Prelims Nuggets

India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park to be set in Delhi

Context: The Delhi government has announced plans to develop India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park at Holambi Kalan in north-west Delhi. A global tender (RFQ-cum-RFP) would soon be floated to attract leading green technology partners.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about integrated E-Waste Eco Park; e-waste.

India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park

Location: Holambi Kalan in north-west Delhi.
Spread across 11.4 acres, the state-of-the-art facility will be built under a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model.
Expected to process up to 51,000 metric tonnes of e-waste annually.
The park will be developed by the Delhi State Industrial and Infrastructure Development Corporation (DSIIDC) under the Design, Build, Finance, Operate and Transfer model.
The project is estimated to cost Rs 150 crore expenditure and Rs 325 crore in operational costs, and is expected to generate over Rs 350 crore in revenue. Construction of the park is expected to be completed within 18 months.
It aims to position Delhi as a national leader in e-waste management, green jobs and resource recovery.
Apart from recycling e-waste, the park will include zones for dismantling, refurbishing, component testing, plastic recovery, and a second-hand electronics market.
It will also host training centres to upskill informal sector workers engaged in unsafe e-waste handling.

What is E-Waste?

As per the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, e-waste is defined as: electrical and electronic equipment, including solar photovoltaic modules or panels or cells, whole or in part, discarded or rejected from manufacturing, refurbishment and repair processes.
Examples: Large household appliances like Refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines ; Consumer electronics like Televisions, computers, laptops, smartphones etc.
E-waste can contain material of economic benefit such as plastics, iron, glass, aluminum, copper, silver, gold, platinum, palladium, lithium, indium etc. and rare earth elements.
E-Waste contains hazardous substances such as Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Hexavalent Chromium, Polychlorinated Bi-phenyls (PCBs), Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR), etc.
Management of E-Waste in India is regulated under E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.

India's E-Waste Emergency:

India stands as the third-largest producer of e-waste in the world after China and the US. In FY24, the country generated 1.7 million tonnes of e-waste. Delhi contributes nearly 9.5% of that staggering total.
Unfortunately, only 17% of global e-waste is recycled in a scientifically sound manner. Presently, only 43% of the country's e-waste is recycled. Further, at least 80% of the sector comprises informal scrap dealers.
Toxins from crude e-waste handling contaminate air, soil, and water and pose serious health risks, especially to vulnerable groups like children.

Significance:

By encouraging the safe and scientific recovery of essential materials, it will reduce pollution and conserve resources.
Bring order to the informal sector, create thousands of green jobs and empower local dismantlers, recyclers, and refurbishers.

Delhi's E-Waste Eco Park is the first of four such facilities planned across the country and a step towards sustainable development and a circular economy.

Drone Warfare and India

Context: Ukraine's Op Spider's Web and recent India-Pakistan military hostilities during Op Sindoor underlines the rising threat of Drone warfare.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Defence technologies: UAVs, Swarm Drones, Directed Energy Weapons, Electronic Warfare

Mains: Drone warfare- evolution, threat, counter measures.

According to Fortune Business Insights, the global military drone market was valued at $14.14 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach $47.16 billion by 2032, reflecting the rapid militarisation of drone technology.

Evolution of Drone Warfare

While unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) date back to World War II, their strategic utility surged post-1991 Gulf War.
In a watershed moment in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Azerbaijan’s drones overwhelmed Armenian defences. Since then, drones have redefined warfare: from Houthi strikes on Saudi oil sites and Hamas’s use in Gaza.
Recently, in Ukraine's bold Operation Spider’s Web in 2025, over 100 First-person view (FPV) drones hit deep into Russia, damaging 40+ aircraft and causing $7 billion in losses. In retaliation, Russia launched the world’s biggest drone attack till date, with almost 500 drones hitting Ukraine overnight.

This evolution has led to the rise of swarm drones, which work together in large numbers to overwhelm enemy defences.

Swarm Drones

Swarm drones are autonomous or semi-autonomous UAVs that operate in coordinated groups, much like swarms of birds or fish. They communicate via wireless networks and adjust in real time to achieve shared objectives.
Swarms are more resilient than traditional drones due to in-built redundancy, i.e., even if one drone is intercepted, others can continue on the mission.
Drone swarms are thus used to saturate air defences, gather intelligence, and attack high-value targets.

Countries are developing advanced AI-driven swarm drones that can make real-time decisions, adapt tactics mid-mission, and coordinate complex manoeuvres- set to play a key role in future combined arms warfare alongside infantry, armour, and cyber units.

What Makes Drone Swarms a Strategic Threat?

Low Cost, High Impact: A $500-$1,000 drone can damage a $200 million aircraft.
Difficult to intercept due to their small size, and ability to overwhelm defences- cluttering radars, exhausting ammunition, and slipping through even robust air defence systems.
High Agility and Mobility: Swarm drone attacks can be launched anytime, anywhere even from a truck near an airbase, as seen in Op Spider’s Web. In a country like India, with porous borders and diverse populations, this threat is both real and pressing.

Traditional military bases, aircrafts, and infrastructure, previously considered secure, are now vulnerable to drone attacks and demand new defence strategies.

Countering Drone Threats

Detection of Drones: Defence against drones begins with detection. Modern systems employ a combination of: AESA radars; Electro-optical and infrared sensors; Acoustic detectors; AI-powered fusion systems
Neutralisation of Drones: Once detected, drones can be neutralised by kinetic means such as:
- Missiles and anti-aircraft guns, though these are expensive and less effective against swarms.
- Automated gun systems like C-RAM and Phalanx, which autonomously track and fire at targets, offer a more practical solution.

Some cost-effective alternatives include:

Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs): Lasers and microwave pulses that disable drones by damaging sensors or frying electronics.
Electronic Warfare (EW): Jamming GPS signals or communication links.
Spoofing: Misleading drones about their location or issuing false commands.
Cyber Attacks: Taking control of drones and crashing them by exploiting software vulnerabilities.
Interceptor drones & nets: For close-range neutralisation, protecting critical assets.

The ideal defence is a layered system, integrating multiple modes of interception for redundancy and cost-efficiency purposes. Examples include Israel’s Iron Dome and the US’s Directed Energy M-SHORAD.

India’s Counter-Drone Infrastructure:

Since 2020, India has ramped up its counter-drone infrastructure, deploying a layered defence that blends indigenous technology, EW, and air defence systems. Key systems include:

Akashteer Air Defence Control System : Developed by Bharat Electronics Ltd, it integrates with the Indian Air Force’s integrated command network for real-time tracking.
Bhargavastra : Solar Defence and Aerospace Ltd’s weapon system fires 64 micro-rockets in salvos to eliminate drone swarms.
DRDO’s Anti-Drone System: It offers 360-degree radar coverage, with both jamming (soft kill) and laser (hard kill) capabilities. Drones can be detected up to 4 km away, and neutralised within a 1 km radius.
Indrajaal: An AI-powered grid from a Hyderabad startup that combines jammers, spoofers, and intelligence to protect areas up to 4,000 sq km. Already deployed at naval sites in Gujarat and Karnataka.

During the May 2025 swarm attacks, the IAF activated its Integrated Counter-UAS Grid, alongside conventional radars, guns, and missiles, neutralising attempted strikes on 15 military bases and several urban targets.

Drone warfare has ushered in a new age of asymmetric, AI-driven conflict and transformed the dynamics of the battlefield. As CDS General Chauhan aptly stated- We are at a cusp where war may be between humans and machines- and tomorrow, between machines themselves.

Centre Caps MGNREGS Spending at 60%

Context: The Union Finance Ministry has capped spending under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) at 60% of its annual allocation for the first half of Financial Year (FY) 2025-26.

Until now, the rural jobs guarantee scheme has operated as a demand-driven programme with no such spending limit.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key features of MGNREGS.

Centre Caps MGNREGS Spending: Rationale of Govt

The Finance Ministry has placed MGNREGS under the Monthly/Quarterly Expenditure Plan (MEP/QEP), a cash management framework used to control government spending. This restricts the spending to 60% till September 2025 (Second quarter of FY). MGNREGS was thus far exempt from MEP/QEP on account of being demand-driven.
MGNREGS has long been plagued with financial troubles, which the government hopes to address by implementing the MEP/QEP mechanisms.

MGNREGS plagued with Financial Troubles:

Data from the Ministry of Rural Development shows that more than 70% of the budget is frequently exhausted by the second quarter of the financial year (FY). While supplementary allocations are often made in the third quarter, even these run out by January. This leaves significant pending dues by the end of the FY.
Over the last five FYs, pending dues have ranged between Rs 15,000 crore to Rs 25,000 crore. On average, 20% of the subsequent FY’s budget is spent in clearing the pending dues.
Implementing an expenditure cap may likely ensure an adequate budget will remain for the latter half of the FY, so that no supplementary allocation will have to be made.

MGNREGS acts as a buffer for rural citizens, especially during times of lean harvests, freak weather events, and rural distress. Work demand under the scheme fluctuates throughout the year due to a number of reasons, primarily agricultural activities and weather patterns.

Criticism of the Spending Cap on MGNREGS:

Constitutional courts have held that financial inability cannot be a reason to disregard statutory or constitutional duties, including in various judgements like- Swaraj Abhiyan v Union of India (2016), Municipal Council, Ratlam vs Shri Vardhichand (1980) etc.
The 60% spending cap makes it virtually impossible to realise an entitlement that is legally guaranteed under the Act, once the ceiling is reached.
Further, there is currently no clarity on what will happen once the ceiling is reached. States could be forced to deny employment even when there is demand, or workers may have to work without timely payment.
In both scenarios, statutory rights of the workers may be violated:
- Right to receive employment within 15 days of raising the demand, as provided under MGNREGA.
- Right to receive wages within 15 days of closure of work, as mandated under the Act.

About MGNREGS:

MGNREGS provides up to 100 days of guaranteed employment in a financial year to any rural household willing to do unskilled manual work on demand.
Launched in 2006 by the Ministry of Rural Development.
Employment must be provided within 15 days of a work demand, if not, the applicant is entitled to an unemployment allowance.
MGNREGA Act, 2005 mandates that wages must be paid within 15 days of work completion.
At least one-third of beneficiaries have to be women. Implementation is done by Gram Panchayats.
The MGNREGA recognises employment as a statutory right. The Act signified a critical shift from employment being a negative right under Article 21 of the Constitution (which mandated that the state must not interfere with your livelihood unreasonably), to a positive statutory obligation on the government to provide employment on demand.

What is Black Box?

Context: In the aftermath of the deadly plane crash in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, officials have confirmed the recovery of the Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) and Flight Data Recorder (FDR) from the plane crash site.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Black Box.

What is Black Box?

A black box is a flight recording device used in aircraft to record flight data and cockpit conversations.
It consists of two main components:
- Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR): record radio transmissions and other sounds in the cockpit such as the pilot conversations and engine noises.
- Flight Data Recorder (FDR): record crucial flight information like altitude, speed, heading, engine performance, and more.

These devices help investigators reconstruct the sequence of events before a crash and determine its causes.
Modern black boxes are actually orange in colour to make them easier to spot in wreckage. The term "black box" comes from early versions of data recorders that were kept in light proof boxes, making them appear "black" from the outside.
The recording devices are stored inside a unit generally made out of strong substances such as steel or titanium and are also insulated from factors such as extreme heat, cold or wetness. They are placed at the back of the plane, where damage is usually less in a crash.
For crashes over water bodies, Black Boxes are equipped with beacons that send out ultrasound signals for 30 days, although this does not guarantee their discovery.

History:

Black boxes were the brainchild of Dr. David Warren, an Australian jet fuel expert.
In 1963, Australia became the first country to make black boxes mandatory on all aircraft.

New AC Temperature Control Guidelines

Context: The Union Ministry of Power is planning to mandate a fixed temperature range (20°C to 28°C) for air conditioners in India to reduce energy consumption and promote public health.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: WHO Housing and Health Guidelines (2018), Rationale for New AC guidelines from the Centre; Common refrigerants used in ACs.

New AC guidelines from the Centre:

The new directive will cap the operational temperature range of all new air conditioners (ACs) in India between 20°C and 28°C, whether in homes or commercial settings.
Currently, many air conditioners available in the market allow temperatures as low as 16°C or 18°C, and heating settings going up to 30°C.
Rationale: To reduce energy consumption and mitigate health risks associated with excessive cooling.

Why is this being proposed?

To Save Electricity:

A study by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) predicted that by 2030, India’s total AC load could reach 200 GW, putting stress on energy supply.
According to the Power Minister, every 1°C increase in an AC’s temperature setting can save 6% of the electricity it uses.
Mandating optimal temperature off AC to 24°C, the country could save 20 billion units of electricity per year.

To Improve Public Health:

Many people set their ACs at very low temperatures (like 18-21°C), but this is not only uncomfortable for most, it is also unhealthy.
Low indoor temperatures are linked to:
- Increased blood pressure due to vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels and stress on the heart).
- Higher risk of hypertension and respiratory issues like asthma and infections.
- Poor sleep, especially in children and the elderly.
- Reduce lung function in children.
- Mental health issues like anxiety and depression, especially in persistently cold homes.

WHO’s 2018 Housing and Health Guidelines recommend using 18 degrees Celsius as the minimum safe living-room temperature in temperate or cooler climates because cardiovascular and respiratory admissions were found to climb steeply below that threshold.
A longitudinal study found that 16% of individuals over the age of 50, living in environments cooled to below 18°C, experienced higher blood pressure, lower vitamin D levels and reduced lung function.
Standards like ASHRAE-55 and ISO 7730 recommend maintaining minimum indoor temperatures for comfort and safety. A lightly clothed person can comfortably release body heat at 20-24°C.

How do Air Conditioners Work?

An AC works by removing heat from inside a room and dumping it outside.
It uses a refrigerant that evaporates and absorbs heat, then gets compressed (which uses most of the power), and finally releases the heat through a condenser.

The colder the temperature one sets, the harder the AC has to work and the more electricity it uses.
ACs are most efficient when operating in a temperature range suited to their refrigerant, typically 20°C to 28°C.

What is a refrigerant?

A refrigerant or coolant used in ACs takes out the heat of a room and throws it outside into the atmosphere.
A refrigerant has to undergo phase changes to absorb and compress the heat to distribute cold fresh air into the room. It changes from a liquid to gas when it absorbs a room’s heat and then again gets back to its liquid form when the compressor compresses it.
The ideal refrigerant can be selected considering certain factors like -- favourable thermodynamic properties, non-corrosive nature and safety features like its toxicity and inflammability.

Common refrigerants used in ACs:

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): phased out due to Ozone depletion.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): less harmful but still risks Ozone depletion. Indian government plans to phase out the HCFC refrigerants by 2030.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): Ozone-safe but have high global warning potential.
Hydrocarbons (Propane and Iso-Butane): ozone-friendly, completely halogen-free and have the least global warming potential but flammable.

Thus, the case for moving towards a fixed temperature range on ACs is clear- supported by public health benefits as well as energy savings.

FRA Cells to speed up Forest Rights Implementation

Context: The Central government has sanctioned over 300 FRA Cells to facilitate the implementation of the Forest Rights Act, 2006 across 18 states and UTs.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Features of FRA Cells, FRA 2006, DAJGUA.

Pending Forest Rights Claims

According to the March 2025 progress report, about 14.45% of the 51.11 lakh forest rights claims filed under the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 across 21 States/UTs still remain pending.
Even among the 43 lakh disposed claims, over 42% have been rejected indicating serious issues in the implementation process.

To address these long-standing delays and rejections, the Union government has sanctioned over 300 FRA Cells across 18 states & UTs.

About Forest Right Act 2006

Also known as Schedule Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers Act.
The act recognises and vests the forest rights and occupation in Forest land in Forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) who have been residing in such forests for generations.

The Act identifies Four Types of Rights:

Title rights: Gives FDST and OTFD, the right to ownership of land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers subject to a maximum of 4 hectares. Ownership is only for land that is being cultivated by the concerned family and no new lands will be granted. It also provides for Community rights over minor forest produce and other resources.
Use rights: The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas, pastoralist routes, etc.
Relief and development rights: To rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement and to basic amenities, subject to restrictions for forest protection.
Forest management rights: It includes the right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.

Key Facts:

The Act recognises both individuals and community rights.
The decision and declaration of Habitat rights under FRA is in the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
The claim needs to be approved by the Gram Sabha. The decision of the Gram Sabha to reject or allow the claim can be appealed before court.

About FRA Cells

FRA Cells are created in districts and states to assist in implementing the Forest Rights Act, 2006, law meant to give forest rights to Scheduled Tribes and forest-dwelling communities.
This is being done under a new scheme called Dharti Aba Janjati Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA ).

Key details about FRA Cells:

Until now, implementation of the FRA, has been the domain of State and Union Territory governments who were supposed to form local committees like Gram Sabhas, Sub-Divisional Level Committees (SDLCs), District Level Committees (DLCs), etc., to process land claims.
Now, under DAJGUA, 324 district-level FRA cells and 17 state-level FRA cells have been approved. The rules governing the operation of these cells flow from the DAJGUA programme and not the principal legislation of the FRA.
FRA Cells are meant to help tribal people and Gram Sabhas prepare documents, manage data, and push pending claims, not to interfere in decision-making.
The highest number of district FRA cells are sanctioned in Madhya Pradesh (55), followed by Chhattisgarh (30), Telangana, Maharashtra, Assam, and Jharkhand.
Though FRA cells function under state machinery as per DAJGUA rules, they are centrally funded through Grants-in-Aid General, as seen in sanction orders for states like Assam, Himachal Pradesh, and Odisha. The guidelines provide a budget of ₹8.67 lakh for each FRA cell at the district level, and ₹25.85 lakh for each State-level FRA cell.

Dharti Aba Janjati Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA):

A central sector scheme launched in October 2024.
Purpose: To Improve tribal welfare across 68,000 tribal-dominated villages by bringing together 25 interventions of 17 line ministries.
One component of the DAJGUA programme is to speed up FRA implementation.

Concerns: Forest rights activists and experts have raised concerns of FRA Cells being a parallel FRA mechanism outside of FRA’s purview and that it could weaken community control.

Navy to Commission up to 10 Naval warships in 2025

Context: Indian Navy is set to commission up to 10 domestically built warships by December 2025. This move marks one of the largest single-phase inductions in recent years, and highlights India’s growing emphasis on indigenous defence manufacturing and strategic autonomy in naval strength.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about recent naval inductions, ship classes, and defence manufacturing initiatives, Indigenisation efforts.

Key details of the Induction:

The commissioning phase will begin with the induction of INS Arnala, the first of sixteen Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow-Water Craft (ASW-SWC).
Alongside Arnala, the Navy is expected to induct INS Tamal, the second Talwar-class stealth frigate.
A second Nilgiri-class frigate may also be commissioned before the year-end.

INS Arnala

Built by: Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE) Kolkata in partnership with L&T Shipbuilders.
It is designed to perform critical roles such as subsurface surveillance, search-and-rescue missions, and anti-submarine operations in coastal and shallow waters.
Arnala is the largest Indian naval warship propelled by a diesel-engine and waterjet combination.

INS Tamal: Krivak-class Frigates

Krivak-class frigates are a series of multi-role warships originally designed by Russia. India operates its variant called the Talwar-class frigates, customised for the Indian Navy.
In 2016, under Project 1135.6 (Talwar-class) Follow-on Frigates, India and Russia signed an Inter-Governmental Agreement to procure four additional Krivak-class frigates.
- Two were to be imported from Russia, while two were to be built in India at GSL, Goa under technology transfer.
- Built in Russia: INS Tushil (commissioned 2024), INS Tamal (to be commissioned in 2025)
- Built in India: INS Triput (launched 2024), INS Tavasya (launched 2025).

With the aim to become a 175-ship by 2035 the Indian Navy has taken many strategic steps like:

Advancements in technology, stronger indigenisation efforts, and close Navy involvement in the design and manufacturing process have shortened the time from ship design to delivery.
Recently, the Navy also commissioned INS Vagsheer, a diesel-electric Kalvari-class submarine under Project 75, which operates quietly for coastal patrols.
Furthermore, the Navy is progressing with Project 75I, which aims to build six advanced conventional attack submarines, with evaluations and cost negotiations underway.
On the aviation side, the Navy is also receiving MH-60R Seahawk helicopters from the U.S., with 13 of 24 orders already delivered.

Voyager Tardigrades Experiment

Context: During Axiom Mission-4, Indian Astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla will conduct experiments on tardigrades’ revival, survival, and reproduction during his two-week stay on the International Space Station (ISS).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Tardigrades; Voyager Tardigrades experiment.

What are Tardigrades?

Tardigrades or water bears/moss piglets are microscopic aquatic animals (about 0.5 mm long) discovered in 1773.
They are Earth's most durable organisms that have existed for around 600 million years, 400 million years before dinosaurs walked the planet, and survived all the five major mass extinction events.
They have four pairs of legs, each ending in 4-6 claws, and a specialised mouth to extract nutrients from plant cells, algae, and small invertebrates.
Tardigrades are ubiquitous, from the highest mountains to the deepest oceans, but are most commonly found in the thin water film on mosses and lichens.
They can survive extreme conditions including temperatures as low as minus 272.95 degrees Celsius or as high as 150 degrees Celsius; endure ultraviolet radiation of space, and pressures of 40,000 kilopascals (equivalent to what can be experienced at a depth of 4 km under the ocean’s surface); and live after being stored in a freezer for 30 years.

Why are Tardigrades so resilient?

Both anhydrobiosis and cryptobiosis result in the emergence of a durable shrunken state, called tun, in which tardigrades are able to withstand extreme conditions.

Cryptobiosis: Tardigrades owe their incredible resilience to cryptobiosis. It is a state in which organisms bring their metabolism to a near-complete standstill in the face of adverse environmental conditions.
Anhydrobiosis: Tardigrades can reduce their metabolism to less than 0.01% of normal, and drop their water levels by more than 95%, a state called anhydrobiosis.
They produce unique proteins such as cytoplasmic-abundant heat soluble (CAHS) proteins which are key to their resilience. These proteins form a gel-like matrix within their cells, vitrifying and protecting essential cellular components from destruction. This allows them to withstand extreme temperatures, radiation, and the vacuum of space.

Why do scientists study Tardigrades in space?

Tardigrades have been a part of space missions since 2007. European Space Agency’s Foton-M3 mission, carried 3,000 tardigrades in tun state and the post-return analysis confirmed that many survived space vacuum, and some successfully reproduced despite UV exposure, making them the first animals to survive open space.
In the ongoing Voyager Tardigrades Experiment, scientists will examine the effects of space radiation and microgravity on tardigrades' biological processes. The primary objective is to identify the genes responsible for making tardigrades resilient. This will help scientists develop strategies to protect astronauts during long-duration space missions, and preserve biological materials for extended space travel.

A better understanding of tardigrades’ survival mechanisms can potentially have several applications: from helping scientists develop more resilient crops to creating advanced sunscreens to preserving human tissues and organs for transplantation.

Satellite race in Ultra Low Earth Orbit

Context: Orbitt Space, a space technology startup in India, is building next-generation satellite propulsion systems and platforms for ultra low Earth Orbit (ULEO) missions.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Ultra Low Earth Orbit (ULEO).

Ultra Low Earth Orbit (ULEO)

Ultra Low Earth Orbit refers to satellite orbits at very low altitudes, typically below 450 kms, or even below 200 kms.
The commercial importance of ULEO is increasing in both private and government satellite operations globally.
Applications include: Earth observation, low-latency telecommunications, climate monitoring, surveillance, rural internet and scientific missions.

Benefits of ULEO:

Higher resolution imagery due to their proximity to Earth.
Reduced communication latency due to their proximity to Earth.
Self-regulating solution to space debris as satellites in ULEO are naturally de-orbited (burn up in the earth’s atmosphere post mission).
Radiation protection enables the use of cost-effective commercial electronics.
Alternative to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) with lesser risk of satellite collisions. (LEO has accumulated over 20,000 space objects and high debris)
Can complement constellations of satellites launched in LEO.

Challenges associated with ULEO:

High atmospheric drag due to proximity to Earth. To maintain a stable orbit, satellites require constant thrust compensation, typically through onboard propulsion systems. In the near-vacuum LEO there is negligible atmospheric drag, making propulsion less critical for orbit maintenance.
High cost of operating and Fuel constraints due to the necessity to provide constant thrust compensation.
Exposure of satellites to very high levels of elemental oxygen (atomic oxygen), a highly reactive form of oxygen that corrodes most substances quickly. This requires the use of special coatings to protect objects and equipment in this orbit.

Orbitt Space is building a new propulsion technology (electric propulsion system) that can compensate for the drag in ULEO, giving the satellite a lifetime of 5 to 7 years. The electric propulsion system uses residual atmospheric gases as propellant, eliminating the need for onboard fuel.

India’s next Population Census

Context: India’s long-postponed decadal census exercise will be conducted in two phases in 2026 and 2027. The Census paves the way to update the National Population Register (NPR) and for the establishment of the National Register of Indian Citizens (NRIC).

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts and provisions about the Census, NPR, NRIC.

Mains: Importance of Census Exercise.

India’s next Population Census

The next census - the exhaustive count of the population of the country and critical socio-economic details - will be conducted in two phases:
- Beginning in October 2026 - in snow-bound states and union territories, such as Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
- Beginning on March 1, 2027 for the rest of the Indian states.
The census will also have questions on caste - i.e., an enumeration of the various castes and sub-castes and associated population.
For the first time, Census data will be collected digitally, using mobile phone apps in 16 languages (Hindi, English and 14 regional languages). These apps are designed to be simple and user-friendly for both the enumerators and citizens, since the latter will also have the option to self-enumerate.
Census management and monitoring system (CMMS) portal has been developed by the Office of RGI (Registrar General of India) for smooth conduct, management and monitoring of the exercise.
Final population data will be available at the end of 2027 due to the digital mode.

What is the Census?

Census is an official enumeration of the entire population of any country, done periodically by the government. It provides information on the size, distribution, socio-economic characteristics, demographics etc. of a country's population.
The first Census exercise in India was started in 1881 during the British period with W. C. Plowden being the first Census Commissioner of India.
The Census is a Union list subject (as entry 69). Only the Central government is empowered to undertake the exercise.
There is a Constitutional mandate to carry out a Census. The Census of India Act, 1948 provides the legal framework for carrying out the Census.
The responsibility of conducting the Census rests with the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Neither Indian Constitution nor the Census of India Act, 1948 specifies the timing or periodicity of this exercise.

Significance of upcoming Census:

Enumerate Caste data: The government has decided to conduct caste enumeration in the upcoming Census. Previously, all Censuses after Independence have captured only SC and ST details. It could inform disaggregated budgeting and track how welfare schemes like PM Awas Yojana or Skill India etc. are reaching caste groups, ensuring that the most marginalised are not left out.
Data for Electoral Planning: This Census data would be used for the delimitation exercise for determining the revised number of seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies. The Census would also form the basis for reserving one-third of seats for women in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
Mapping Population Transition: The past decade has seen significant changes in population dynamics, not only in numbers with change in demographic patterns, like increased urbanisation, urban migration and increased ageing population. The Census will assist in interpreting fertility rate, migration rates and distribution of population which will assist in tracking resource distribution.
Update NPR & NRC: The Census date will be used for the updation of the National Population Register (NPR) and for the establishment of the National Register of Indian Citizens (NRC).
Reliable benchmark for Alternative Surveys: Alternative surveys, such as NFHS or NSSO while insightful, lack the comprehensiveness of the Census. Only the Census provides comprehensive, accurate data crucial for national planning, and without it, evaluations of government programs lack a reliable denominator, making policy assessments misleading.
Tracking progress towards SDGs: Census data contributes to global demographic studies and aids India in fulfilling its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by providing accurate metrics on poverty, health, and education.

National People Register (NPR) vs Census:

Resident: Any person who has been living in an area or locality for six months or more or intends to live in an area/locality for the next six months at the time of a survey is considered a resident.
The NPR is a register of all ‘residents’ of the country, prepared at several levels- local (village/sub-town), subdistrict, district, state and national, under the provisions of the Citizenship Act, 1955, and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003.
Aim: To create a comprehensive database of residents of the nation including their demographic particulars. The exercise is carried out under the supervision of Registrar General and ex-Officio Census Commissioner, India.
Detailed inquiries into citizenship status are conducted to finalise the National Register of Citizens (NRC), which distinguishes citizens from non-citizens.

National Register of Citizens (NRC):

The NRIC draws its mandate from the Citizenship Act 1955. Initially conceptualised after the 1951 Census, the NRIC gained renewed significance following recommendations by the Subrahmanyam Committee in the aftermath of the Kargil war (1999).
Aim: To enhance national security by maintaining a verified citizen registry.
Benefits: Streamlining identity verification, reducing identity fraud and duplication, and enabling targeted welfare programmes that ensure benefits reach only eligible recipients.
The NPR serves as the initial step in achieving these objectives by differentiating citizens from non-citizens through a multi-phase process that collects demographic and biometric data on all usual residents.

National People Register (NPR) vs National Register of Citizens (NRC)

National Population Register (NPR)	National Register of Citizens (NRC)
All people staying in India 6 months and above and who intend to reside for 6 months or more, including foreigners.	Indian-born or Indian parents or staying in India for 11 years are eligible for Indian Citizenship.
Prepared with Census 2011 and updated in 2015. The next update was scheduled during the next Census from April 1, 2020, to September 30, 2020. Only Assam would not participate in this activity.	First prepared during the 1951 Census and it is not updated regularly. Assam is the only state in the country where the NRC is updated.
NPR is not a citizenship enumeration drive as it includes foreigners as well.	NRC is a citizenship enumeration drive as it includes Indian citizens only.
It is compulsory for all Indian residents to register with NPR. The main purpose of the NPR is to identify illegal migrants and identify them as foreign nationals.	NRC is a subset of NPR where only the citizens of India are taken into account.

Hence, the Census data will form the bedrock for evidence-based Policy making at National and State level.

DIGIPIN: India's new Digital Address System

Context: The Department of Posts has unveiled a novel digital addressing system called DIGIPIN. This new system is set to revolutionise how locations are identified across the country.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about DigiPIN.

About DIGIPIN

DIGIPIN stands for Digital Postal Index Number.
It is a unique 10-digit alphanumeric code that precisely indicates the location of a property, contrasting to the existing six-digit PIN code system that covers larger areas.
Aim: To enhance service delivery, particularly in remote and underserved areas, by providing accurate geographic coordinates essential for various services.
Developed in collaboration with: IIT Hyderabad and the National Remote Sensing Centre, ISRO.
It is part of a broader push under the National Geospatial Policy 2022 to enable digital-first governance, accurate last-mile delivery, and efficient emergency response systems.

Key Features:

Each unique Digipin corresponds to a 4x4 square metre grid on the Indian landmass, based on its exact latitude and longitude coordinates.
It is a geospatial reference system which is geo-coded and grid-based. DIGIPIN is directly tied to the precise geographic coordinates of a location on a map.

Key Benefits:

Precision: Exact location identification within a 4-metre square.
Open-source and privacy-centric: Encodes only location, with no personal data stored.
Nationwide coverage: Applies to urban, rural, remote, and even maritime areas.
Streamline services such as last-mile delivery for e-commerce. Aid police, ambulance, and fire services in improving their emergency response times owing to geographical accuracy.

How is it different from the traditional postal address or pin code?

While a regular postal address depends on locality, street, and house numbers, DIGIPIN points to the exact coordinates of a location using the 10-character alphanumeric code.
DIGIPIN will not replace the existing PIN code system. Instead, two systems will coexist with DIGIPIN enhancing the accuracy and functionality of traditional addresses, especially in use cases that demand high spatial precision.

Designed to function as a foundational component of Address-as-a-Service (AaaS), Digipin can be integrated into the operations of government agencies, private organisations, and other institutions.

Hydrology of Brahmaputra

Context: The Chief Minister of Assam addressed concerns surrounding the Brahmaputra River, emphasising that 65-70% of the Brahmaputra’s flow is generated within India, reassuring the public about India’s water sovereignty.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Brahmaputra River System; Key Hydropower Projects.

Hydrology of Brahmaputra River

Brahmaputra originates as Yarlung Tsangpo in Kailash range near Mansarovar lake in Tibet. It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the Namcha Barwa peak, and enters near Gelling in Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang (or Dihang).
Brahmaputra is primarily a rain-fed river system, with only approximately 30-35% of its flow coming from China, mostly through glacial melt and scanty rainfall that happens in the Tibetan region.
The majority of the river’s water (about 65-70%) arises within India itself due to the monsoon rains that pour over the Northeast’s hilly terrains and the numerous tributaries feeding the river.
The river is called Siang in Arunachal, is joined by many tributaries in Assam as it flows down the plains before entering Bangladesh, where it is called Jamuna.

Left/ South bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra	Right/ North bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra
Dihang	Kameng
Dibang	Manas
Lohit	Subansari
Noa Dehing	Dhansiri (North)
Burhi Dehing	Sankosh
Kopilli	Ronganadi
Dhansiri (South)
Kolong

Hydro-statistics and Regional data

Brahmaputra’s flow at key points exemplifies India’s water independence. At the Indo-China border, near the Tuting region in Arunachal Pradesh, the flow rate is around 2,000-3,000 cubic metres per second.
During the monsoon season, as the river enters Assam’s plains, the flow swells to an impressive 15,000-20,000 cubic metres per second.
These figures underscore that the river’s strength and volume are predominantly sustained within India’s climatic and geographical domain. Thus, India does not depend on upstream water flow from China to sustain its water needs.

As the region faces severe flooding due to monsoons, India must emphasise resilience and infrastructure over fears of upstream interference.

Impact of Hypothetical reduction of water by China

Even a hypothetical reduction in Chinese water contribution would have a minimal impact on India’s water security or be potentially beneficial. Reduced flow could mitigate the devastating floods that annually ravage Assam and the northeastern region.

This point also highlights that India’s water system is resilient and primarily driven by monsoon rains and local tributaries.

China’s planned interventions on Brahmaputra

Most of the Chinese infrastructure interventions are hydropower projects with minimal storage, and are located far upstream of Arunachal Pradesh, with no significant impact in Arunachal or Assam.

Medog (or Motuo) Hydropower Project: A major concern is the planned massive dam in Medog County near the ‘Great Bend’ where the river makes a U-turn and plunges into a canyon before entering Arunachal Pradesh. The planned 60,000-MW Medog project will be the world’s largest hydropower facility, with a generation capacity three times that of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze, currently the world’s largest hydropower station.
South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project: Concerns have also been raised over China’s massive, multi-decade South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project, the Western Route of which apparently involves diverting water from the Yarlung Tsangpo (and other rivers) to the country’s dry northern regions.

As a mitigation strategy, India could plan storage on rivers of the Brahmaputra system to absorb the variations in flows (periods of flooding and reduced flows). E.g., The Upper Siang Project will not only generate power, its storage can also serve as a buffer against variations in flows.

India’s interventions to utilise water potential of Brahmaputra:

Brahmaputra and its tributaries carry more than 30% of India’s total water resources potential, and 41% of the total hydropower potential, as per estimates in the CWC-ISRO Brahmaputra Basin Atlas.

The National Water Development Authorityhas proposed two links to connect the Brahmaputra and its tributaries to the Ganga basin with the aim of transferring surplus water to water-scarce regions. These are:
- Manas-Sankosh-Teesta-Ganga Link, joining the Manas, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, to the Ganga via the Sankosh and Teesta
- Jogighopa-Teesta-Farakka Link, joining the Brahmaputra at the planned Jogighopa Barrage to the Ganga at the Farakka Barrage.
However, utilisation of hydropower in Arunachal Pradesh has been slow due to difficulties of land acquisition and concern over the submergence of forest lands, etc.

Environmental Risks:

Risks of flooding may arise from intentional or unintentional operation of reservoirs in Tibet, as well as unforeseen events such as dam failure, landslides, or earthquakes.
Upstream interventions have the potential to affect the river morphology, with consequences for riverine flora and fauna.

Key Facts:

Tibetan Plateau is a region of scant rainfall of the order of 300 mm annually.
The southern part of the Brahmaputra river basin in India receives 2,371 mm of rain on average every year, and very few places receive less than 1,200 mm.

India should work to actively seek detailed hydrological and project-related data to continuously assess the downstream impact of Chinese infrastructure interventions and develop comprehensive data sharing protocols with China for advance warning and disaster preparedness.