The Hindu

National Clean Air Programme

Context: The Centre’s ambitious attempt to improve air quality in some of India’s most polluted cities suggests that a majority of Indian cities are far from making significant progress.

National Clean Air Programme

It was launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change in 2019.
It is a long term, time bound, national level strategy to tackle air pollution problems across the country in a comprehensive manner.
The aim is to improve air quality in 131 cities (non-attainment cities and million plus cities) in 24 states/UTs by engaging all stakeholders.

Targets: Initially the target is to achieve a 20% to 30% reduction of PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations by the year 2024, keeping base year as 2017 for comparison of concentrations.

The new target is to achieve reductions of PM10 concentration up to 40% or achievement of National Ambient Air Quality standards for PM10 by 2025-2026 (Base year 2017).

Objective of NCAP:

To ensure stringent implementation of mitigation measures for prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution.
Effective and proficient ambient air quality monitoring network across the country for ensuring a comprehensive and reliable database.
To augment public awareness and capacity-building measures for inclusive public participation and for ensuring trained manpower and infrastructure on air pollution.

Portal for monitoring

PRANA” – Portal for Regulation of Air-pollution in non-attainment cities, is a portal for monitoring of implementation of National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).

It will support tracking of physical as well as financial status of city air action plan implementation.
It will disseminate information on air quality management efforts under NCAP to the public.

Status of implementation

Delhi has seen an average annual decline of PM 2.5 levels by 5.9%.
Navi Mumbai has seen a 46% rise in PM 2.5 levels.
Varanasi witnessed 72% average reduction in PM 2.5 levels and 69% reduction in PM 10 levels.
Respirer Living Sciences and Climate Trends, analysed 49 cities whose data are available for 5 years shows that,
- 27 cities showed a decline in PM2.5 level.
- Only 4 had met or exceeded the target.

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism

Context: A concerning development for India is the European Union (EU)’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). The policy, which intends to tax carbon-intensive products coming into the EU from 2026, is divided into two phases, with the first phase (transitional phase) kicking in from October 1, 2023.

What is a carbon border adjustment tax?

A carbon border adjustment tax is a duty on imports based on the amount of carbon emissions resulting from the production of the product in question.
It is aimed putting a fair price on the carbon emitted during the production of carbon intensive goods that are entering the EU, and to encourage cleaner industrial production in non-EU countries.
The gradual introduction of the CBAM is aligned with the phase-out of the allocation of free allowances under the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) to support the decarbonisation of EU industry.

EU Emissions Trading System:· The EU ETS works on the ‘cap and trade’ principle. A cap is a limit set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by the installations and aircraft operators covered by the system. The cap is reduced annually in line with the EU’s climate target, ensuring that emissions decrease overtime.· Within the cap, companies primarily buy allowances on the EU carbon market, but they also receive some allowances for free. Companies can also trade allowances with each other as needed. If an installation or operator reduce their emissions, they can either keep the spare allowances to use in the future or sell them.· Hence it makes polluters pay for their greenhouse gas emissions, helps bring emissions down and generates revenues to finance the EU's green transition, operates in all EU countries plus Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway (EEA-EFTA states).

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Note: This EU-ETS works for the companies located within the EU borders. CBAM is for those companies which are located outside the E.U.

How the CBAM will work?

The CBAM puts an emissions tariff on imports of goods with a high risk of carbon leakage from countries which are not members of the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
Companies importing goods into the EU will have to purchase CBAM certificates and then surrender the required amount to cover the corresponding emissions each year.
There are no limits on the number of CBAM certificates an importer may purchase so as to avoid imposing restrictions on trade.
Unlike ETS allowances, CBAM certificates are not tradeable nor bankable.

Merits of CBAM (Viewpoint of E.U):

Preventing Carbon leakage: It refers to a phenomenon where a EU manufacturer moves carbon intensive production to countries outside the region with less stringent climate policies and hence it does not reduces the actually carbon emissions, it just shifts the source to other regions. CBAM will try to bring stringency for those industries also.
Protecting Domestic industries: CBAM will charge the carbon intensive products coming from non-EU countries hence it will ensure level playing field to the domestic companies who by virtue of EU-ETS are already following stringent norms.
In line with E.U’s green targets: According to the European Commission’s proposal, CBAM would contribute to the achievement of climate neutrality by 2050. This will also help them to reduce GHG emissions by 55% by 2030. It comes under the EU’s Green Deal to.

Issue with CBAM (Viewpoints of India, China & other developing countries):

Hurting industrial interests: This might hurt Industrial interests in the developing countries as their exports will be charged by EU. For e.g. In FY22, India exported Steel and aluminum related products to E.U to the tune of $10B.
Violative of CBDR: As CBAM is equally applicable to all the countries outside EU, it violates the principle of ‘Common but differentiated responsibilities’ as was agreed under Paris agreement.
Green protectionism: This can be misused by EU to unnecessarily levy the import duties on imports. Experts have said that CBAM charge can be around 20-35% but the average levy of EU on the companies within EU is around 2-3%.
Valuation of carbon embedded: There are huge differences between how the actual carbon content embedded is calculated and valued in other jurisdictions.
Historical contribution by developing world in climate change is also very low therefore they cannot be charged for their developmental activities.
FTA agreement and zero duties: It is still not clear that whether CBAM will be applicable in the FTA or not. For e.g If India enters into FTA with EU, then there are chances that EU will impose CBAM making Indian products costly. But India might not reciprocate it leading to zero duties and flooding of Indian markets by EU products.
Other factors for Industrial location: Just the stringent environmental norms do not govern the shift of industries from EU to Asia & Africa. There are other factors also like cheap labour, availability of land, huge markets, government policies etc. So, the E.U’s argument that Industries shift to other areas just to avoid stringent policies is not completely acceptable.
Compliance with WTO: Developing countries have also criticised this legislation on account of violative of WTO’s special and differential treatment provisions.

What can be done?

Funds to developing countries: Experts have suggested that EU could collect the tax and return the funds to such countries to invest in their green technologies.
Own legislations: India can also come up with their own legislations in this regard.

What is Carbon Intensive?

Carbon intensity is a measure of how clean our production is. For e.g in case of electricity, it refers to how many grams of carbon dioxide (CO2) are released to produce a kilowatt hour (kWh) of electricity.
Electricity that’s generated using fossil fuels is more carbon intensive, as the process by which it’s generated creates CO2 emissions.
Renewable energy sources, such as wind, hydro or solar power, produce less CO2 emissions, so their carbon intensity value is much lower.

Issues related to Hit and Run Clause in Bharatiya Nyaya Samhita, 2023

Context: The implementation of Section 106 (2) of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (BNS), has sparked a wave of protests among truck drivers across multiple states.

The situation surrounding the protests against Section 106 (2) of Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (BNS), is complex. The government has introduced the provision to address the increasing road fatalities and instil a sense of moral responsibility among the citizens. However, the demands of the protesters raise valid concerns about the impact of the legislation on drivers, particularly in the context of their challenging work conditions.

Key Aspects About the Issue

Need of Such a Law

High Fatality Rate: India recorded over 1.68 lakh road crash fatalities in 2022, leading to a daily average of 462 deaths. This indicates the magnitude of the problem and the immediate need for effective interventions.
Year-on-Year Increase: Despite a global decrease in road crash deaths, India experienced a substantial year-on-year increase of 12% in road accidents and 9.4% in fatalities.
Frequency of Accidents: The statistic of 19 deaths every hour, translating to one death every three and a half minutes, emphasises the continuous and pervasive nature of the road safety crisis in the country.
Highway Concerns: Over half of all road fatalities occurring on national and state highways, which constitute less than 5% of the total road network, indicates a critical need for targeted safety measures on these specific road types.
High number of Hit and Run cases: The National Crime Records Bureau recorded 47,806 hit and run incidents which resulted in the deaths of 50,815 people in 2022.
Global Comparison: Despite having only 1% of the world's vehicles, India accounts for approximately 10% of crash-related deaths. This highlights the disproportionate impact and challenges faced by the country in managing road safety.
Economic Impact: The economic loss of 5-7% of GDP annually due to road crashes further emphasises the multifaceted impact of road accidents, extending beyond human lives to economic consequences.

To address such challenges, the government introduced new provisions under Bhartiya Nyaya Samhita to deter drivers from engaging in rash and negligent driving that can lead to fatalities. These provisions also impose a positive obligation on offenders to report such incidents, emphasizing moral responsibility toward the victims.

Contested Provisions of Bhartiya Nyaya Samhita

Section 106: Causing death by negligence

Whoever causes death of any person by doing any rash or negligent act not amounting to culpable homicide, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to five years, and shall also be liable to fine.
Whoever causes death of any person by rash and negligent driving of vehicle not amounting to culpable homicide, and escapes without reporting it to a police officer or a Magistrate soon after the incident, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description of a term which may extend to ten years, and shall also be liable to fine.

But the above provision led many drivers from different states to take to the road, expressing certain concerns.

Concerns of Protesters about the brought provisions:

Severity of Punishment: Transporters argue that the 10-year imprisonment and ₹7 lakh fine for fleeing the scene of an accident without reporting it is excessive.
Work Condition: They contend that this penalty fails to consider the challenging work conditions, long driving hours, and difficult roads that drivers often face.
Unintentional Accidents: Accidents may occur due to factors beyond the driver's control, such as poor visibility due to fog and the law remains silent on such unintentional accidents.
Fear of Mob Violence: The fear of mob violence against drivers who stop to assist the injured at accident sites is mentioned, indicating potential safety risks for drivers.
Negative Impact on the Transport Industry: Drivers are worried that the stringent penalties may discourage individuals from joining or continuing in the transport profession, leading to a potential negative impact on the transport industry.

Issues need to be addressed

Misinformation: There is a need to address misinformation about the legislation, such as the incorrect claim that the fine for fleeing the accident spot is ₹7 lakh which is not mentioned under the provisions.
Revisiting and Reconciling Clauses: The suggestion to revisit and reconcile the clauses, particularly distinguishing between rash and negligent driving, is a valid consideration.
Differentiating the degrees of liability and punishment based on the nature of the incident could address the concerns raised by the protesters. Applying a single clause universally may unfairly prejudice drivers facing diverse circumstances.
Community Service and License Revocation: In cases resulting in minor injuries, alternative measures such as community service, license revocation, or mandatory driving retests could provide a more nuanced approach, helping avoid criminalizing every incident and considering the circumstances of each case.

Balancing Road Safety and Drivers’ Concerns: A way Ahead

Revisiting and refining the legislation based on a holistic understanding of the issues raised by protesters could lead to a more just and effective legal framework.
All the stakeholders should engage in a constructive dialogue to address the concerns of transporters while ensuring public safety on the roads.

Krishnarajasagara Dam

Context: Due to heavy rain in the catchment areas, the Krishnaraja Sagar (KRS) dam's water release will be increased to over one lakh cusecs from the current 70,000 cusecs. This adjustment, the highest in two years, is due to the dam reaching full capacity with ongoing high inflows. Authorities have issued a flood warning and advised residents in low-lying areas and downstream to evacuate.

About judgment

The Karnataka High Court said that the ban will apply even for those mining activities within a 20-km radius for which permissions/licences were already granted by the authorities, or already operating in the area, or were permitted on the orders of the court in earlier rounds of litigation.
The court also said that the ban will be in force till the completion of a study by experts and the decision taken by the State Committee on Dam Safety, set up as per the provisions of the Dam Safety Act, 2021.

About Krishnarajasagara Dam

Krishna Raja Sagar Dam is also known as KRS Dam. It is one of the famous dams in South India.
Built over Cauvery (Kaveri) River near confluence of Cauvery, Hemavathi and Lakshmana Tirtha.
Named after Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV of Mysore. Built during the rule of Wodeyar's in 1932.
It is a major source of drinking water for Mysore and Bangalore city, KRS dam is also one of the main sources of irrigation water for Mandya and Mysore. Along with this, its major purpose is to ensure power supply to the Shivanasamudra hydroelectric power station.
With a length of 3 km, this dam also boasts of being the first irrigation dam of India.
It is the creation of one of the greatest engineers that India had produced Sir M. Vishweshwaraiah. Often referred as the ‘architect of modern Mysore’ or ‘father of planning in India’, Sir Vishweshwaraiah did create something ahead of his time with such precision and excellence, that it is a popular sightseeing place of Mysore even today. In order to honour his vast contribution in the development of India and to acknowledge the greatness of his work, the entire India celebrates 15 September as Engineer's Day.

Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

Context: India’s aviation regulator Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) introduced changes to the flight duty time limitations (FDTL) including more rest for pilots, redefining night duty and mandating airlines to file regular fatigue reports.

About Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Civil Aviation.
Body: It became a statutory body under the Aircraft (Amendment) Act, 2020.
Aim: To regulate civil aviation in the field of Civil Aviation primarily dealing with safety issues.
Functions: It is responsible for regulation of air transport services to/from/within India and for enforcement of civil air regulations, air safety and airworthiness standards.
- It also co-ordinates all regulatory functions with International Civil Aviation Organisation
- Registration of civil aircraft
- Licensing to pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers, air traffic controllers and flight engineers, and conducting examinations and checks for that purpose.
- Checks on the proficiency of flight crew and other operational personnel such as flight dispatchers and cabin crew

DRDO’s Counter-drone Technology

Context: The counter-drone system developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is ready for production and was already demonstrated to armed services and other internal security agencies with some orders already placed.

Counter-drone Technology:

DRDO has developed a comprehensive integrated anti-drone system which comprises detection, identification, and neutralization of a drone.
Transfer of Technology (ToT) for the above technologies has been handed over to private industries, including BEL, Adani, Larsen & Toubro (L&T) and Icom.
The technology is capable of countering attacks, soft kill, and hard kill of all types of drones, including micro drones, which is being developed in the DRDO.

Technologies under development:

DRDO is now focusing on high endurance Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) while the capability for smaller drones exists with the industry.
Tapas Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) UAV developed for Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance (ISTAR) application is in the advanced stage of developmental trials.
- Tactical Aerial Platform for Advanced Surveillance(TAPAS) is a Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).
- Indigenously-developed by: Bengaluru-based Aeronautical Development Establishment.
- It is a multi-mission UAV to carry out the intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance roles for the three armed forces with an endurance of 24 to 30 hours.
- It uses a Lithium Ion-based battery with indigenous battery management system developed by the DRDO.
Short range armed UAV Archer is being developed for reconnaissance, surveillance and low intensity conflict and developmental flight trials are under progress.

Need of Anti Drone Technology:

Drone strikes have emerged as major threats to military installations and must be detected early enough to protect assets and troops.
- In the last three years, drone sightings across the international border have increased considerably. Of the nearly 500 sightings, over 300 were in 2022 itself, an exponential increase from previous years.
- About 75 percent were in the Punjab sector, 15 percent were in Jammu, and 10 percent were in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
An unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) can carry ordnance such as rockets, missiles, and bombs. Until recently, most drones were usually under real-time human control. However, Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology now supports more significant flight and decision-making autonomy levels.
Drones are cheap and available commercially off-the-shelf and have replaced human smugglers and even terrorists in some cases. The technology is being used to smuggle illegal arms, ammunition, drugs, currency, propaganda pamphlets, and other items to their supporters and operatives.

Flying bases and areas up to three kilometers of radius have been classified as a ‘no drone zone.’ With enhanced surveillance through handheld static and vehicle-mounted anti-drone systems, border security forces are working towards thwarting the attempts made for drone strikes as well as smuggling.

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell developed by ISRO

Context: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has effectively conducted a trial of a 100 W-class Power System utilising Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) technology on its orbital platform, POEM3.

About Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell

A Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy from the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen or another oxidising agent into electrical energy.

The key component of a PEM fuel cell is the polymer electrolyte membrane, which serves as the electrolyte.

Key feature of PEM fuel cells

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM): The PEM is a solid polymer electrolyte typically made of a perfluorosulfonic acid material, such as Nafion.
Use of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane: This membrane allows protons to pass through while blocking the passage of electrons. It plays a crucial role in separating the anode and cathode reactions.

Components and Working of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell

Anode and Cathode: At the anode, hydrogen gas is typically supplied, and it undergoes electrochemical oxidation to produce protons (H⁺) and electrons (e⁻). The electrons flow through an external circuit, creating an electric current.

Catalysts: Platinum or other platinum-group metals are commonly used as catalysts on the anode and cathode to facilitate the electrochemical reactions.

Electrochemical Reactions:

At the anode: 2H₂→4H⁺+ 4e^-

At the cathode: O₂ + 4H⁺ + 4e^- →2H₂O

Proton Exchange: Protons generated at the anode move through the PEM to the cathode, while electrons flow through an external circuit, creating an electrical current.

Characteristics of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Cell (PEMC)

Operating Temperature: PEM fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures (typically between 60 to 80 degrees Celsius), allowing for quick start-up times (less warm up time) and increased efficiency in certain applications.
Catalyst Requirement: To facilitate the separation of electrons and protons in hydrogen, PEM fuel cells use a noble-metal catalyst, typically platinum leading to high cost.
Carbon Monoxide Sensitivity: The platinum catalyst in PEM fuel cells is highly sensitive to carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning. If the hydrogen used in the fuel cell is derived from a hydrocarbon fuel, it may contain trace amounts of carbon monoxide. The presence of CO can significantly degrade the performance of the platinum catalyst, leading to a decrease in fuel cell efficiency.
Carbon Monoxide Reduction Reactor: To address the issue of carbon monoxide poisoning, an additional reactor is often employed to reduce the levels of carbon monoxide in the fuel gas before it reaches the fuel cell. This reactor adds complexity and cost to the overall system.
Water Management: PEM fuel cells require effective water management to maintain the hydration level of the polymer electrolyte membrane. Water produced during the electrochemical reactions needs to be removed from the membrane to prevent flooding.

Applications of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell

PEM fuel cells are commonly used in various applications, including transportation (such as fuel cell vehicles), stationary power generation (backup power systems, distributed generation), and portable electronic devices.
These fuel cells are known for their high efficiency, fast start-up times, and ability to operate under varying loads.
However, challenges such as cost, durability, and sensitivity to contaminants in the hydrogen fuel remain areas of ongoing research and development.

Paleolithic tool discovery in Mulugu district of Telangana

Context: The recent floods in Telangana's Mulugu district have unveiled a significant discovery of Paleolithic quartzite tools, specifically hand axes. The find, dating back approximately 30 lakh years to the Lower Paleolithic period, challenges existing knowledge about human habitation in Telangana and central India.

Findings at Mulugu district of Telangana

The identified tools were characterized by their chipping style, material, and size, consistent with the methods of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers.
These stone tools belong to the Lower Palaeolithic period about 30 lakh years ago. The Lower Palaeolithic Age is also known as the Old Stone Age or Early Stone Age. The Lower Palaeolithic Age lasted about 10,000 years.
The tools have been identified with the Lower Palaeolithic Age based on their chipping style, material and size of tools. Palaeolithic hunter gatherers used heavy quartzite and large tools. These tools were used cutting wood and killing animals for food. These tools are similar to the tools discovered at other Lower Palaeolithic Period sites across the world.
The historical context includes the 1863 discovery by the East India Company's Geological Survey team at Attirampakkam near Madras (present-day Chennai), revealing bifacial hand-axes dating back 15 lakh years. This Paleolithic culture has been termed the Madras Hand-Axe Industry or Madrasian Culture, contributing to our understanding of early human activities.

Stone tools:

Stone tools serve as the primary archaeological evidence that allows us to gain insights into the lifeways of prehistoric peoples.
When a sizable rock is intentionally fractured into two or more pieces, the largest fragment is termed the core, and the resulting tool is referred to as a core tool.
The smaller fragments detached from the original rock are known as flakes, and tools crafted from these flakes are termed flake tools.

Prehistory:

In 1859, primitive stone implements were discovered alongside fossilized bones of extinct wild cattle and other large mammals in northern Europe.
This revelation indicated that humans had inhabited northern Europe long before its landscape assumed its current configuration, leading to an extended period preceding recorded human history.
Sir John Lubbock, in his 1865 book ‘Prehistoric Times,’ formally announced the birth of a new scientific discipline known as Prehistory. He categorized the Stone Age into the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age).
By the late 19th century, an intermediate stage, Mesolithic, was introduced between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic.
Additionally, the cultural sequence derived from cave and open-air sites in France led to the recognition of three phases within the Palaeolithic phase: Lower, Middle, and Upper.

Geographical settings in Indian subcontinent:

The Indian landscape possessed all the essential conditions for a successful hunting-gathering lifestyle:
- diverse landforms facilitating the movement of such groups,
- Presence of various basic rocks and siliceous stones suitable for toolmaking,
- Perennial water bodies in the form of streams and springs, and a rich variety of wild plant and animal foods.
- Except for the Himalayan tract and the Indo-Gangetic alluvial tracts, Stone Age groups occupied the entire Indian landmass.

Paleolithic phase in India:

Indian Paleolithic is categorized into three distinct developmental stages:
- Lower Paleolithic: 600,000 years BP to 150,000 years BP
- Middle Paleolithic: 165,000 BP to 31,000 years BP
- Upper Paleolithic: 40,000 years BP to 12,000 years BP
- Lower Paleolithic practices involve the utilization of large pebbles or flakes for crafting tools such as choppers, chopping tools, hand-axes, cleavers, knives, and more.
Middle Paleolithic: the focus shifted to the use of a diverse range of flakes struck from cores to create tools like scrapers, points, borers, and others.
Upper Paleolithic stage introduced further advancements, with implement types like blunted and pen knife blades, blades featuring serrated edges, and arrow points crafted on long parallel-sided blades struck in a series from cylindrical cores using the punch technique.

Lower Paleolithic phase

Comprises two primary tool-making or cultural traditions

1. Soanian tradition:

Part of the East and Southeast Asian chopper-chopping tool tradition.
Through field studies, they identified a series of five terraces on the Soan River, part of the Indus drainage system.
Tools from this tradition include pebbles with working edges on their sides or ends, obtained by flaking from one or both surfaces, producing choppers or chopping tools.
Pebble tool assemblages were found on the Indian side of the border in Sirsa and Ghaggar valleys of Haryana, Beas and Banganga valleys of Himachal Pradesh, and the Hoshiarpur-Chandigarh sector of the Siwalik Frontal Range.

2.Acheulian Cultural tradition:

Hand-axes and cleavers, represented advanced and increasingly symmetrical shapes.
Quartzite was the preferred rock for tool-making, but in areas where it was not naturally available, Acheulian groups utilized other rocks such as limestone in the Bhima basin, dolerite and basalt in Maharashtra, and fossil wood in Bihar and Bengal.
Techniques like stone hammer, soft hammer, and prepared core methods were employed to detach flakes and shape them into implements.

Key Lower Paleolithic sites

Singi Talav in western Rajasthan
Rock shelter III F-23 at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, providing Acheulian, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, and Mesolithic levels.
Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh
Paisra in Munger district, Bihar: The excavation exposed hut-like dwelling structures and a circular arrangement of stone blocks.
Chirki-Nevasa in Maharashtra, yielding dolerite artifacts along with fossil bones of wild cattle and other animals.
Morgaon, a site in the Deccan basalt landscape in the Bhima drainage basin
Hunsgi in north Karnataka.
Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu, an in situ Acheulian site recently dated to 1.5 million years BP by advanced scientific techniques.

Middle Paleolithic phase:

Middle Paleolithic culture encompasses a diverse array of tools crafted from flakes, produced through specialized techniques, earning it the designation of a flake tool industry.
In Africa, Europe, South-West Asia and Russia, this culture is associated with the extinct Homo neanderthalensis, commonly known as Neanderthal man, who lived during the Upper Pleistocene period.
Middle Paleolithic tools in India are fashioned from flakes and flake-blades.
Tool types include various scrapers, awls, borers, unilateral or bilateral points, miniature handaxes and cleavers, and utilized flakes.
Stone types employed: Fine grained rocks like chert, jasper, chalcedony, agate etc.
Technique of making stone tools: Levallois technique, retouching etc.
Manufacturing sites also reveal the presence of hammers.
Middle Paleolithic Culture in India was first recorded in Pravara at Nevasa (Maharashtra) and then later in Godavari Valley in Karnataka by H. D. Sankalia. Sankalia named this culture Nevasian.
Middle Paleolithic sites are distributed across the Indian subcontinent.
Notable sites include: Didwana in Rajasthan, Hiran valley in Gujarat, Potwar Plateau between the Indus and Jhelum rivers, Budha Pushkar in Rajasthan, Luni river system (indicating tool industries west of the Aravallis), Chirki Nevasa in Maharashtra, and Kalpi in Uttar Pradesh.

Upper Palaeolithic phase:

Upper Palaeolithic marks the final phase of Palaeolithic era and stands out as a period of significant human achievements.
Upper Palaeolithic cultures flourished in Europe, South-West Asia, Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia during the later stages of Upper Pleistocene, often referred to as Late Pleistocene falling between 40,000 to 10,000 years ago.
The Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens (AMHS), the only surviving human species, is associated with this cultural phase, encompassing our own species.
Technologically, the Upper Palaeolithic is characterized by advancements in stone tool manufacture, particularly the production of parallel-sided blades.
- These blades, refined and elongated in shape with parallel sides, are created through the prismatic-core technique or fluted-core technique.
- Blades are produced by striking along the circumference of the core, resulting in a series of blades removed by indirect percussion.
- Subsequently, these blades are further worked and finished through a process known as backing, resulting in tools termed backed blade tools.
In the Indian context, Upper Palaeolithic cultural relics are primarily stone tools based on blade-tool technology.
As most of these sites are open-air occupations, tools made of organic materials like bone are scarce due to disintegration in open-air conditions.
Bone tools, however, were discovered in the Kurnool caves (Andhra Pradesh), where favourable preservation conditions existed.

Bone tool industries of the Upper Palaeolithic phase:

These are known from the Kurnool cave sites in Andhra Pradesh, revealing a variety of tools such as awls, barbed and un-barbed arrowheads, daggers, scraper-knives, scrapers, chisels, gouges, wedges, axe heads, and sockets
These bone tools exhibit crude technology, reflecting the short-term nature of cave occupations.
Subsequent excavations in the Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi cave have revealed blade tools and bone tools, showcasing the technological diversity of this cultural phase.
Prominent Upper Palaeolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent include Chopani Mando in Belan valley, Baghor in Madhya Pradesh, Paisra in Munger district of Bihar, Haora and Khowai river valleys in western Tripura, Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh, Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi in Andhra Pradesh, and Renugunta in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.

Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act, 2021

Context: The Delhi High Court permitted a depressed widow to terminate her 29-week pregnancy, citing the risk of mental harm. Despite the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act's 24-week limit, special considerations apply to specific groups, including survivors of rape and vulnerable individuals.

About Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act, 2021:

The Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act, 2021 alters the MTPA 1971.
The amendments increase the ambit and access of women to safe abortion services and will ensure dignity, autonomy, confidentiality and justice for women who need to terminate pregnancy.

Features of the amendment act:

Medical Termination of Pregnancy features

The Amendment raises the upper gestation limit from 20 to 24 weeks for particular groups of women, include rape survivors, incest victims, and other vulnerable women (such as differently-abled women, minors), among others.
It replaces the terms “married woman and her husband” with the terms “woman and her partner”. As a result, an unmarried woman can also terminate pregnancies within the time limit prescribed under the Act.
Upper gestation limit not to apply in cases of substantial foetal abnormalities diagnosed by Medical Board.
The ground of failure of contraceptive has been extended to women and her partner up to 20 weeks
For safeguarding the privacy and confidentiality of women, section 5A of the Act penalise medical practitioners who fail to protect the privacy and confidentiality of women who desire to terminate their pregnancy.

Limitations of the Amendment Act:

Time frame for Medical Board’s decision not specified: The amended Act does not stipulate the time limit within which the medical board must make its decision, result in further complications for pregnant women.
Since the amended Act exclusively allows for the termination of pregnancies in the case of women, it is unclear if transgenders will be included under the amended Act.
Unavailability of qualified medical professionals to terminate pregnancies: The All-India Rural Health Statistics (2018-19) reveal a severe shortage of gynecologists in rural India. With only 1,351 serving at community health clinics, there's a substantial 75% shortfall (4,002 doctors), posing a significant obstacle to ensuring safe abortions.
Judicial inconsistency: Lower courts sometimes making flawed decisions that higher courts later correct on appeal. However, pregnant women experiencing physical hardships may not have sufficient financial resources for filing an appeal against an unjustifiable judgement resultantly becoming a victim of the tedious judicial system.
There is no provision for ensuring the accountability when death of the mother is caused due to the denial to abort.
Section 3 of the MTP Act, which rests the decision of undergoing a medical termination solely on the doctor’s opinion, also points to lack of autonomy for women.
Frontline healthcare workers (around 95%), the first points of contact for women—are also unfamiliar with the amendment to the MTP Act, 1971.

Suggested measures:

Need law on comprehensive abortion care is essential to ensure access to safe services, health and safety standards, financial accessibility, and protection from harassment (Shantilal Shah committee).
Social media emerged as one of the key sources of information for women. This should be used by the respective state health authorities to share messages on different clauses/sub-clauses of the MTP (Amendment) Act, 2021 in simple languages among women.
Provide a reasonable time frame within which the medical board must make its decision.
Advocate for the establishment of a fast-track appeal process, particularly in cases involving maternal health risks or physical hardships.
Propose the inclusion of provisions that hold healthcare providers accountable for maternal deaths resulting from the denial of abortion when it is legally permissible. This can act as a deterrent and ensure that medical decisions prioritize maternal health.
Need a mechanism for regular review and updates of the MTP Act to address emerging issues and ensure that the legislation remains relevant and effective.

Mismatch between higher education and skill requirements in the job market

Context: According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey, the unemployment rate among graduates is higher than in many other developing countries due to higher education out of touch with the skill requirements in the job market.

Unemployment rate in India:

According to PLFS:

It has reduced to 3.2% in 2022-23, from 6.1% in 2017-18.
Graduate degree unemployment rates has reduced to 13% in 2022-23 from 17% in 2017-18.
Unemployment rate for young workers aged 18 to 29 with graduate degrees, has reduced to 27% in 2022-23 from 36% in 2017-18.
The share of graduates in the labour force has risen to around 15% by 2022-23 from 5% in 1993-94.

Reason for mismatch between higher education and skill requirements in the job market:

Slow curriculum updates: Higher education institutions (HEIs) often have slow processes for updating curricula. This results in a lag between the emergence of new skills in the job market and their incorporation into academic programs.
Governance issues: As HEIs are affiliated with UGC or AICTE etc. they face challenges of over-centralisation, lack of autonomy and transparency.
Limited industry collaboration: Some higher education institutions may lack effective collaboration with industries. This can lead to a disconnect between academic content and the practical skills required in the workplace.
The degree-oriented education system: Focus on rote memorization and exams, which may not foster critical thinking, creativity, and skills.
Faculty skill gap: Faculty members may themselves lack up-to-date knowledge and skills relevant to rapidly changing industries, result in the transmission of outdated information and a lack of emphasis on cutting-edge technologies and practices.
Inadequate focus on research and innovation: Due to scarcity of funds, ill-equipped labs and weak linkage of Research, higher education and Industry. India’s research and development (R&D) expenditure as a proportion of GDP is only 0.7% and in Korea is 4%.

Government Initiative to address mismatch between higher education and skill requirements in the job market:

Scheme for Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration (SPARC), 2018: For improving the research ecosystem of India’s Higher Educational Institutions.
Education Quality Upgradation and Inclusion Program (EQUIP) : To enhance access, inclusion, quality, excellence, and employability.
Technical Education Quality Improvement Programme of Government of India (TEQIP): To upscale and support ongoing efforts in improving the quality of technical education.
Institute of Eminence (IoE): To empower Higher Educational Institutions and to help them become world-class teaching and research institutions.
National Education Alliance for Technology (NEAT): To provide technology solutions using Artificial Intelligence for customized learning or e-content in niche areas having highly employable skills.

Measures to address mismatch between higher education and skill requirements in the job market:

Establish mechanisms to ensure that university curricula are regularly updated to reflect industry trends and emerging technologies.
Establish advisory boards with industry representation, promote joint research projects, and encourage industry professionals to participate in curriculum development to strengthen industry-academia linkage.
Incorporate modern technologies and tools into teaching methods to enhances the learning experience and also ensures that students are familiar with the technologies used in their future workplaces.
Establish channels for continuous feedback from employers about the performance of graduates in the workplace. Use this feedback to make necessary adjustments to educational programs.
Emphasize the development of soft skills, including communication, teamwork, problem-solving, and critical thinking, to enhance graduates' overall employability.

The Question of Balochistan

Context: Hundreds of people marched to Islamabad protesting against the atrocities committed against Balochistan people.

Baloch Issue

Since Pakistan's inception in 1947 following the Indian subcontinent's independence, Baloch separatism has persisted as a critical issue. This problem dates back to the period when around 500 princely states had to choose between India and Pakistan.
The integration of Balochistan into Pakistan posed significant challenges. There were rumours suggesting that the Khan of Kalat, central to modern-day Balochistan, desired to align with India, although substantial evidence supporting this claim is lacking. Nonetheless, Balochistan remained an independent entity under the Khan of Kalat until March 1948, when political pressures coerced the ruler into signing the instrument of accession.
Modern-day Balochistan stands as the largest among Pakistan's four provinces, strategically positioned in the southwestern part of the country, boasting abundant natural resources such as gas, oil, copper, and gold.
Balochistan historically comprised numerous tribes whose leaders maintained treaty relationships with the British. The Khan of Kalat held a pivotal position among these leaders, with his territories divided among several semi-autonomous feudatories. Makran, Las Bela, and Kharan emerged as separate political entities alongside Kalat, forming the Balochistan States Union.
Following the British withdrawal from India after World War II, the Khan of Kalat adamantly insisted on Kalat's sovereignty. Hoping to secure a friendship treaty instead of accession, based on his close ties with Jinnah, he initially succeeded in signing a treaty on August 11, 1947, acknowledging Kalat as an independent state.
However, complications arose when Kharan, Las Bela, and Makran, the three feudatories of Kalat, expressed a desire to accede to Pakistan. Jinnah, changing his stance on Kalat's independence, demanded the Khan to sign the instrument of accession as other states joining Pakistan had done. When the Khan persistently refused, Jinnah transferred negotiations to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
In 1948, the Pakistani government accepted the accession of the three feudatory states, leaving Kalat landlocked and with less than half of its original landmass. Additional pressure mounted when false news aired on All India Radio, alleging that Kalat intended to join India. With no viable option, the Khan eventually signed the instrument of accession.

Reasons for Baloch Issue

Marginalization stands as the primary issue stemming from Baluchistan’s forceful integration into Pakistan. Despite being the country's largest province, Balochistan possesses minimal influence in Islamabad's military and political spheres.
Economic and social underdevelopment forms another critical concern. Balochistan holds immense economic importance for Pakistan due to its significant oil and gas revenues. However, the state's investment in essential sectors like healthcare and education is disproportionately low compared to the generated resources. Consequently, Balochistan exhibits the poorest life expectancy, adult literacy rates, and primary school enrolment across Pakistan.
The Pakistani military's violent counterinsurgency measures constitute the third challenge. Since Baluchistan’s incorporation into Pakistan, the Pakistani Army has maintained a substantial presence in the region. This presence has led to the suppression of local resistance groups through coercive means, resulting in widespread violence, human rights abuses, internal displacement, and casualties among civilians and armed forces.
Furthermore, mega projects initiated by China as part of an agreement with Pakistan have exacerbated tensions. These projects have raised concerns among the Baloch population, perceiving them as a threat to their economy, environment, demography, and ethnic identity. The resentment towards these investments has led to violent acts by Baloch separatists, creating a precarious security environment for China's extensive infrastructure endeavours in the region.

India’s changed Policy

Initially, this policy shift signifies an escalation aimed at dissuading Pakistan's backing of terrorism against India. The Prime Minister's speech served as the preliminary step in this progression. Should Pakistan disregard this warning, subsequent actions might follow, potentially escalating further over time.
Secondly, the Prime Minister seeks to indicate a clear alteration in Indian policy. Given the failure of diplomatic isolation on a global scale and the unavailability of conventional warfare as an alternative, India contemplates bolstering existing rebellions by extending material support to Baloch insurgents.
Counterinsurgency demands extensive troop engagement, likely drawing Pakistan's infantry into conflict, despite Pakistan's use of airpower in Balochistan. This approach aims to inflict consequences on the Pakistan Army, seeking retribution for their use of terrorism against India. Moreover, it might prompt the Pakistan Army to consider negotiations to curb cross-border terrorism.
Notably, the Balochistan strategy grants India the opportunity to respond forcefully to Pakistan's use of terrorist tactics against India without fearing nuclear escalation.
An insurgency in Balochistan could potentially disrupt at least a segment of China's efforts, particularly related to the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), in its attempt to encircle India.
For years, Indian strategists have lamented India's insufficient intelligence and covert action capabilities within Pakistan. Supporting the Baloch rebellion could serve as a means for India to expand its intelligence-gathering and covert operation abilities in Pakistan.

Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) and Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT)

Context: The Congress general secretary has written to the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC), requesting that a delegation from the Indian National Developmental, Inclusive Alliance (INDIA), be granted an appointment to enable them to present their views on Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) slips.

About Electronic Voting Machine (EVM)

In general, it means voting using electronic means to either aid or take care of the work related to casting and counting votes. Section 61A of the Representation of People Act, 1951 allows the use of EVMs by the Election Commission of India (ECI).

These are stand-alone non-networked machines.
An EVM is designed with two units: control unit and the balloting unit.
- These units are joined together by a cable.
- The control unit of the EVM is kept with the presiding officer or the polling officer.
- The balloting unit is kept within the voting compartment for electors to cast their votes.
- This is done to ensure that the polling officer verifies your identity.
In India, these are manufactured in two PSUs namely ECIL and BEL.
The software used in these is One Time Programmable, which cannot be re-written after manufacturing.

Process of Voting

EVM, instead of issuing a ballot paper, the polling officer will press the Ballot Button which enables the voter to cast their vote.
A list of candidate’s names and/or symbols will be available on the machine with a blue button next to it.
The voter can press the button next to the candidate’s name they wish to vote for.

To bring about greater transparency, as many political parties have criticised the use of technology in elections will favour the ruling party, the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India (SC) allowed the ECI to introduce VVPAT in a phased manner.

About Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT)

Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) is an independent system attached with the Electronic Voting Machines that allows the voters to verify that their votes are cast as intended.

When a vote is cast, a slip is printed containing the serial number, name and symbol of the candidate and remains exposed through a transparent window for 7 seconds.

Thereafter, this printed slip automatically gets cut and falls in the sealed drop box of the VVPAT.

In 2019, the Supreme Court admitted a petition filed by 23 political parties regarding the counting of printed slips from 50% of VVPATs. While the Supreme Court upheld the integrity of the EVM system, this decision was made in the interest of greater stakeholder satisfaction. It also increases the sample size of VVPATs to be matched with the EVM count, from 1 station per assembly to 5 polling stations.