Nuclear Energy.
It defines nuclear weapon states (NWS) as those that had manufactured and detonated a nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967.
Five nuclear weapon states are China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. All the other states are therefore considered non-nuclear weapon states (NNWS).
The Treaty does not affect the right of state parties to develop, produce, and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) verifies NNWS compliance with commitments under the NPT not to acquire nuclear weapons.
Negotiations of such an agreement should begin immediately after the NNWS accession to the NPT and enter into force within 18 months.

Why did India not sign the NPT?

India, Israel, and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons but have never accepted the NPT.
India did not sign the NPT, not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because NPT creates a club of "nuclear haves" and a larger group of "nuclear have-nots" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967.
India considers NPT as a flawed treaty and as it does not recognise the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.

Nalanda University

Context: The Nalanda University was established under the Nalanda University Act 2010, by the Ministry of External Affairs. The new campus of Nalanda University was inaugurated in 2024 and is located close to the ruins of the ancient university in Bihar’s Rajgir town. The University now has over 1200 students.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Nalanda University.

About Nalanda Mahavihara:

Introduction:

Nalanda Mahavihara, the 5th-12th Century AD (in ancient and medieval Magadha) university is considered to be one of the greatest centres of learning in ancient India.
The ruins of ancient Nalanda University in Bihar was declared as the World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2016.
The details of the university can be found in the writings of the famous Chinese traveller Huang Tsang. According to him, there were 10,000 monks and 2000 teachers at Nalanda at that time.

Foundation of the Mahavihara:

Nalanda was established during the Gupta Empire period (3rd–6th century CE), and was supported by numerous Indian and Javanese patrons, both Buddhists and non-Buddhists.
The numismatic evidence discovered at Nalanda suggests that Kumaragupta I was the founder patron of Nalanda.
Kumaragupta’s successors, Budhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, and Vajra, later extended and expanded the institution by building additional monasteries and temples. Nalanda, thus flourished through the 5th and 6th centuries under the Guptas.
It was also patronized by King Harshavardhana of Kannauj (7th century CE) and the Pala rulers (8^th-12th century CE).
After the fall of the Palas, the monks of Nalanda were patronised by the Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya.

Curriculum and associated scholars:

The curriculum at Nalanda was a skill full of secular and religious knowledge, of the theoretical and the practical.
Curriculum of Nalanda included major Buddhist philosophies like Mahayana, Madhyamaka, Yogachara, Sarvastivada, Hinayana, Samkhya
The curriculum also included other subjects like the Vedas, Sanskrit grammar, medicine, logic, mathematics, astronomy, arts, medicine and even metal casting technique.
The mahavihara had a renowned library that was a key source for the Sanskrit texts that were transmitted to East Asia by pilgrims like Huang Tsang.
Many texts composed at Nalanda played an important role in the development of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
- Examples: Works of Dharmakirti, the Bodhisattvacharyavatara of Shantideva and the Mahavairocana Tantra.
One of the things that set Nalanda apart from other schools of the time was that it took international students from countries like Korea, Japan, China, Tibet and other parts of Asia.
Part of Nalanda’s mission was to bring Buddhism to the world.
- Nalanda was famed for its learned professors, or Upajjhaya (Upadhaya).
Famous scholars associated with the Mahavihara: Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Vasubandhu, and Asanga.
In the 1190s, the university was destroyed by a marauding troop of invaders led by Turko-Afghan military general Bakhtiyar Khilji, who sought to extinguish the Buddhist centre of knowledge during his conquest of northern and eastern India.

S-400 Missile System: India's Sudarshan Chakra

Context: Recently, Russian authorities have confirmed that Russia will deliver the remaining units of S-400 air defence systems to India by 2025-2026. India has strategically deployed four S-400 squadrons, with key installations in Pathankot, Rajasthan, and Gujarat, creating a robust shield around its most critical regions.

Despite fear of sanctions from the US, under the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA), India and Russia signed a contract in 2018 for five squadrons of the S-400 system worth over Rs 35,000 crore.
Russia has already delivered the three units of S-400 Triumf systems, with the first unit delivered in 2021.

S-400 Missile System:

The S-400 Triumf is a surface-to-air missile system (SAM) and one of the most advanced anti-aircraft systems developed by Russia.
It is designed to defend against a wide range of air threats which include- aircrafts, ballistic, cruise missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
The missile defence system includes- multifunctional radars, automated command centres, four types of missiles, and mobile launchers.
Capability:
- S-400 has a maximum range of up to 400 km.
- It can destroy targets at a height of 10 m to 30 km.
- It can track up to 80 targets simultaneously, engaging up to 36 of them at once.
- It can intercept targets moving at speeds of up to 4.8 kilometers per second, offering high precision in neutralising fast-moving threats.
Missiles:
- 40N6: Long-range missile (400 kms)
- 48N6: Medium-range missile (250 kms)
- 9M96E2: Short to Medium-range missile (120 kms)
- 9M96E: Short-range missile (40 kms)
The S-400’s radar system includes several different sensors for detection of short-range, medium-range and long-range targets.
- The main one is the 91N6E Big Bird, a three-dimensional phased-array radar capable of detecting targets at long ranges.
- The 92N6E Grave Stone radars are used to guide the missiles and more accurately detect medium and short-range targets.
- The system relies on integrated command control with a 55K6E module that coordinates actions between launchers and radars, ensuring a quick response when a threat is detected.
Mobility: The S-400 system is mobile, can be mounted on trucks, and thus, allows for easy repositioning and deployment in different terrains.
Superiority:
- S-400 can be deployed in 5 minutes as opposed to Patriot’s 25 minutes (Patriot is one the United States’s most advanced missile defence systems).
- Patriot’s top speed of 1.38 km/sec is surpassed by the S-400’s top speed of 4.8 km/sec, making it one of the fastest surface-to-air missiles in the world. This high speed allows the system to intercept ballistic missiles and other fast-moving targets.
- The S-400 system contains four different types of missiles with maximum ranges of 40 km, 120 km, 250 km, and 400 km, as well as a maximum height of 30 km. By using different ranges and heights, an air defence net with numerous levels is produced.
  - The American THAAD is a one-dimensional missile system that can only fire one type of missile up to a range of 150–200 km.
  - Patriot has a maximum range of 180 km.
Utility:
- India plans to use the S-400 systems as a key element of its air defence strategy focused on defending against air and missile threats, particularly from China and Pakistan.
- The systems are set to be deployed at strategic locations, including on the northeastern border.
- The systems will provide a significant advantage by enabling early warning and precision targeting of enemy targets, which is critical to India’s defence strategy in the context of rising tensions in the region.