Prelims Nuggets

World likely to breach 1.5°C limit in next five years: WMO

Context: A recent report by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) has sounded an alarm on climate change, warning that there is a 70% chance of global temperatures exceeding the 1.5°Celsius threshold above pre-industrial levels between 2025 and 2029.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends related to climate change; Paris Climate deal; India’s climate commitments.

Major Highlights of forecasts by WMO

Global mean near-surface temperature for each year between 2025 and 2029 will be between 1.2°C and 1.9°C above the pre-industrial average. There is a 70% chance that average warming will exceed 1.5°C, if the current warming trend continues.
- In 2024, WMO estimated that the average global temperature was between 1.34°C and 1.41°C higher than pre-industrial levels (1850-1900).
- WMO now projects the 20-year average warming for 2015-2034 to reach around 1.44°C above pre-industrial levels.
Average Arctic temperature over the next five winters (2025-2029) is expected to be 2.4°C warmer than the 1991-2020 average. Sea ice is expected to keep shrinking, particularly in the Barents, Bering, and Okhotsk Sea. This will contribute to rising sea levels and disrupted weather patterns worldwide.

About Paris Climate Agreement

Adopted in 2015 by 196 Parties during the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at Paris, France.
Aim: To limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels.
Key Features of the Climate deal:
- Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each country sets its own emission reduction targets, with updates every five years to enhance ambition.
- Global Stocktake: A periodic review of the progress on climate action at global level (not the national level) and identify overall gaps, conducted every five years.
- Climate Finance: Developed countries pledged to mobilise $100 billion annually by 2020 to support climate action in developing nations, with plans for scaling this amount post-2025.
- Adaptation and Resilience: Focuses on helping countries adapt to climate impacts and build resilience against future challenges.
Significance: First universal, legally binding, global climate deal. It emphasises global cooperation, fairness, and a commitment to sustainable development while recognising the individual capacities of nations.

India’s Panchamrit (nectar elements) of climate action:

The Government of India at the COP26 to the UNFCCC held in Glasgow, United Kingdom 2021 made the following commitments. The five elements of India’s climate action:

i. Reach 500 GW Non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.

ii. Meet 50% of the total energy requirement from renewable energy by 2030.

iii. Reduction of total projected carbon emissions by one billion tons from now to 2030.

iv. Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels.

v. Achieve the target of net zero emissions by 2070.

Concerns: 180 of the 195 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) countries are yet to submit their next round of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) or climate plans for 2031-35 before the 30th Conference of the Parties (COP30). Climate plans are crucial to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C.

A growing number of climate scientists now hold the 1.5-degree target to be impossible to achieve due to the increasing levels of CO2 emissions.

Modified Interest Subvention Scheme

Context: The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) approved continuation of the Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS) for 2025-26. The government will allow 7.7 crore farmers to get short-term credit at a subsidised rate of interest through the Kisan Credit Card.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Modified Interest Subvention Scheme; Kisan Credit Card.

Modified Interest Subvention Scheme

MISS is a Central sector scheme, under which farmers get short-term loans of up to ₹3 lakh through Kisan Credit Card at a subsidised interest rate of 7%, as the government covers 1.5% interest subvention to eligible lending institutions.
Additionally, farmers repaying loans in time are eligible for an additional 3% interest subsidy as prompt repayment incentive (PRI), effectively reducing their interest rate on KCC loans to 4%.
It also includes post-harvest loans against Negotiable Warehouse Receipts (NWRs) for small farmers with KCCs.
In the Budget 2025-26, the government announced to increase the loan limit under the MISS from Rs 3 lakh to Rs 5 lakh.
Implementation and Monitoring by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD).

The continuation of the support is critical in sustaining the flow of institutional credit to agriculture, which is vital for enhancing productivity and ensuring financial inclusion of small and marginal farmers.

Also Read: Kisan Credit Card bad loans rise by 42% in four years: RBI

Marine Pollution: MSC ELSA 3 sinks off Kerala coast

Context: Recently, a Liberian container ship 'MSC ELSA 3' sank off the Kerala coast near Alappuzha with hazardous cargo on board. This has exaggerated the risk of oil spill, plastic pollution (due to nurdles/plastic pellets), and spread of hazardous chemicals.

The state government of Kerala has declared the wreckage as a state-specific disaster considering the potentially serious environmental, social and economic impact.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Oil spill remediation techniques; Legal avenues for India in Marine Spills.

Oil Spill

Oil spill is the accidental release of petroleum or its products into the sea or coastal waters.
Oil spills are dangerous as oil floats on water, forming a slick that spreads quickly with wind and currents. Some components can stay suspended causing long-term harm.
Impacts:
- Severely damage marine ecosystems- result in death of fish and other organisms.
- Destroy mangroves and coral reefs.
- Oil can coat the feathers of birds- may lose their insulation abilities, leading to hypothermia and drowning.
- Bioaccumulation of toxic substances in the food chain.
- Affect livelihood of fishermen and disrupt local economy.

Methods used to clean up Oil Spills

Oil spreads quickly and rough seas and strong currents complicate cleanup efforts. Oils vary in properties, with some sinking or emulsifying with water and making separation tough. Some of the methods used for oil spill clean up are skimming, in situ burning and releasing chemical dispersants.

Skimming: It involves removing oil from the sea surface before it can reach sensitive areas along the coastline. E.g., Using pillows made of oleophilic (oil-attracting) materials which act like a sponge and absorb oil from the surface.
In situ burning: It means burning a particular patch of oil after it has concentrated in an area.
Releasing chemical dispersants: It helps break down oil into smaller droplets, making it easier for microbes to consume and further break it down into less harmful compounds.

The methods can have some drawbacks, such as- chemical dispersants can harm marine life. Additionally, manual cleanup is labour-intensive and often ineffective in remote areas.

Flags of Convenience:

Mediterranean Shipping Company (MSC) is one of the world’s largest container shipping companies, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
ELSA 3 is registered in Liberia, a flag state widely known for its lax regulatory oversight. This practice of registering vessels under so-called “Flags of Convenience” or “Open Registers” is common in the global shipping industry.
This allows shipowners to sidestep the stricter safety, labour, tax, and environmental regulations enforced by traditional maritime nations.

Legal avenues for India in Kerala Ship Spill:

1. MARPOL and SOLAS Conventions:

India is signatory to MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) and SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea).
MARPOL Annex III deals with pollution from harmful substances. The primary liability for pollution damage is with the shipowner and the flag state, which can extend to covering the cost of cleanup and other damages to the environment.
International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code under SOLAS requires strict controls for transportation of hazardous cargo like calcium carbide. Improper stowage or labelling of dangerous cargo may violate these rules.
Under the SOLAS, India is obligated to investigate whether the vessel met seaworthiness, stability, and hazardous cargo handling standards under the IMDG Code.

2. Merchant Shipping Act, 1958:

India’s Director General of Shipping (DGS) has the territorial jurisdiction to investigate the marine accident under provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
DGS can demand the records, vessel’s safety certificates and maintenance logs to inspect compliance about its structural integrity, maintenance and compliance with safety standards.
DGS can assess compliance with IMDG Code standards for hazardous cargo and verify the vessel’s seaworthiness certification.

3. Environment Protection Act 1986:

The ‘Polluter Pays’ principle upheld by the National Green Tribunal can be invoked to claim compensation for ecological harm.
India may also seek criminal liability under the Indian Penal Code and environmental laws, and claim additional costs for public health impacts and tourism losses.

India needs to respond swiftly to contain the pollution, investigate the causes of the accident and cooperate with international agencies for the strict enforcement of the liabilities of both the shipowner and the flag state.

Ahilya Bai Holkar

Context: May 31^st marks the birth anniversary of the 18th century Maratha queen Ahilya Bai Holkar who was a great administrator and visionary. In all her dealings with her subjects, Ahilya Bai was guided by her innate generosity and principles.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Ahilya Bai Holkar.

About Ahilyabai Holkar

Born in 1725, she was the Rani of Indore (Holkar dynasty) within the Maratha Confederacy.
She established Maheshwar (in Madhya Pradesh) as the seat of the Holkar Dynasty, south of Indore on the Narmada River.
After the demise of her husband (Khande Rao) she was trained in military affairs by Malhar Rao Holkar.
She came to power after the passing of her father-in-law Malhar Rao Holkar.

Contributions in Culture:

Ahilyabai funded the reconstruction of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi (1780) which had been destroyed in the past and subsequently converted into a mosque by Aurangzeb in 1669.
The current structure of Vishnupad Temple, Gaya, Bihar was built by Maharani Ahilya Bai Holkar in 1787.
Ahilya Bai resurrected the jyotirlingas across the country. Renovations in Somnath, Varanasi, Trambak, Gaya, Pushkar, Vrindavan, Nathdwara, Haridwar, Badrinath, Kedarnath and many other sacred sites were undertaken during her reign.
The Maheshwari Sari are also part of the queen’s legacy. She not only promoted the traditional weave but also paved the way for skilling women, thus empowering them. The production of these saris was not only a way to increase the revenue collection of the state, but provided a steady source of income to the weavers. Under her encouragement, the production of Maheswari saris gained momentum and popularity.

About Holkars of Maratha Confederacy:

The Holkars were Subedar (one of the designations of a governor of a Subah/province) under Peshwa Baji Rao I (Pune seat).
When the Maratha Empire began to weaken due to internal clashes, the Holkars declared themselves the rulers of Indore in Central India, existing as an autonomous member of the Maratha Empire until 1818. After this they were under the protectorate of the British Empire.
The dynasty was founded with Malhar Rao, who joined the service of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire in 1721, and quickly rose to the rank of Subedar.
In the 1720s, he led Maratha armies in Malwa region, and in 1733 was granted 9 parganas in the vicinity of Indore by the Peshwa.
By the time of his death, he ruled much of Malwa, and was acknowledged as one of the five virtually independent rulers of the Maratha Confederacy.
He was succeeded by Ahilyabai Holkar (his daughter-in-law).

Conservation of Dugong

Context: Dugongs once widespread along India’s coastline are now regionally endangered, with fewer than 200 individuals left.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Dugong.

About Dugong

Herbivorous mammal found in India’s marine ecosystems. Also known as sea cow, it resembles a cross between a seal and a whale.
Distributed through the Indo-Pacific region. It is found along the Indian coastline, primarily inhabiting warm waters around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, and the Gulf of Kutch.
Inhabits shallow coastal waters- primarily feeds on seagrass.
Key characteristics:
- Dugong is able to live up to 70 years.
- They rapidly regrow teeth in multiple iterations throughout their lives.
- They are typically solitary or seen in small mother-calf pairs. They are shy and avoid interacting with humans.
- They are air-breathing mammals that must surface regularly.
- They reach reproductive maturity after nine or ten years, and give birth at intervals of three to five years.
Conservation status:
- IUCN status: Vulnerable
- CITES: Appendix I
- Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I
In India, they are classified as regionally endangered. Once widespread in Indian waters, their numbers have dwindled to an estimated 200 individuals, with both their population size and geographic range continuing to decline.

Factors responsible for declining population of Dugong:

Habitat Degradation: Seagrass meadows are being lost at an alarming rate due to climate change, rising sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events like cyclones.
Marine Pollution: Pollution has led to accumulation of mercury and organochlorine compounds in their muscle tissues.
Changing fishing methods: Bottom trawling damages seagrass beds, accidental entanglement in fishing gear.
Illegal Hunting: Poaching, especially in the remote areas of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Government Efforts

India is a party to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
India is a signatory to the Convention’s Memorandum of Understanding on Dugong Conservation and Habitat Management across their range since 2008.
Govt. has announced the creation of the country’s first dugong conservation reserve. It spans 448.3 sq. km in the coastal waters of Palk Bay, Tamil Nadu.

Dugongs are gentle giants and act as gardeners of the sea, quietly shaping our oceans by nurturing seagrass meadows.

About Sea Grass

Seagrass is an underwater flowering plant, not to be confused with seaweed. It is classified as a wetland ecosystem.
Significance: Seagrass meadows stabilise the seafloor, support fisheries, capture carbon, and shelter marine life such as turtles and fish.
The National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management documented 516.59 sq. km of seagrass habitat in India (2022). This translates to a carbon dioxide sequestration potential of up to 434.9 tonnes per sq. km each year.
India’s most extensive seagrass meadows occur along- Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, off the coast of Tamil Nadu. It together supports more than 13 species of seagrass, the highest diversity in the Indian Ocean.

Why Covid cases are rising?

Context: The number of COVID-19 cases in India has been steadily increasing with Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala accounting for the majority of new infections. A new virus subvariant- NB.1.8.1 was found in a sample and sent to India's genome sequencing consortium.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about SARS-CoV-2 Virus.

SARS-CoV-2 Virus

Coronavirus (COVID-19) is a highly contagious viral illness caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).

SARS-CoV-2 is a novel beta coronavirus belonging to the same subgenus as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV).
Coronaviruses are positive-stranded RNA viruses with a crown-like appearance due to the presence of spike glycoproteins on the envelope.
Like other RNA viruses, SARS-CoV-2 is prone to genetic evolution/mutation over time. This results in mutant variants that may have different characteristics than its ancestral strains.
Origin: widely postulated to have originated from an animal, implicating zoonotic transmission.
Transmission: Exposure to respiratory droplets carrying the infectious virus from close contact or droplet transmission from presymptomatic, asymptomatic, or symptomatic individuals.
Vaccines: mRNA vaccines (Pfizer); viral vector vaccines (Covishield; Sputnik V); inactivated viral vaccines (Covaxin); DNA vaccines (ZyCov-D); protein subunit vaccines (Novavax).

SARS-CoV-2 has not disappeared. It has become part of a recurring cycle of illnesses, similar to the flu. Periodic waves of Covid-19, like other endemic respiratory diseases, are expected throughout the year.

Several factors could be contributing to the rise in cases:

Waning immunity: Protection from vaccination or past infection decreases with time, leaving individuals more vulnerable to reinfection.
New variants: Like other viruses, SARS-CoV-2 continues to mutate. Some of these new variants may spread more easily or evade immunity to a greater extent.
Seasonal patterns: Respiratory viruses often spread more efficiently in colder or more humid periods.
Not enough testing: Covid-19 is now considered endemic, and testing and genome sequencing efforts have been scaled back, delaying the identification of outbreaks.
High-risk groups: Individuals with weakened immune systems or severe comorbidites remain especially vulnerable.

India's first gene-edited Sheep

Context: A university in Kashmir (SKUAST-Kashmir) has created India’s first gene-edited sheep. It is the nation’s first success in editing the genes of livestock and a major milestone in India’s push for innovation in animal biotechnology.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key concepts- gene editing, gene modification & their applications.

Gene-edited Sheep:

The lamb’s DNA was carefully altered using CRISPR-Cas9 technology. A particular gene- myostatin gene (natural brake on muscle growth) in Indian sheep was edited.
By altering this gene, researchers were able to increase muscle mass by 30%. Such a feature exists naturally only in some European breeds like the Texel, not in Indian sheep.

How is Gene Editing different?

Gene editing is distinct from crossbreeding and gene modification.

Gene editing involves using technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 which enable the addition, removal, or alteration of genetic material at specific locations within an organism’s genome. Unlike genetic modification no foreign DNA is introduced. It offers faster and safer results and aligns with India's current biotech regulations.
Crossbreeding is the traditional breeding of two different breeds from the same species to create a new breed. Generally, breeds chosen have complementary traits that will enhance the offsprings’ economic value. However crossbreeding is a slow process, with viable traits visible after a few generations.
Gene modification (transgenic animals) involves inserting news from one species into the other to create a transgenic organism.

Significance:

The progress is a turning point in livestock genetics. Gene editing allows precise changes without foreign genes which makes it more acceptable for regulators and consumers alike. This can have applications in:

Production of gene-edited species (increased muscle mass) for meat consumption.
Increasing output in cattle (E.g., Milk, wool etc.)
Elimination of disease causing genes in cattle (disease-resistant animals).

Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft- India’s fifth generation Fighter Jet

Context: The Ministry of Defence has formally approved the execution model for India’s ambitious Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) programme. It opens the door for private sector participation alongside Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA).

AMCA Development- Major Highlights

The Cabinet Committee on Security gave in-principle approval to the AMCA programme in 2024, with an estimated development cost of around ₹15,000 crore.
The Ministry of Defence has formally approved the execution model for the AMCA programme. The AMCA programme is now open to competitive bidding. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) can now bid either independently or in partnership with private firms.
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has committed to delivering the AMCA prototype by 2035.

About Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA)

AMCA is a 5th-generation fighter aircraft. It is currently the only 5th generation fighter under development in India.
Indigenous development:
- Designed by: Aeronautical Development Agency under Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) will lead the project.
- Manufactured by: state-owned Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and private companies.

Key specifications of AMCA:

25-tonne twin-engine aircraft, medium-weight multirole fighter jet
Max speed: Nearly 2600 kilometres per hour (Mach 2.15)
Combat range: 1620 kms
Can carry armament weighing 6500 kg (1.5 tonnes internal payload capacity).

Key Features:

Designed for multi-role missions- including air-to-air and air-to-ground operations, Suppression of Enemy Air Defences (SEAD), and electronic warfare (EW).
Stealth aircraft (capable of avoiding enemy radars and air defence mechanisms). The stealth fighter uses:
- specialised paint coating and radar-absorbing material to reduce radar bounce-off
- exhaust nozzles that reduce infrared radiation emitted by the engine
- exhaust plume and fuselage technology that reduces the heat signature of the engine.
First look first kill: AMCA will be based on the ‘first look, first kill’ concept, where an AMCA pilot would see an enemy plane first, fire a missile and destroy it before the latter can react.
Fuel and Weapons: AMCA will have a concealed internal fuel tank of 6.5-tonne capacity, and an internal weapons bay for a range of weapons, including indigenous weapons.

Engine:

AMCA Mk1 variant will have the US-built GE-F414 engine of the 98 kilonewton (kN) class.
AMCA Mk2 will have a more powerful 110kN engine to be developed indigenously by DRDO’s Gas Turbine Research Establishment in collaboration with foreign collaboration.

Weapons:

AMCA will carry:

BrahMos-NG (next generation) air-to-ground missiles
Astra air-to-air missiles
Rudram air-to-ground anti-radiation missiles
Anti-tank missiles, laser-guided bombs and precision munitions.

Strategic significance of AMCA:

Fulfil operational gap in IAF: Indian Air Force has 31 fighter squadrons as against the sanctioned strength of 42 squadrons, significantly below the optimal readiness requirements. Of the current 31 squadrons, the phase out of two MIG-21 squadrons has been extended due to the delayed deliveries of Tejas LCA-Mk1A. Tejas LCA-Mk2 and AMCA are critical for IAF’s modernisation plans.
Counter regional threats: Pakistan is expected to procure over 40 J-35A fifth-generation fighters from China. China is developing sixth-generation prototypes like the Chengdu J-36 and Shenyang J-50.

India’s entry into the fifth-generation fighter club, currently limited to the US (F-22 and F-35), Russia (Su-57), and China (J-20), reflects its growing defence ambitions amid evolving regional security challenges.

Also Read: Race for Fighters: the IAF’s dilemma

RoDTEP Scheme for DTAs set to extend

Context: The government has restored the RoDTEP scheme for exporters done by Advance Authorisation (AA) holders, Export-Oriented Units (EOUs), and units in Special Economic Zones (SEZs). The scheme had expired in February 2025. The decision aims to enhance competitiveness in overseas trade and support small and medium enterprises facing thin margins.

The government is considering extending the Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP) scheme for the Domestic Tariff Units (DTAs) beyond September 30, 2025.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: RoDTEP scheme- Prelims related facts.

What is the RoDTEP Scheme?

The RoDTEP scheme was introduced in January 2021, replacing the existing MEIS (Merchandise Exports from India Scheme).
Purpose:
- To ensure that the exporters receive the refunds on the embedded taxes and duties previously non-recoverable.
- To boost exports which were relatively poor in volume previously.
Need:
- The US had challenged India’s key export subsidy schemes in the WTO.
- The WTO dispute panel ruled against India, stating that India’s export subsidy programmes violated WTO’s trade norms.
- The RoDTEP Scheme ensures Indian exporters are supported, while staying WTO-compliant.
Eligibility criteria:
- All sectors, including the textiles sector, can avail benefits of RoDTEP Scheme.
- Manufacturer exporters and merchant exporters (traders).
- Special Economic Zone Units and Export Oriented Units.
- Goods exported via courier through e-commerce platforms.
- There is no particular turnover threshold to claim RoDTEP.
- Re-exported products are not eligible.
- Exported products need to have the country of origin as India.

Features of RoDTEP Scheme

Refund of the previously Non-refundable duties and taxes: The scheme provides refund of duties and taxes which are levied at central, state and local level and are not refunded under any other mechanism. They include:
- Central and State Excise Duty on fuel for transportation of export goods (petrol, diesel, CNG, PNG, etc.)
- Coal cess or duty levied by States on electricity consumed for manufacturing of export goods
- Mandi tax levied by APMCs
- Toll tax and stamp duties on import-export documentation
- Value added tax (VAT) wherever applicable.
Automated system of Credit:
- Refunds under the scheme are issued in the form of transferrable electronic scrips, which could be used for paying Basic Customs Duty on import of goods.
- The e-scrips (duty scrips) can be transferred electronically to another party.
- The benefit will not be in the form of direct credit to the bank account.
- These duty credits are maintained and tracked through an electronic ledger.
Quick verification through Digitisation:
- Through the digital platform, clearance happens at a much faster rate.
Multi-sector Scheme:
- RoDTEP covers all sectors, including the textiles sector.

CBSE introduces Sugar Boards

Context: The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has made it mandatory for schools to set up sugar boards in schools to educate students on the risks of high sugar intake.

The National Commission For Protection of Child Rights has pushed for the introduction of a ‘sugar board’ in all schools- not only CBSE affiliated but affiliated to various State boards.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about the Initiative- Sugar Boards.

Mains: Efforts by the government in promoting healthy dietary habits and nutritional intake.

What are Sugar Boards?

Sugar board is a visual representation of the quantity of sugar contained in commonly consumed foods and drinks.
Objective: To educate students about the risks of excessive sugar intake.
It provides essential information including- recommended sugar intake, sugar content in commonly consumed foods (such as junk food and cold drinks), health risks associated with high sugar consumption and healthier dietary alternatives.
Significance: It is a significant initiative towards nutritional literacy and preventive healthcare to create awareness in nearly 2 crore students and their families.

Sugar Intake and Prevalence of Type 2 Diabetes

Over the past decade, there has been a significant increase in Type 2 Diabetes among children, a condition primarily seen in adults. The incidence of Type 2 Diabetes among children and adolescents is 397 per lakh population, next only to China which has 734 estimated cases per lakh.
Studies indicate that sugar constitutes 13% of daily calorie intake for children aged 4-10 years and 15% of those aged 11-18 years, substantially exceeding the recommended limit of 5%.

This alarming trend is attributable to high sugar intake and easy availability of sugary snacks, beverages and processed foods within school environments.

India’s Regulatory Stand

Food Standards and Safety Authority of India (FSSAI) had convened a scientific panel of experts in 2025 to decide on a High Fat, Salt and Sugar (HFSS) definition pertaining only to school meals. However, the FSSAI has still not set HFSS standards or finalized the ‘health-star rating system’, for front-of-pack labelling regulations.
While there are regulations in place for making claims on packaged food, FSSAI has not fixed a cut-off for High Fat, Salt, Sugar consumption for the Indian population.
India currently relies on World Health Organisation (WHO) cut-offs for ideal HFSS intake. For instance, WHO guidelines restrict daily sugar intake in adults and children to 25 grams (six teaspoons).

Experts emphasise the need for India-specific sugar intake cut-offs based on indigenous epidemiological data, as Indians are genetically more prone to heart diseases, necessitating studies on BMI, insulin resistance, and other health indicators.

The initiative must be complemented by stringent food regulations in school canteens, formulation of India-specific HFSS standards, and widespread parental and community engagement.

Also Read: Tackling Obesity and Regulating Ultra-Processed Foods in India

Tianwen-2 Mission

Context: China is about to launch a space mission called Tianwen-2 to explore a small asteroid named Kamo‘oalewa.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Tianwen-2 Mission.

Tianwen-2 Mission:

Tianwen-2 aims to explore a near Earth asteroid named Kamo‘oalewa.
The mission will use touch-and-go technique, which has been successfully implemented by the United States’ OSIRIS-Rex and Japan’s Hayabusa2 missions. In touch-and-go technique, the spacecraft hovers close to the surface of the asteroid, while a robotic arm fires an object or burst of gas to knock fragments into a collection chamber.
Depending on the surface conditions, the Tianwen-2 probe might also use anchor and attach technique. In this technique, four robotic arms extend and drill into the surface to retrieve material.
After collecting the samples, the mission will drop them on Earth. The probe will then head towards the main asteroid belt for another mission (towards comet 311P/PANSTARRS). The fragments collected by Tianwen-2 will return to Earth about 2.5 years after the launch.
If successful, China will join the US and Japan as the third country to bring back asteroid samples to Earth.

Kamo‘oalewa Asteroid:

It is a near-Earth asteroid discovered in 2016 by the Pan-STARRS 1 telescope in Hawaii. It is quite small, measuring just 40 to 100 metres in diameter.
It belongs to a rare class called quasi-satellites- celestial bodies that orbit the Sun but remain gravitationally close to Earth.
It appears to follow Earth’s orbit in a "leading and trailing" motion due to its highly elliptical path. This gives the impression the asteroid orbits Earth.

Significance of the Mission

Kamo‘oalewa has garnered attention due to its unusual orbit and unknown origin. Scientists believe exploring this asteroid would help them find clues about quasi-satellites, and how their orbits evolved over time.
Some researchers suggest that Kamo‘oalewa could be the first known asteroid composed of lunar material. The exploration of the asteroid could settle the hypothesis that the Moon was formed as a result of a collision between the Earth and another small planet (Kamo‘oalewa could be a small remnant of that collision).

Rise of AI Powered Autonomous Satellites

Context: Rise of AI-powered autonomous satellites has the potential to transform space operations, but at the same time it has created new legal, ethical, and geopolitical challenges.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Outer Space Treaty (1967), Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1972), UNCOPUOS.

Mains: AI powered autonomous satellites - Applications & Challenges

Autonomous Satellites

Autonomous satellites are designed to perform their functions with minimal to no human intervention by utilising a suite of advanced technologies and algorithms.
Onboard intelligence in satellites is called satellite edge computing and allows satellites to analyse their environment, make decisions, and act autonomously like self-driving cars on the ground.

Applications of Autonomous Satellites

Automated space operations: Independent manoeuvring in space to perform tasks like docking, inspections, in-orbit refuelling, and debris removal.
Self-diagnosis and repair: Monitoring their own health, identifying faults, and executing repairs without human intervention.
Route planning: Optimising orbital trajectories to avoid hazards and obstacles or to save fuel.
Targeted geospatial intelligence: Detecting disasters and other events of interest in real-time from orbit and coordinating with other satellites intelligently to prioritise areas of interest.
Combat support: Providing real-time threat identification and potentially enabling autonomous target tracking and engagement, directly from orbit.

Challenges associated with Autonomous Satellites:

As satellites become more intelligent and autonomous, the stakes rise geometrically:

AI Hallucinations and misidentification of threat: A satellite hallucinating can misclassify a harmless commercial satellite as hostile, and respond with defensive actions. This could potentially escalate tensions between nations.
Legal Vacuum and Liability Ambiguities: Existing treaties like the Outer Space Treaty (1967) and Liability Convention (1972) are premised on human control. If an autonomous satellite causes damage or collision, it is unclear who bears legal responsibility- the state, private operator, software developer, or the AI itself. This creates a normative gap in international law complicating enforcement and redressal.
Geopolitical and Security Risks: AI’s dual-use capabilities (i.e., civilian + military) create misinterpretation risks in geopolitically sensitive contexts.
Ethical Concerns: AI satellites collect enormous volumes of surveillance and environmental data. Without safeguards, this data can be misused for military, commercial, or surveillance purposes.

Outer Space Treaty (1967):

Also known as Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is the foundational international treaty governing space exploration and use.
Opened for signature in 1967, it establishes several key principles including-
- prohibition of weapons of mass destruction in space
- commitment to peaceful uses of space
- outer space is the province of all mankind.
India ratified the Treaty in 1982.

Key Articles of the Treaty :

Article I: Outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all states; access must be on the basis of equality.
Article II: No state can claim sovereignty over outer space or celestial bodies.
Article IV: Prohibits the placement of nuclear weapons or any weapons of mass destruction in outer space.
Article VI: States are responsible for national space activities, including those by non-governmental entities. Activities must be authorised and continually supervised by the state.
Article VII: States are internationally liable for any damage caused by their space objects to other states or their property.

Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1972):

It elaborates on liability provisions in Article VII of the Outer Space Treaty.
India is a signatory and has ratified the Liability Convention.

Key Provisions:

Absolute Liability: Regardless of fault, launching states are strictly liable for damage caused by their space objects on Earth or to aircraft in flight.
Fault-Based Liability: For damages occurring in outer space, liability is based on proving fault.
Joint Liability: If multiple states are involved in launching a space object, they are jointly and severally liable.

Claims Mechanism: Claims must be presented through diplomatic channels, and a claims commission may be established for disputes.

Way Forward

AI-driven satellite systems must be tested and certified by neutral international bodies to ensure safety and predictability. Bodies like United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) or International Standards Organisation could:
- Test AI response to critical scenarios like collision risk, sensor malfunctions, or communication failures.
- Conduct adversarial testing by feeding unexpected or manipulated data to check how AI responds under stress.
- Mandate decision-logging mechanisms so that every autonomous action, especially manoeuvres, can be audited later for accountability.
Adopting pooled insurance and strict liability regimes similar to aviation and maritime sectors can ensure fair, predictable compensation mechanisms without lengthy legal disputes.
Formulation of clear international rules on how AI satellites collect, store, and share data, to protect privacy and prevent misuse.

With thousands of autonomous systems projected to operate in low-earth orbit by 2030, the probability of collisions, interference or geopolitical misinterpretation is rising. Autonomous satellites demand a new regulatory architecture that balances innovation with responsibility, and sovereignty with global cooperation.

Practice MCQ:

Q. Consider the following statements with reference to the Outer Space Treaty (1967):

1. It prohibits any nation from claiming sovereignty over outer space.

2. It requires that all space activities be authorised and continually supervised by the state.

3. It explicitly regulates the use of artificial intelligence in space missions.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only

Mains Practice Question:

Q. Explain how the increasing autonomy of satellites through AI poses new challenges to space safety and security. What regulatory and technical frameworks are needed to address them?