The Hindu

Mughal ruler Aurangzeb

Context: The case of Gyanvapi Mosque in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh is caught in the midst of a legal and social controversy. The mosque is said to have been built during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in the 17^th century.

About the news article:

Historian Audrey Truschke, in ‘Political motives, writing in Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth’, mentions that ‘Hindu and Jain temples dotted the landscape of Aurangzeb’s kingdom and these institutions were protected by the state.
- According to Truschke, the support for the temples could be revoked when they acted against the imperial interests or the Mughal state and therefore, targeted destruction of temples were undertaken.
- Truschke also talks about how in 1659, Aurangzeb asked the imperial officials to check for the unlawful harm or disturbances being created for the Brahmins of Benares and nearby places.
Historian Catherine Asher, in ‘Architecture of Mughal India’, portrays the destruction of Temples during the reign of Aurangzeb, as results of several political events.
- As per the historical records, Man Singh’s great-grandson, Jai Singh, helped Shivaji flee from the court of Aurangzeb in 1666.
- As per the writings of Asher, the destruction of Vishvanath temple in Benares in 1669, which was rebuilt by Raja Man Singh (during Akbar’s reign) was largely to punish those who were suspected of supporting Shivaji.
- The Vishvanath temple was built before the entry of the Muslims in India and in the 12th century was attacked by Qutbuddin Aibak.
Scholar, Satish Chandra, in his works has mentioned that the destruction of temples during Aurangzeb’s reign was mainly to check on the spread of subversive ideas against the Mughal state.
- In Maasir-i-Alamgiri ( A Persian language chronicle by Saqi Mustaid Khan) mentioned that, Aurangzeb learned that at Benares, the Brahman disbelievers used to teach false books in established schools to their admirers and students (both Hindu and Muslim).
- In 1669, Aurangzeb took strong actions against some temples in Thatta, Multan and Benares.

History Kashi Vishwanath temple:

Dedicated to Lord Shiva, in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
It is one the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India.
Built in Nagara style of temple architecture which is characterized by its towering spire (shikhara) and intricately carved stone facades.

The twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India are: Somnath in Gujarat; Mallikarjuna at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh; Mahakaleswar at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh; Kedarnath in Uttarakhand; Bhimashankar in Maharashtra; Vishvanath at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh; Trimbakeshwar in Maharashtra; Baidyanath Jyotirlinga in Deoghar, Jharkhand; Nageswar at Dwarka in Gujarat; Rameshwar at Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu and Grishneshwar in Aurangabad in Maharashtra.

Kashi Khand of Skanda Purana is dedicated to the city of Varanasi. As per the Kashi Khanda, there were a total of 1099 temples, out of which 513 were specifically devoted to the worship of Shiva.
The original temple (also known as Adi Vishveshwara Temple) was destroyed by the Ghurids in 1194, when Muhammad ibn Sam defeated Jayachandra of Kannauj near Chandawar and razed the city of Kashi.
In 1230, the temple was rebuilt near the Avi Mukteshwar Temple, away from the main site, during the reign of Iltutmish (Delhi Sultanate ruler, 1211–1266).
It was demolished again during the rule of Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517).
Raja Man Singh built the temple during Akbar's reign, however the orthodox section in Hindus boycotted it as Man Singh’s sister was married to Mughal ruler Akbar
Raja Todar Mal completed the reconstruction of the temple in 1585.
In 1669, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed the temple and built the Gyanvapi Mosque in its place.
In 1780, Ahilyabai Holkar rebuilt the present temple adjacent to the mosque.
In 1835, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire donated gold for plating the temple's dome.

About Mughal ruler Aurangzeb:

Served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636-1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645-1647.
He jointly administered the provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648-1652 and continued the expeditions into neighbouring Safavid territories.
Shahjahan in 1657, nominated Dara Shikoh as his successor. This was not accepted by Aurangzeb. He proclaimed himself as emperor in 1658. Thus, began the war of succession.
In April 1658, the allied army of Dara Shikoh and the kingdom of Marwar was defeated by Aurangzeb at the battle of Dharmat.
Then, at the decisive battle of Samugarh in May 1658, Aurangzeb’s sovereignty and suzerainty was cemented and was acknowledged throughout the empire. He imprisoned Shahjahan (his father) in the Agra fort.
The ‘Fatawa Alamgiri’ was imposed successfully by Aurangzeb as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam.
He reigned for fifty years and during the first twenty-five years he resided in the North and personally occupied the affairs of northern India.
Aurangzeb retained Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) as his capital, but after some two decades the capital was shifted to wherever Aurangzeb would set up camp during his long military campaigns.
In 1681, his son, Prince Akbar, rebelled in Deccan. Aurangzeb from this time onwards was continuously engaged in the region and mainly the “Deccan Ulcer '' kept him engaged. He died at Ahmednagar, Maharashtra in 1707.

Deccan Ulcer:

Aurangzeb’s policy towards Deccan was basically motivated by curtailing the influence of the Marathas, containing the rebellions by Shia kingdoms-Golconda and Bijapur and keeping in check his own son’s rebellions.
He successfully annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). Historians see the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms as the major blunder, as these kingdoms acted as the barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas.
Now, Mughals had to face direct confrontations with the Marathas.
As per the historian, J.N. Sarkar, the ‘Deccan Ulcer’ ruined Aurangzeb.
Shaista Khan and Jai Singh, generals of Aurangzeb, were sent to capture Shivaji.
Jai Singh successfully captured Shivaji, but Shivaji escaped to the Deccan, using the Guerrilla warfare tactics, which was not an integral part of Mughal Army strategies.
The long battle with Marathas severely impacted the Mughal treasury.

Religious Policy of Mughal state under Aurangzeb:

He implemented a religious policy marked by orthodox Islamic principles. His policy had two aspects: to promote the tenets of Islam and to ensure that the people led their lives accordingly and to adopt anti-Hindu measures.
Influenced by the teachings of Ahmad Sirhindi, Aurangzeb aimed to transform India from Dar-ul-harb (land of infidels) to Dar-ul-Islam (Islamic land).
He rejected the Persian concept of kinship (Farr-i-Aizadi) in favour of a rule based on the Quranic concept of kingship.
Aurangzeb banned the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz, discouraged un-Islamic ceremonies, and reinstated the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679.
However, Aurangzeb's emphasis on Sharia conflicted with his acknowledgment that secular decrees (Zawabit) could override Sharia law.
He took measures to promote Islam, such as forbidding the Kalima (Islamic confession of faith), on his coins, as he believed, the holy words might be desecrated under foot or defiled by the non-believers.
He appointed a Censor of Morals (Muhktasib) to enforce Islamic laws.
The ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and silver on his two birthdays (i.e. according to the lunar and solar calendars) was stopped.
Following were the anti-Hindu measures adopted by Aurangzeb:
- Demolishing temples and breaking idols:
  - The Mathura temple was built by Bir Singh Bundela, who had gained Jahangir's favour. Aurangzeb converted it into a large mosque and the name of Mathura was changed to Islamabad.
  - In the first year of his reign, he issued orders to the governor of Orissa to demolish all temples in the province.
  - Mosques were built at the sites of different temples.
  - He destroyed Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and Somnath temple in Kathiawar.
- Imposition of Jizya in 1679, other taxes and conversions:
  - Akbar had abolished this tax on the Hindus but Aurangzeb again levied this tax.
  - Manucci held that the object of the tax was two-fold: first to fill up his treasury which had begun to shrink on account of expenditure on his various military campaigns and secondly to force the Hindus to embrace Islam.
  - For the Hindus the only way to escape from the payment of various taxes like pilgrim tax, trade tax, Jizya, etc. was conversion to Islam. Getting jobs after conversion also became easier. The Hindu prisoners were freed on their conversion to Islam.
  - However, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped, the unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted.
- Discriminatory toll/tax:
  - He enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which was a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code.
  - Later on Muslim traders were totally exempted from the payment of this tax.
- Restrictions on Hindu educational institutions:
  - For destroying the culture of the Hindus, Aurangzeb destroyed their several educational institutions at Varanasi, Multan and Thatta.
  - He placed restrictions on the starting of new Pathshalas.
Despite Aurangzeb's staunch Islamic stance, his imperial bureaucracy employed a higher percentage of Hindus compared to his predecessors.
- Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration increased by half, representing 31.6% of Mughal nobility.
- Many of these officials were Marathas and Rajputs, political allies of Aurangzeb.
- Nevertheless, he encouraged high-ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam, contributing to the complex religious dynamics of his reign.

Results of the religious policy of Aurangzeb:

Weakening the entire structure of the Mughal empire. It led to several conflicts and wars in different parts of the country.

Conflict with the Jats: In 1669, Hindu Jats began to organise a rebellion that is believed to have been caused by the re-imposition of jizya and destruction of Hindu temples in Mathura. The Jats were led by Gokula. By the year 1670, Jat rebels were quelled and the Mughal Army took control of Tilpat region. Gokula was caught and executed.
Conflict with the Satnamis: In 1672, the Satnami sect organised a revolt. Aurangzeb responded by organising a Mughal army of 10,000 troops, artillery, and a detachment of his imperial guards. His army crushed the Satnami rebellion
Conflict with the Sikhs: The ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was opposed to forced conversion of the local population. Approached by Kashmiri Pandits against forced religious conversions, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a message to the emperor that if he could convert Teg Bahadur to Islam, every Hindu will become a Muslim. In response, Aurangzeb ordered the arrest of the Guru. He was then brought to Delhi and tortured so as to convert him. On his refusal to convert, he was beheaded in 1675.
Conflicts with the Rajputs: Aurangzeb’s decision that the jizya (poll tax) should be levied on Hindus of all classes agitated the chiefs of Rajasthan, who had until then served the empire faithfully.

Conclusion:

The opinion of Historians and scholars on the religious policy of Aurangzeb is divided. Historians like Jadunath Sarkar, S.R. Sharma and A.L. Srivastava regarded the policy as being of religious bigotry and persecution, whereas Shibli Nomani, Zahiruddin Faruki and Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi justify most of Aurangzeb's actions as political expedients. Scholars like Satish Chandra and M. Athar Ali, give a neutral analysis without emphasizing the ‘for’ or ‘against’ controversy.

Instability in Myanmar

Context: The article talks about the situation in Myanmar which has been under military rule for the last three years. The country today is challenged with violent conflicts between the political class, military regime, and ethnic organisations with no one emerging as a clear victor

The historic analysis of Myanmar’s social and political structure reveals that neither before nor during British colonial rule the task of nation-building was done wherein a unified polity where its Bamar majority and a mixture of ethnic and religious minorities could live peacefully.

Present contestation?

There is a power struggle going on between the two centres with political class and ethnic organisations on one side and military on the other.
The political class, represented by the unrecognised group called the National Unity Government (NUG), has defied the odds to assert itself through militia units called the People’s Defence Forces. The NUG has articulated its vision of a ‘federal democratic union’. However due to the regime's ruthless suppression, its leaders operate underground or from Thailand.
The ethnic armed organisations on the other hand have inflicted a heavy toll on the Myanmar military along the Thai border in the south-east and the Chinese border in the north-east. The victories secured at the end of 2023 by the Three Brotherhood Alliance comprising the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army, the Arakan Army, and the Ta’ang National Liberation Army shook the army. However the ethnic organisations remain divided as under different factions some oppose the army, some support it quietly, and some stay neutral.
The most powerful pillar of the power architecture Tatmadaw or the military has never faced such a dismal situation. Most citizenry is opposed to it, viewing it as a oppressor and harbinger of basic fundamental rights. Further within Army there is now considerable discontent within the military against its current leadership.
Lastly, various attempts by multilateral organisations like the United Nations, ASEAN, Japan, and Myanmar’s neighbours have been unable to move the country towards reconciliation. In particular, that the military has resiled from the ASEAN’s Five Point Consensus has dashed the region’s hopes for a settlement.

India’s interests, options

Implications of Myanmar’s Military Coup

Border security: Refugees fleeing military crackdown are entering Mizoram. This has led to disagreement between centre & Mizoram which supports refugees. Centre’s instruction of sealing border with Myanmar has irked ethnically and culturally connected communities on both sides. Ex – Chin community.
Strategic concern: India cannot upset the Myanmar junta by providing refuge to the officials fleeing military crackdown.
Containing China: Myanmar being crucial in containing China, India will have to take a calculated steps to not push Myanmar closer to China.
Insurgency: Several ethnic armed organisations are active within Myanmar. Being opposed to Junta, EAOs can lead to escalation in violence across the border.
Indian Investments: Instability would threaten India’s investments in Myanmar. Ex. Kaladan Project, Sittwe port, IMT trilateral Highway, Special economic zone in Rakhine.
Opportunity to reduce influence of China: Myanmar army has enjoyed a relatively strong relationship with India. It played a key role in handling the insurgency and Hot Pursuits of India. Su Kyi led democratic government was closer to China. China supported it on Rohingya crisis.
Drug trafficking: Drug production has shot up exponentially in Shan Province of Myanmar. The region was earlier large producers of heroine. However, currently it is world’s largest producer & exporter of meth (more potent & profitable). Most key individuals controlling the drug trade are pro-junta businessman as well as ethnic militia.

Way Forward for India:

Maintaining Cordial Relations: India's current policy of maintaining cordial relations with the government while supporting democracy is acknowledged as successful in strengthening bilateral ties. This approach recognizes the need for a balanced stance. The recommendation is to thus balance friendly ties with the military government while expanding engagement with other stakeholders which can be done via backchannel diplomacy which seeks to protect India's national interests.
Non-Interference in Internal Affairs: Emphasizing non-interference in Myanmar's internal affairs is crucial. This stance aligns with diplomatic principles and respects the sovereignty of nations, reinforcing the idea that India's engagement is based on mutual respect.
Communication with Resistance Components: Establishing communication links with certain components of the resistance, such as the Chin National Army, Arakan Army, and the National Unity Government (NUG), demonstrates an understanding of the evolving situation and the need for inclusive dialogue.
Message of Cessation of Violence: Conveying a strong message advocating the cessation of violence and the restoration of normalcy to both the government and the resistance reflects India's commitment to peace and stability in the region.
International Conclave: The proposal to convene a Peace Conclave involving senior officials from Quad member states and the ASEAN Troika reflects a multilateral approach. This platform could provide a space for dialogue and collaboration on addressing the Myanmar situation and also acknowledging India's support for the transition to a federal democracy
Focus on Aung San Suu Kyi: Highlighting the need for immediate freedom for Daw Aung San Suu Kyi is a human rights and justice-oriented component in India's approach. This reinforces the importance of individual liberties in the broader diplomatic context.

Likely source of Zodiacal dust identified

Context: In a study published by the Royal Astronomical Society, points out that the likely source of the mysterious zodiacal dust has been identified, and it has martian origin.

Zodiacal light:

Zodiacal light is the faint glow visible on completely dark nights from Earth. It is due to the sunlight scattered by interplanetary dust (Zodiacal dust).
Zodiacal light is present across the entire path of the ecliptic, which is the path along which the Sun moves in the sky over the course of a year.

Major Highlights of the study:

Scientists at the Physical Research Laboratory in Ahmedabad examined the data from the Juno spacecraft's encounter with dust particles between 1 and 5 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun. They found a peak in dust particle flux at 1.5 AU, suggesting a significant concentration of dust in that region.
- AU’ stands for ‘astronomical unit’, which is the distance between the earth and the Sun. Mars is at a distance of 1.52 AU and Jupiter at 5.2 AU from the Sun.
- Juno is a spacecraft that NASA launched in 2011 to study the gas-giant Jupiter and its moons.

By comparing the flux of dust near Mars and the number of particles escaping Mars's moons, Deimos and Phobos, the researchers concluded that these moons could be a major source of the interplanetary dust responsible for zodiacal light.
- Mars’s two moons are called Deimos and Phobos. Phobos is the bigger of Mars’s two moons.

The low gravity of Deimos and Phobos allows smaller dust particles to easily escape into space. The smaller of these dust particles escape into space, while the larger particles are pulled in by Mars's gravity, leading to the formation of a dust ring around the planet.

Personally Identifiable Information (PII)

Context: Recently, the Ministry of Corporate Affair fixed a critical vulnerability in its online portal. As per the reports, the vulnerability exposed personal details, like Aadhaar, PAN, voter identity, passport, date of birth, contact number, and communication address of more than 98 lakh directors of Indian companies.

Introduction:

Advancements in technology platforms, brought bigger changes in operations of businesses, legislations by governments and individual relations. Cell phones, internet, e-commerce and all other kinds of digital tools have created an explosion in data supply.
This ‘Big Data’, is collected, analysed and processed by businesses and shared with other companies, which has in turn enabled them to gain better insight into how to make interaction better with the customers.

Personally Identifiable Information:

Any data or information maintained by an organisation or agency that can potentially be used alone or with other relevant data to identify or trace a specific individual.
Includes information such as Aadhaar, PAN, voter identity, passport, date of birth, contact number, communication address, and biometric information.
Constituents of PII differ depending on an individual’s home country.

This may contain:

Direct identifiers such as Passport Information, that can identify a person uniquely, or;
Quasi-identifiers such as Race, that can be combined with other quasi-identifiers like date of birth to successfully recognize an individual.

Non-PII:

Personal data, Non-personal data (such as the company you work for), shared data and anonymized data are not classified as PII.
Examples: Photographic images (especially of the face or other identifying characteristics), place of birth, religion, geographic indicators, educational qualifications, etc.
Personal Data: This has a broader range than the PII, such as IP address, device ID numbers, browser cookies, or genetic data.

What are Sensitive and Non-Sensitive PII:

Sensitive PII includes legal statistics such as full name, Social Security Number, driver’s license, financial information, medical records, mailing address, passport information, credit card information.
Such information when exposed can be used to identify a person and potentially cause harm.
Such sensitive PII are stored by employers, government organisations, banks etc
Example: An insurance company that is sharing client’s information with a marketing company will not share the sensitive PII. The data shared will be limited to the marketing company’s goal only.
Non-sensitive PII is easily accessible from public sources. This includes: zip code, race, gender, date of birth, social media, religion etc.
This cannot be used alone to determine an individual’s identity.
Although non-sensitive, such data is linkable, as when such data is used with other personal linkable information, this can reveal the identity of a person by using De-anonymization and re-identification techniques.

Threats of PII exposure:

The Internet has become a major vector for identity theft.
Data can be found by digging through the trash or unopened mails, which can provide an individual’s name and address. This can also reveal information about the employment, banking relationships or social security networks.
Phishing and social engineering attacks using deceptive-looking website or email, tricks into revealing key information, which can be used to fraudulently open bank accounts, and siphon off funds from accounts.
Information can also be stolen through deceptive phone calls or SMS messages.
These threat actors are known to sell exposed PII information on the ‘dark web’.
Lucius, a threat actor found selling data online claimed to have access to a 1.8 terabyte data leak impacting an unnamed ‘India internal law enforcement agency’.
Dark web: It is an encrypted portion of the internet not visible to the general public via a traditional search engine such as Google. It is also known as the darknet and constitutes a large part of illegal activity on the internet.
Threat actors also breach third-party aggregating PII which is also facilitated by weaknesses in digital infrastructure.

Risks for India:

India is ranked fourth globally in all malware detection in the first half of 2023, as per the survey of Resecurity.
A survey of 200 Indian IT decision makers found that 45% of Indian businesses have experienced more than a 50% rise in disruptive cyberattacks in 2023.
The report also found that 67% of Indian government and essential services organisations experienced an increase in disruptive cyberattacks.
The data sold on the dark web included one’s Aadhaar number, a unique 12-digit individual identification number issued by the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI).
Certain cases:
In 2023, reports emerged that a bot on Telegram was returning the personal data of Indian citizens who registered with the COVID-19 vaccine intelligence network (CoWIN) portal for vaccination purposes.
The government of India denied allegations of a biometric data leak, as well as a breach in the CoWIN portal.
The Government however, launched an investigation into the allegations that led to the arrest of a man in Bihar, along with a juvenile in June 2023.
A data breach was also reported in the Rail Yatri platform in January 2023.

How to secure PII?

Individuals can take steps to ensure that their PII is not readily available to threat actors.
They can look for HTTPS in URLs when visiting unknown websites. “S” stands for secure and is used by legitimate websites to secure collected information from unsecured connections.
Keep a tab on your PII like Aadhaar, passport, PAN, Voter ID, and other important proofs of identity. Avoid sharing or accessing images or details of identity documents through unknown devices.
Keep a tab on your bank account transactions, credit cards, and credit score. A hit in the credit score could mean your PII has been misused to procure credit cards in your name.
Users should also be alert and approach emails for unknown sources with caution as stolen information may be used to target users in phishing campaigns.
Users can change existing IDs and passwords to ensure that stolen data cannot be used for launching brute force attacks.
Users should also implement two-factor authentication for all their accounts and inform the concerned authorities in case they notice any suspicious activity in their online accounts.

The following are the privacy regimes in specific jurisdictions:

India:

Country’s Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) is investigating reports of the data leak and the government is working on moving massive amounts of data, including legacy data collected over the past decades, to safe storage.
Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021, mandate social media platforms to ensure greater diligence with respect to the content.

United States:

Government defined ‘personally identifiable information’ in 2020.
Anything that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual's identity such as name, social security network and biometrics information; either alone or with other identifiers such as date of birth or place of birth.

European Union:

The definition expands to include quasi-identifiers as outlined in the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) which came into effect in 2018.
The GDPR is a legal framework that sets rules for collecting and processing personal information for those residing in the EU.

Australia:

Privacy Act 1988 protects personal information.
It regulates the collection, storage, use, and disclosure of personal information, whether by the federal government or private entities.

Deep Sea Trawling: Ecological impacts

Context: There is consistent arrest and attack on Tamil Nadu and Puducherry fisherman near DELFT island in the Palk Bay Sea area despite diplomatic intervention at the highest level.

Confusion in Boundary

India and Sri Lanka share a maritime border of more than 400 kilometres, which cuts through three different seas - the Bay of Bengal in the north, the Palk Bay in the centre, and the Gulf of Mannar (which opens to the Indian Ocean) in the south.
The International Boundary Line (IBL) is close to the shores of both countries in the Palk Bay region, where the maximum distance separating them is around 45 km and the minimum 16 km (between Dhanushkodi on the Indian coast and Talaimannar on the Sri Lankan coast).
Crossing the IBL would mean entering into the territorial waters (12 nautical miles or 22 km) rather than the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).

Demarcation of Boundary

Even before the Law of the Sea was negotiated at the United Nations, and India declared its 200-nautical-mile EEZ, came the maritime agreements of 1974 and 1976 between India and Sri Lanka.
The 1974 agreement demarcated the maritime boundary in the Palk Strait and ceded Kachchatheevu to Sri Lanka.
The 1976 agreement demarcated the boundary in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal and barred either country's fishermen from fishing in the other's waters.

Concern of fisherman

The continued use of deep-sea trawlers (a practice banned by Sri Lanka since 2017) by Indian fisherman has raised issue of both livelihood and ecological destruction.
Fishermen also face a practical problem as under the Tamil Nadu Marine Fishing Regulation Act 1983, mechanized fishing boats are permitted to fish only beyond three nautical miles from the coast.
- Since the distance between Dhanushkodi and the International Maritime Boundary Line is only nine nautical miles, breaches do occur, a point the Sri Lankan Navy not overlooked.

Deep Sea Trawling

Bottom trawling is a method of fishing that involves dragging heavy weighted nets across the sea floor, in an effort to catch fish.
It’s a favored method by commercial fishing companies because it can catch large quantities of product in one go.

Ecological impacts of deep-sea trawling

Habitat Destruction: Trawling can cause physical damage to the seabed and the structures that support marine life.
- The heavy gear used in trawling can crush or remove vulnerable habitats such as deep-sea corals, sponges, and other benthic organisms.
Biodiversity Loss: The indiscriminate nature of trawling nets can lead to the capture of non-target species, including various marine organisms.
- This bycatch often includes species that are not commercially valuable and can result in the depletion of non-targeted populations, leading to biodiversity loss.
Altered Ecosystem Dynamics: The removal of large quantities of marine organisms through trawling can disrupt the balance within ecosystems.
- Targeted species and their predators may experience declines, leading to cascading effects throughout the food web.
Slow Recovery: Deep-sea ecosystems have limited resilience, and the slow growth rates of many deep-sea species mean that recovery from trawling impacts can take decades or even centuries. Some species may struggle to rebuild their populations, if at all.
Carbon Sequestration: Deep-sea ecosystems play a crucial role in carbon sequestration. Trawling can disturb sediments and release stored carbon, contributing to climate change.
- Additionally, the destruction of deep-sea habitats reduces their ability to sequester carbon effectively.

Terms related to Black Holes

Black Holes:

Black holes are the regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light and other electromagnetic waves, has enough energy to escape. The boundary of no escape is called the event horizon.
Formation: A black hole forms when a massive star (at least three times the mass of our Sun), exhausts its fuel, explodes in a supernova, and collapses under gravity into an incredibly dense core called a singularity.
Types:
- Stellar Black Hole: Formed by the collapse of a single massive star.
- Intermediate Black Hole: Formed by the collapse of a star having mass between 100 and 1,00,000 times that of our sun.
- Supermassive Black Hole: Masses ranging from millions to billions of times that of the sun, found at the centres of most galaxies.
Black holes are not directly observable with telescopes that detect X-rays, light, or other forms of electromagnetic radiation. However, their presence can be inferred through their effects on surrounding matter and the gravitational waves they produce.
- E.g., If a black hole passes through a cloud of interstellar matter or if a star passes close to a black hole, it will draw matter inward in a process known as accretion. As the attracted matter accelerates and heats up, it emits X-rays and powerful gamma ray bursts that radiate into space. This reflects the presence of black holes.
- Merger of two blackholes produces powerful gravitational waves. The detection of these gravitational waves (through LIGO - Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory) can confirm the existence/ location of the black holes.

Terms related to black hole:

Supernova: Supernovae are incredibly powerful explosions that occur when a massive supergiant star reaches the end of its life (exhausts its fuel). These explosions release an astonishing amount of energy, up to 10^44 joules.

Singularity: The centre of a black hole is a gravitational singularity, a point where the general theory of relativity breaks down, i.e. where its predictions do not apply. A black hole’s great gravitational pull emerges as if from the singularity.
Event Horizon (a point of no return): The event horizon is like a boundary around a black hole (around the singularity). Once anything (matter, energy, light) crosses this boundary, it can not escape unless it travels faster than the speed of light (which is impossible). This means nothing, not even light, can escape the black hole's strong gravity because the speed needed to escape at the event horizon should be greater than the speed of light.

Ergosphere: The Ergosphere is a bigger sphere, outside the event horizon of a black hole, where matter and even light can enter and then return (escape the black hole's gravitational pull), if they are moving fast enough (with speeds comparable to the speed of light).
- Both rotating (Kerr) black holes and non-rotating (Schwarzschild) black holes have an ergosphere. In the case of rotating black holes, the ergosphere is larger and more elongated compared to non-rotating black holes.
- In the Ergosphere, spacetime is dragged along with the rotation of the black hole. It is theoretically possible to extract energy and angular momentum from the ergosphere via the Penrose process. (The Penrose process suggests a way to take energy and spin from the ergosphere of a rotating black hole.)
  - Some scientists have suggested using this possibility to send an object into the ergosphere and allow it to accelerate there along the black hole’s direction of rotation, so that it comes out of the black hole moving faster.
  - This energy ‘gain’ of the object will translate to the black hole losing some angular momentum.
Accretion disc: An accretion disc is a flat, rotating structure of matter (such as gas, dust, or other material) that forms around a black hole. The material in the accretion disc spirals inward due to gravitational attraction of the black hole. As it spirals inward, the material often heats up due to friction and gravitational forces, emitting various forms of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, X-rays, gamma rays and radio waves.

Spaghettification: Spaghettification refers to the effect of extreme gravitational pressure on any particle or body of matter, in particular, when exposed to the extreme forces of the black hole.

When a particle draws too close to the event horizon, it is stretched into long thin shapes. E.g., If an astronaut falls into the event horizon, as the gravity is inversely proportional to distance, the pull on the falling astronaut’s legs will be substantially greater than the pull on his or her upper torso. Subsequently, stretching him like spaghetti (pasta).

Fisheries sector

Context: In its interim budget for FY25, the government has raised allocations for the ministry of fisheries, animal husbandry and dairying with the fisheries department receiving ₹2,585 crore, and the animal husbandry and dairying department ₹4,521 crore.

Fisheries Sector

India is the 3rd largest fish producing and 2nd largest aquaculture producing nation in the world.
India contributes 7.96% to the world's output.
The fisheries and aquaculture sector, constituting 1.24% of India's Gross Value Added (GVA) and 7.28% of the agricultural GVA, serves as a vital source of sustenance, nutrition, income, and livelihood for millions.

Growth Trajectory:

Since last one decade the fisheries sector exhibited remarkable growth, boasting an annual average growth rate of about 10.8%

Marine Fisheries Potential:

India's marine fisheries potential, estimated at 5.31 million tons, demonstrates a harnessing rate of nearly 78% with a production of 4.17 million tons in 2018-19.
The sector's activities extend along the vast coastline and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million square km.

Inland Fisheries Resources:

India's inland fisheries potential, encompassing rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, tanks, and more, is vast.
However, the current production of 14.73 million tons in 2020-21 (provisional) utilizes only around 60% of this potential.

Export Dynamics:

In the fiscal year 2021-2022, India's marine product exports totaled 13.93 lakh metric tons, valued at USD 7.76 billion.
A consistent average annual growth rate of approximately 10% underscores India's competitiveness in the global seafood market.

Socio-Economic Impact:

Fisheries and aquaculture provide livelihoods for around 25 million fishers and fish farmers at the primary level and double that number along the value chain.
Recognized as an affordable and rich source of animal protein, fish plays a crucial role in mitigating hunger and addressing nutrient deficiencies.

Challenges

Overfishing: Overexploitation of fish stocks due to increased demand for seafood has led to depletion of marine resources. This threatens the livelihoods of fishing communities and affects the overall health of marine ecosystems.
Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing: IUU fishing practices contribute to overfishing and undermine efforts to manage fisheries sustainably. Lack of effective monitoring and enforcement mechanisms exacerbates this issue.
Poor Infrastructure: Inadequate infrastructure, including lack of proper storage, transportation, and processing facilities, hinders the efficiency of the supply chain. This can lead to post-harvest losses and affect the quality of seafood products.
Climate Change: Changing climate patterns impact fish habitats, migration routes, and breeding grounds. This affects fish populations and can result in shifts in the distribution of species, impacting the traditional fishing patterns of communities.
Pollution: Pollution, including industrial runoff, untreated sewage, and plastic waste, poses a threat to aquatic ecosystems. It can lead to the contamination of water bodies, affecting the health of fish and other marine life.
Lack of Technology Adoption: Limited access to modern fishing technologies and practices hampers the efficiency and productivity of the fishing industry. The adoption of sustainable and technologically advanced methods is crucial for long-term viability.
Inadequate Fisheries Management: Ineffective fisheries management, including poorly enforced regulations and a lack of participatory approaches involving local communities, contributes to overfishing and resource degradation.
Social and Economic Challenges: Fishing communities often face issues such as poverty, lack of education, and limited access to healthcare. Improving the socio-economic conditions of these communities is essential for the overall well-being of the industry.

Government Measures

Blue Revolution (Neel Kranti Mission):

Launched to increase fisheries production and productivity from both aquaculture and fisheries resources.Components include development of inland fisheries, marine fisheries, infrastructure, post-harvest operations, welfare of fishermen, monitoring, control, and surveillance, among others.

Financial Assistance:

Under the Centrally Sponsored Scheme, subsidies are provided for various activities, and free training is given to fish farmers on improved scientific fish culture practices. The central government bears the full expenses of schemes in Union Territories and 90% in North-East & Hilly States, with the remaining borne by other states.

Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY):

Aims to turn India into a hotspot for fish and aquatic products through policy, marketing, and infrastructure support. Promotes aquaculture through easy access to credit and includes fishermen in farmer welfare programs and social security schemes.

SAMPADA (Scheme for Agro Marine Processing and Development of Agro Processing Clusters):

A comprehensive package for the creation of modern infrastructure from farm gate to retail outlet. Sub-schemes include Mega Food Park, Integrated Cold chain, food processing and preservation capacities, agro processing clusters, backward and forward linkages, and food safety and quality assurance infrastructure.

Institutions for Fisheries:

The government has established dedicated institutions for fisheries development, covering production, financing, marketing, export, research, and capacity building.

Fisheries and Aquaculture Infrastructure Fund (FIDF):

Constituted for funding infrastructure projects in the fisheries sector. NABARD, NCDC, and all Scheduled Banks serve as Nodal Loaning Entities (NLE).

Kisan Credit Card (KCC) for Fish Farmers:

KCC facility extended to the fisheries sector to meet working capital requirements. Interest subvention on KCC limit for Fisheries and Animal Husbandry up to Rs. 2.0 lakh.

Rural Infrastructure Development Fund:

NABARD permitted to extend Rural Infrastructure Development Fund loans for fisheries-related infrastructure such as fishing harbors/jetties and riverine fisheries.

Holistic Development Approach needed:

To unlock the full potential of the fisheries sector, a comprehensive approach is essential.
This involves strategic policy interventions and financial support, ensuring sustainability and inclusivity.
Addressing challenges faced by marginalized communities requires initiatives in education, skill development, healthcare, and infrastructure.
India's fisheries and aquaculture sector stands at the nexus of immense potential and critical challenges.
The journey toward sustainable, responsible, and equitable development is not only an economic imperative but a commitment to the well-being and prosperity of millions dependent on this vital industry.
A harmonized effort is needed to navigate these waters, fostering growth while prioritizing the holistic development of those integral to the sector's success.

Auroville Exposure tour under Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat programme

Context: The students participating in Auroville exposure tour under the ‘Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat’ programme, explored the units’ role in prosperity and Pondicherry Ashram.

More about the news:

The programme has been initiated by the Ministry of Education to emphasise the relevance of the educational-cum-cultural tour to themes under National Education Policy - 202, G-20 Leaders’ Declaration, Shri Aurobindo's 150th Birth Anniversary and Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat (EBSB).
It has been envisioned following the suggestion of the Union Minister for Education and Skill Development & Entrepreneurship to introduce the Aurobindo circuit under EBSB.
Emphasis of the initiative:
Exposing the youth to spirituality and Sri Aurobindo's philosophy.
Practical implementation of integral education, Auroville being a unique experiment towards that end.
Auroville Foundation, an autonomous organisation of the Ministry of Education, is organising the programme.

About Auroville Foundation:

It is an experimental township in the state of Tamil Nadu, with some parts in the Union Territory of Pondicherry in India.
Founded by Mirra Alfassa in 1968 (known as ‘the Mother’).
The name ‘Auroville’ has its origins in the French language. ‘Aurore’ means dawn and ‘Ville’ means village/city. Also, it has been named after Sri Aurobindo (1872–1950).
In 1964, at the annual conference, with Mirra Alfassa as its executive president, the Sri Aurobindo Society in Pondicherry passed a resolution.
The resolution was for the establishment of a city dedicated to the vision of Sri Aurobindo, who believed that ‘man is a transitional being’.
Mirra Alfassa's first public message in 1965: “Auroville wants to be a universal town where men and women of all countries are able to live in peace and progressive harmony, above all creeds, all politics and all nationalities. The purpose of Auroville is to realize human unity.”
The four-point charter set forth Mirra Alfassa’s vision of integral living:
- Auroville belongs to humanity as a whole. To live in Auroville, one must be the willing servitor of the Divine consciousness.
- It will be the place of an unending education, of constant progress.
- It will strive to be the bridge between the past and the future.
- It will be a site of material and spiritual research for a living embodiment of an actual human unity.

Read here about: Sri Aurobindo

Legal Status of the foundation:

The Sri Aurobindo Society legally owned all of the city’s assets prior to 1980.
In 1980, the Government of India passed the Auroville Emergency Provision Act, under which the city’s management was taken by the Indian Government.
It was challenged by the society in the Supreme Court of India and in the final verdict the constitutional validity of the government’s action was upheld.
Need was felt in 1988, to make an arrangement for the long-term management of Auroville.
Auroville Foundation Act of 1988, was passed by the Indian Parliament, which stipulated that all movable and immovable assets of the city, will be vested in a foundation, known as Auroville Foundation.
The foundation came into existence in 1991, as an autonomous body under the Ministry of Human Resource Development (now officially renamed as Ministry of Education). The foundation is headed by a secretary.
The act also created a three-tier governing system: Governing board; Residents Assembly and International Advisory Council.
- Governing Board is selected by the Government of India. It consists of 7 prominent Indians in the fields of education, culture, environment and social service in the areas of Auroville's ideals.
- International Advisory Council has 5 members also selected by the Government. The members should have rendered valuable service to humanity in the areas of Auroville's ideals.
- Resident's Assembly consists of all official residents of the city.

Works by the foundation:

Works closely together with the surrounding villages, via the Auroville Village Action Trust under which many different projects including the villages fall.
Some of the projects under the trust are:
- Women’s empowerment, Education, Financial Support, Health Services.
- Sale of its own products in the name of AVAL, Surya and Kudumbam as social enterprise work.
- Deepam school for handicapped children, Thamarai community centre, Maruthuvam Healing forest and the ‘Reach for the Stars!’ program enabling higher education for village youth.

About Ek Bharat Shrestha Bharat:

It is an initiative of the Ministry of Education.
The programme was announced by the Prime Minister on October 31^st, 2015,on the occasion of the 140th birth anniversary of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
Aim: Knowledge of the culture, traditions and practices of different States & UTs will lead to an enhanced understanding and bonding between the States, thereby strengthening the unity and integrity of India.
All States and UTs are covered under the programme.
States/UTs will be paired at national level and these pairing will be in effect for 1 year, or till the next round of pairings.
These pairings would be utilized for state level activities.
District level pairings would be independent of the State level pairings.
These activities will link various States and Districts in annual programmes.
In turn, these programmes will connect people through exchanges in areas of culture, tourism, language, education trade etc.

Objectives:

Celebrate the unity in diversity of our nation and to strengthen the fabric of traditionally existing emotional bonds between the people.
Promotion of the spirit of national integration through a deep and structured engagement between all Indian states and UTs.
Showcasing the rich heritage and culture, customs and traditions of either state, to enable people to understand and appreciate the diversity of India and foster a sense of common identity.
Promoting learning between States by sharing best practices and experiences.

Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat Engagement Matrix between:

Gujarat : Chhattisgarh
Tamil Nadu : Jammu-Kashmir and Ladakh
Madhya Pradesh : Manipur and Nagaland
Himachal Pradesh : Kerala
Maharashtra : Odisha
Uttar Pradesh : Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh
Punjab : Andhra Pradesh
Goa : Jharkhand
Lakshadweep : Andaman-Nicobar
Uttarakhand : Karnataka
Haryana : Telangana
Rajasthan : Assam
Delhi : Sikkim
Bihar : Tripura and Mizoram
Chandigarh and Puducherry : Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu

First human receives Neuralink brain chip implant

Context: As per the computer-brain interface company Neuralink, the first human has received a brain chip implant and is recovering well.

How do neurons work?

Nerve cells or neurons are the basic functional units of the nervous system. Multiple interconnected neurons form a neural circuit and use electrical and chemical signals to quickly transmit information among themselves and throughout the body.

About Neuralink brain implant/chip

Rationale: Neuralink is working on linking the nervous system to computers, with efforts aimed at helping treat brain disorders, overcoming brain injuries, and other applications.
Aim: To give people the ability to control a computer cursor or keyboard using their thoughts alone or “just by thinking”. The initial users would be those who have lost use of their limbs.

Working of the brain chip

Implantation: The chip, roughly the size of a small coin, is implanted into the motor cortex of the brain through a minor surgical procedure via a robotic surgery. The chip consists of thin, flexible threads/wires containing electrodes which are inserted into specific brain regions, aiming to record neural activity.
Data Acquisition: The electrodes pick up electrical signals generated by neurons firing, translating brain activity into digital information. The chip processes this data, identifying patterns and translating them into meaningful actions.
Communication: The processed data is wirelessly transmitted to an external device (like a computer or phone) via a low-power transmitter.

Risks

This technology is still evolving, and its long-term impact on humans is unknown. Additionally, brain surgery has significant potential risks such as brain haemorrhage or seizures.

Astronomers spot unusual object that falls within the black hole ‘mass gap’

Context: An object has been detected in the star clusterNGC 1851, whose mass (between 2.09 and 2.71 times the mass of the Sun) falls within the black hole mass gap.

Major Highlights:

Black Hole Mass Gap:

Neutron stars are incredibly dense objects formed from the collapse of massive stars. Their maximum mass is thought to be around 2.2 solar masses.
Black holes are even more massive, the lightest black holes are believed to be around 5 solar masses.
Between these two ranges lies the "mass gap" - a region where no objects have been definitively identified.
At the boundary between neutron stars and black holes there is always the possibility that some new, as yet unknown, astrophysical object might exist.

The Newly Discovered Object:

This object resides in a binary system within the star cluster NGC 1851, roughly 40,000 light-years from Earth.
Its companion is a millisecond pulsar, a rapidly spinning neutron star that emits regular pulses of radio waves.
By studying the pulsar's orbital motion, astronomers have estimated the mass of the unknown object to be between 2.09 and 2.71 solar masses. This places it within the mass gap.

Neutron Stars:

Neutron stars are the incredibly dense remnants of supermassive stars (with masses around 10²⁵ times the mass of the Sun) that have exploded as supernovae.
- They are formed when massive stars undergo supernova explosions at the end of their lifecycle. During the explosion, the outer layers of the star are expelled into space, while the core collapses under its own gravity. The core becomes so dense that protons and electrons combine to form neutrons, hence the name "neutron star." Neutron stars do not have an event horizon.
  - Supernovae are incredibly powerful explosions that occur when a massive supergiant star reaches the end of its life. These explosions release an astonishing amount of energy, up to 10^44 joules.
Neutron stars are about 15-30 kms in diameter and have a mass between 1.4- 2.2 solar masses. They are the densest known stellar objects in the universe, second only to the black holes.
They have breathtakingly high rotation speeds with rotational periods that can be just 0.3 to 12.0 seconds.
They often possess extremely strong magnetic fields, much stronger than those of regular stars. These magnetic fields can give rise to intense radiation emissions, including beams of electromagnetic radiation and particle streams, which are observable as pulsars.

Black Holes:

Black holes are regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light and other electromagnetic waves, has enough energy to escape. The boundary of no escape is called the event horizon.
- The event horizon is the boundary surrounding a black hole from which it is impossible for matter or energy to escape the black hole's gravitational pull, i.e., the escape velocity at the event horizon is greater than the speed of light.
It is formed when a dying star (leftover core) having more than three times the mass of the Sun undergoes a gravitational collapse, leading to the creation of a black hole.
- Stellar Black Hole: Formed by the collapse of a single massive star.
- Intermediate Black Hole: Masses between 100 and 1,00,000 times that of the sun.
- Supermassive Black Hole: Masses ranging from millions to billions of times that of the sun, found at the centres of most galaxies.
Black holes are not directly observable. However, their presence can be inferred through their effects on surrounding matter and the gravitational waves they produce.

End-to-End Encryption

What is Encryption?

Encryption is a way of protecting data from unauthorised access or tampering. It works by transforming the data into a secret code that only the intended recipient can decipher. This comes in useful for various cases, such as securing online communications, storing sensitive information, and verifying digital identities.
There are two main types of encryption: symmetric and asymmetric.
- Symmetric encryption uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt the data.
- Asymmetric encryption uses a pair of keys: one public and one private. The public key can be shared with anyone, but the private key must be kept secret.

What is end-to-end encryption?

End-to-end encryption protects data as it’s transferred between locations – which is crucial wherever there’s a rapid exchange of information, like in WhatsApp.
In an E2EE-enabled app, only the folks on each end – the sender and receiver – can read any exchanged messages. Not even the messaging service provider.
This is because messages get encrypted on the user's device before being sent and only are decrypted when they reach the intended recipient. So one gets complete privacy from snoopers, hackers, and even the company whose service one is using.

How does end-to-end encryption work?

The key element is asymmetric cryptography, which uses pairs of keys – public and private – to secure communications. The public key encrypts data, while the private key decrypts it.
Users on an end-to-end encrypted system like WhatsApp each generate their own public-private key pairs. They widely distribute their public keys, which act like open locks anyone can use to send them encrypted messages. But those messages can only be unlocked and read by someone holding the associated private key.
For example, say Alice wants to send Bob a secret message. Alice retrieves Bob’s public key from his profile or a trusted key server. She encrypts her message using Bob’s public key and sends the text to Bob. Bob receives the encrypted message and uses his private key to decrypt it. The private key is closely guarded on his device and known only to him. This creates a secure channel only accessible to the endpoints in the conversation.

Can a third party gain access to a private key?

The private keys cannot be hacked. This is because the private key is stored only on the user’s device and cannot be shared with anyone else. Meanwhile, the public key is stored on the server, but it cannot be used to decrypt the messages. Therefore, even if a hacker or a service provider breaches the server, they cannot read the messages or access the private key.

Benefits of end-to-end encryption:

The core benefit of E2EE is privacy. When done correctly, it prevents anyone except the sender and recipient from accessing the contents of a message. This protects users from hackers, criminals, overreaching governments, and even the companies providing the services. It enables free and open communication without fear of reprisal.

Concerns:

E2EE enables criminal or terrorist coordination. The law enforcement and national security agencies argue that the technology hampers their ability to detect dangerous or illegal activities.
The technical drawbacks include that E2EE requires more computing resources and makes certain functions like search prohibitively difficult.

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

Context: The military regimes of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger announced their withdrawal from the West African Bloc ECOWAS.

About ECOWAS

Heads of State and Governments of fifteen West African Countries established the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) when they signed the ECOWAS Treaty (Treaty of Lagos) in 1975 in Lagos, Nigeria.
The only Arabic-speaking Member, Mauritania withdrew in 2000 from the ECOWAS. Mauritania recently signed a new associate-membership agreement in 2017 with ECOWAS.

ECOWAS was set up to foster the ideal of collective self-sufficiency for its member states. As a trading union, it is also meant to create a single, large trading bloc through economic cooperation.
Headquarters: Abuja, Nigeria.
Aim of ECOWAS: is to promote cooperation and integration, leading to the establishment of an economic union in West Africa in order to raise the living standards of its peoples, and to maintain and enhance economic stability, foster relations-among Member States and contribute to the progress and development of the African continent.
ECOWAS consists of two operating institutions to implement policies: the ECOWAS Commission and the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID) – formerly known as the Fund for Cooperation.
ECOWAS Community Court of Justice was created by a protocol signed in 1991. The jurisdiction of the court allows rulings on disputes between states over interpretations of the Treaty. Like its companion courts, European Court of Human Rights and East African Court of Justice, it has jurisdiction to rule on fundamental human rights breaches.
The estimated 300 million citizens of the community can ultimately take ownership for the realization of the new vision of moving from an ECOWAS of States to an “ECOWAS of the People: Peace and Prosperity to All” by 2050.

Note: The region of West Africa is located west of the north-south axis lying close to 10° east longitude. The Atlantic Ocean forms the western as well as the southern borders of the West African region. The northern border is the Sahara Desert, with the Ranishanu Bend (#PrelimsFact) generally considered the northernmost part of the region. The eastern border lies between the Benue Trough (#PrelimsFact), and a line running from Mount Cameroon to Lake Chad.