Science & Technology

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What is Quantum Cryptography?

Context: Researchers are working towards developing algorithms that can withstand attacks from both classical and quantum computers. As computational techniques evolve, the interplay between complexity and cryptography will continue to be a crucial area of research and development.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Basic idea about Quantum Cryptography; Quantum Computing; National Quantum Mission.

What is Encryption?

Encryption is a way of protecting data from unauthorised access or tampering. It works by transforming the data into a secret code that only the intended recipient can decipher.
This comes in useful for various cases such as,
- securing online communications/ secure messaging systems
- verifying digital identities
- facilitating internet banking
- storing sensitive information etc.

Read More:End-to-End Encryption

Quantum Communication

Quantum communication takes the advantage of the laws of quantum physics to protect data and securely transmit data.
Traditional Encryption:
- In traditional data encryption, sensitive data is encrypted and sent through fibre optic cables with a digital key to decrypt the information.
- This data is transmitted in classical binary bits (0s and 1s) which makes it vulnerable to hackers who can read and copy it, without a trace.
Quantum Encryption:
- In a quantum communication network, data is transmitted via quantum bits or qubits.
- Qubits are particles (usually photons of light) in a superposition state, i.e., they can be in multiple states and represent numerous combinations of 0 and 1.
- If a hacker tries to read this data, the qubits would collapse from their fragile quantum state to either a 0 or 1, thereby leaving a clear trace of external activity.

Quantum Cryptography

Quantum cryptography, or quantum key distribution (QKD) ensures theoretically unbreakable encryption, making communications secure against any computational attack.
How does QKD work?
- QKD uses a series of photons (light particles) to transmit a secure key between two parties over a fiber optic cable.
- By comparing measurements of the properties of some of these photons, the two parties can determine what the key is and if it is safe to use.
- If an eavesdropper tries to intercept the key, the photon’s quantum state changes, thus, revealing the intrusion attempt.
In QKD, the eavesdropper cannot read the photon or make a copy of it, without being detected.
- A quantum state cannot be duplicated, according to the no-cloning theorem for quantum physics.
- An attacker can not replicate the quantum information being communicated and manipulate their copy.
- Quantum states would no longer be in a superposition, if an attacker attempted to read out data through an entanglement-based protocol.

Associated Challenges

Technical limitations:
- Quantum decoherence: Present technologies to realise qubits are based on superconducting junctions, trapped ions and quantum dots. These qubit systems are very fragile and susceptible to losing their quantum state.
- High cost: Quantum key distribution requires high infrastructure costs, as qubits are only stable at very low temperatures or in a high vacuum or both, which are expensive to maintain.
Building quantum resistant cryptography:
- A mature quantum computer could easily break some encryption methods widely used today. In that case, the current cryptosystems will fail.
- The present challenge of quantum cryptography is to build quantum-secure cryptosystems i.e., algorithms that can resist attacks powered by a quantum computer.

Developments in India in the Quantum field

National Quantum Mission:
- The National Quantum Mission was approved in 2023 and includes building a research hub for quantum communication.
- The mission is to enable:
  - satellite-based secure quantum communications between ground stations over 2,000 km
  - long-distance secure quantum communications with other countries
  - inter-city quantum key distribution over 2,000 km
  - multi-node quantum networks etc.
Quantum satellite: The Indian Space Research Organisation is planning to launch a satellite with ultra-secure quantum communication capabilities.

Read More: India’s Quantum Future

How is TRAI combating spam?

Context: The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) will be using distributed ledger technology (DLT) to register spam preferences from customers, in order to reduce spam.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Spams, associated challenges and role of TRAI in controlling them.

What are Spams?

Spams or Unsolicited Commercial Communications (UCC) refer to any unsolicited, usually irrelevant or inappropriate messages, sent over digital channels like email, SMS, or social media.
Acts involved in spamming:
- Bulk messaging
- System generated phone calls
- Identity theft

Issues associated with spams in India

Privacy invasion: Spam calls often involve the collection of personal data. E.g., Fake lottery scams request sensitive information like bank details.
Harassment: Persistent unsolicited calls for marketing disturb consumers leading to frustration of customers.
Financial fraud: Spammers use misleading offers such as fake loan schemes, to defraud individuals by convincing them to share financial or personal details.
Phishing: Using fraudulent messaging or calls to trick people with authentic looking phone numbers and system domains.
Evolving methodology: The spam operators continuously change the modus-operandi and content modulation to breach blocking.

Initiatives to Control Spam

Do not Disturb (DND): TRAI has initiated the “do not disturb” policy for consumers allowing them to block commercial communications.
AI-driven Anti-Spam mechanism: Telecom providers use AI to detect and block spam messages in real-time. E.g., Airtel initiative to declare suspicious calls using AI as “suspected spam”.
Blockchain usage: Using blockchain ledgers to protect sensitive information. E.g., Changing variables to spaced or masking of variables like “Your OTP is 112132” will be changed to “Your OTP is *******” to protect sensitive information.
Complaint Portal: Department of Telecommunications has launched the Sanchar Sathi portal which has a reporting site called Chakshu for complaining of spam calls.
Migration for Telemarketing calls to Distributed Ledger Technology platform: With effect from October 2024, Telemarketing calls starting with the 140xx numbering series have been migrated to the DLT platform for strict monitoring and control.
- DLT platform is a block-chain based registration system adopted to keep records of all transactions exchanged between network participants.

Acts to Combat Spam in India

Telecom Commercial Communications Customer Preference Regulations (TCCCPR), 2018: This sets guidelines for telemarketers, ensuring that only opted-in customers receive marketing calls or messages.
Information Technology (Reasonable Security Practices and Procedures and Sensitive Personal Data or Information) Rules, 2011: Regulates the collection, processing, and storage of personal data to prevent misuse for spamming.
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) Act, 1997: Empowers TRAI to regulate telecommunication services, including measures against spam.

What more can be done?

Stronger penalties: Enforcing higher penalties for spammers, such as the US introduced penalties like the Telephone Consumer Protection Act.
Special numbers: Introducing special and designated numbers or code for the financial intermediaries.
Consumer awareness: Spreading awareness among people about consumer rights and means to block spam numbers. E.g., European Union’s anti-spam measures to empower people.
Strengthening VoI: The voice over internet monitoring to control spam needs to be strengthened by authenticating genuine numbers.

About TRAI

Telecom Regulatory Authority of India is a statutory body established under the Telecom regulatory Authority of India Act. 1997.
Main functions of the body are as follows:
- Regulating telecommunication services
- Promote competition among firms
- Protect consumer’s interests in India’s telecom sector.
TRAI regulates and seeks implementation of Telecom Commercial Communications Customer Preference Regulations (TCCCPR) which are guidelines for telemarketers, ensuring consumers only receive opted-in communications.

Conclusion: India has taken significant steps to combat spam, including regulatory measures like the Do Not Disturb (DND) service and strict telemarketer guidelines. TRAI’s initiatives, alongside public awareness efforts, aim to reduce spam and protect consumers. Continued technological advancements and awareness campaigns are crucial for further success.

Genome Sequencing and the Genome India Project

Context: Recently, the Department of Biotechnology unveiled the Indian Genomic Data Set from the Genome India Project (GIP) and launched the ‘Framework for Exchange of Data Protocols (FeED)’ and the Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC) Portals to make 10,000 whole genome samples accessible to researchers across India and the globe.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Genome, Genome Sequencing and its applications, Genome India Project.

What is Genome?

A genome is an organism’s complete set of DNA. It is a collection of all the genes and the regions between the genes contained in our 23 pairs of chromosomes.
- Each chromosome is a contiguous stretch of DNA string composed of millions of individual building blocks called nucleotides or bases [adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T)].
- These bases (A, T, G and C) are arranged and repeated millions of times in different combinations.
The genome contains all the data that is needed to describe the organism completely — acting essentially as a blueprint. The genome can be understood through the process described as genome sequencing.

What is Genome Sequencing?

Whole-genome sequencing is the decoding of the entire DNA present in the human cell, i.e., determining the precise order of the four bases and how they are arranged in chromosomes.

Applications of Genome Sequencing:

Disease Diagnosis and Treatment:
- Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic mutations, evaluate rare disorders, preconditions for disorders and even cancer from the viewpoint of genetics. E.g., Nearly 10,000 diseases (including cystic fibrosis and thalassemia) are the result of a single gene malfunctioning.
- It can be used to read the codes of viruses, which can be used to understand how to combat the virus, track mutating variants, and develop a vaccine. E.g., development of COVID-19 vaccine.
Personalised Drug Development: Can identify genetic targets for drug development and testing, leading to the development of more effective and personalised drugs.
Prenatal Screening: Can be used as a tool for prenatal screening to investigate whether the foetus has genetic disorders/anomalies.
Agriculture: Can help identify genes that contribute to desirable traits in plants and animals, allowing for the selective breeding of crops and livestock.
Forensics: Genome sequencing can be used to identify suspects in criminal investigations and to establish paternity in cases of disputed parentage.
Evolutionary Biology: Can help trace the evolutionary history of species and understand the mechanisms underlying evolution.

What is the Genome India Project?

Genome India Project (GIP) was launched by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in January 2020.
Aim: To execute whole genome sequencing of 10,000 Indians and create a comprehensive reference database of genetic variations prevalent in the Indian population.
Success:
- DBT announced the completion of the project in February 2024.
- The project data was officially released in January 2025. The data is securely stored at Indian Biological Data Centre.
Note:
- The launch of the ‘Framework for Exchange of Data (FeED)’ Protocols under the Biotech-PRIDE Guidelines, 2021, ensures that the high-quality, nation-specific data will be shared in a transparent, fair, and responsible manner.
- Biotech-PRIDE Guidelines were introduced in 2021 and are a testament to India’s commitment to ethical and secure data sharing.

Key Highlights of GIP

Genome sequencing of 10,000 individuals: The project successfully sequenced genomes of 10,074 samples, covering 99 ethnic groups.
Creation of genetic database: Data is securely stored at Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC). IBDC will facilitate seamless access to valuable genetic information to researchers.
Sample collection milestones: Over 19,000 blood samples have been collected, exceeding the initial target, and stored in the GenomeIndia Biobank for future research.
Phase-1 analysis: Detailed quality checks and joint genotyping of 5,750 samples have uncovered rare genetic variations unique to Indian populations.

Need of GIP

India has around 1.4 billion population, consisting of over 4,600 population groups, many of which are endogamous (disease-causing mutations are often amplified within some of these groups).
Hence, GIP is needed to understand India’s unique genetic landscape and deal with the prevalence of rare diseases in the country.

Significance of GIP

The project has the potential to:

Improve disease diagnosis and prevention: Identifying genetic markers associated with diseases can lead to earlier diagnosis, effective treatment, and preventive measures. E.g., Identify prevalence of congenital disorders like sickle cell anaemia and thalassemia in certain tribal groups.
Advance precision medicine: GIP's genomic data will be instrumental in implementing precision medicine, tailoring targeted therapies based on an individual's genetic profile.
Empower genomic research: By sequencing genomes of a large and diverse group of individuals, the GIP will establish a baseline reference genome for the Indian population. This reference genome will be invaluable for researchers studying genomics in India and would contribute to the global understanding of human genetics.

Key Genome Sequencing Projects:

Human Genome Project:

Launched in 1990 and completed in April 2003. Lead by the USA.
The Human Genome Project, for the first time, led to the decoding of the entire human genome.

IndiGen Project:

Initiated by: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), from April 2019 to October 2019.
Aim: To sequence whole genomes of 1029 individuals from diverse ethnic groups across India.
The project was completed in 2019, and the results have been published in the scientific journal Nucleic Acid Research.
Significance: The data can be used to study genetics of the Indian population and develop new treatments for diseases common in India.

Cabinet approves ISRO’s 3rd launch pad at Sriharikota

Context: The Union Cabinet approved setting up of Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) third launch pad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) in Shriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about India’s Launch Pads.

ISRO’s Third Launch Pad (TLP)

The new launch pad will be built at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota.
Expenditure involved: Rs. 3985 Crore for the launch pad and the associated facilities.
Estimated duration of establishment: 48 months or 4 years.
Utility:
- TLP is designed to have universal configuration, such that it can support:
  - NGLV (Next Generation Launch Vehicle) and scaled up configurations of NGLV.
  - LVM3 vehicles with semicryogenic stages.
- It will also act as a standby launch pad for the Second Launch Pad at Sriharikota.
TLP will be co-located with the second launch pad (SLP), maximising the use of existing infrastructure.

Key components of TLP

Jet deflector systems, launch towers, and lightning suppression systems.
Propellant storage and servicing facilities for liquid methane and cryogenic fuels.
Advanced range systems, instrumentation, and electronic support facilities.

Significance of TLP

Launch heavier launch vehicles like NGLV, required for future Indian human spaceflight missions, Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) by 2035 & an Indian Crewed Lunar Landing by 2040 etc.
Boost Indian Space ecosystem by enabling higher launch frequencies. Meet the growing demand for satellite launches and strengthen India’s position in the global space economy.

India’s Launch Pads

Presently, Indian Space Transportation Systems are completely reliant on two launch pads viz. First Launch Pad (FLP) & Second Launch Pad (SLP).
First Launch Pad:
- FLP was realised 30 years ago for PSLV, and continues to provide launch support for Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) & Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV).
Second Launch Pad:
- SLP was established primarily for Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) & Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (LVM3), and also functions as standby for PSLV.
- SLP has been operational for almost 20 years and has enhanced the launch capacity towards enabling some commercial missions of PSLV/LVM3, along with the national missions including the Chandrayaan-3 mission.
- SLP is getting ready to launch the human rated LVM3 for the Gaganyaan missions.
Third Launch Pad:
- TLP is needed to launch NGLV, a new generation of heavier launch vehicles with new propulsion systems, which cannot be met by the existing launch pads.

ISRO achieves Space Docking: SpaDeX Mission

Context: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully demonstrated space docking, utilising the indigenous Bharatiya Docking System.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX); Space Docking; Bharatiya Docking System

ISRO SpaDeX Docking Mission

What is Space docking?
- Docking is a process by which two fast-moving spacecraft are brought to the same orbit, brought closer to each other manually or autonomously, and finally joined together.
- This capability is necessary for:
  - carrying out missions that require heavy spacecraft that a single launch vehicle may not be capable of lifting off with.
  - setting up a space station for which separate modules are joined in space.
  - carrying crew and supplies to the space station.
SpaDeX Mission:
- PSLV-C60 mission was launched on December 30, 2024.
- The PSLV rocket carried two satellites named Chaser (SDX01) and Target (SDX02), each weighing 220 kg.
Successful space docking by ISRO:
- The two small satellites were brought within a distance of 3 metres from each other in orbit, their extended ring was joined with each other, retracted, and locked in space.
- ISRO also demonstrated giving commands to the two satellites as one composite object.
Significance:
- The successful docking makes India the fourth country in the world — after the United States, Russia, and China — to have this capability.
- This paves the way for smooth conduct of ambitious future missions including the Bharatiya Antriksha Station, Chandrayaan 4 and Gaganyaan.

Also Read: PSLV-C60: SpaDeX & POEM

When was the first docking in space achieved?

United States: In 1966, NASA’s Gemini VIII became the first spacecraft to dock with the target vehicle Agena. Gemini VIII was a crewed mission orbiting the Earth, commanded by Neil Armstrong, who in 1969 became the first human to set foot on the Moon.
USSR: Soviet Union in 1967 demonstrated the first uncrewed, automated docking of the Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 spacecraft.
China: China demonstrated its docking capability in 2011, when the unmanned Shenzhou 8 spacecraft docked with the Tiangong 1 space laboratory.

What happened during the docking experiment?

ISRO carried out a series of manoeuvres to progressively bring “Chaser” satellite close to “Target” satellite.
- The satellites were allowed to drift close, and then their positions were held at around 5 km, 1.5 km, 500 m, 225 m, 15 m, and 3 m, before finally being joined together, at an orbit 475 kilometers (Low Earth Orbit) above the Earth.
- The space agency has demonstrated giving command to the satellites as a single composite object.
ISRO will also demonstrate undocking, during which the satellites will separate and drift away to carry out their respective experiments over the two years of the mission’s life.
The mission utilised the Bharatiya Docking System (BDS) indigenously devised by ISRO. This enabled the two Indian satellites to move precisely at the speed of 10 millimeters per second in docking, ensuring that they docked safely without risking a collision.

Bharatiya Docking System

Spacecrafts that go to the International Space Station follow the International Docking System Standard (IDSS), which was first baselined in 2010.
Bharatiya Docking System (BDS) being used by India is androgynous — meaning the systems on both the Chaser and Target satellites are identical.
Advancements in BDS:
- BDS is similar to the IDSS used by other agencies, but uses two motors as compared to the 24 used in IDSS.
- BDS used several new sensors such as Laser Range Finder, Rendezvous Sensor, and Proximity and Docking Sensor to take precise measurements while bringing the two satellites closer and joining them.
- It also used a new processor based on satellite navigation systems to determine the relative position and velocity of the spacecraft.
- This is a precursor to a completely autonomous system for future missions that would be able to achieve docking without satellite-based navigation data.

Discovery of Semi-Dirac Fermions

Context: Recently, the researchers at Columbia University and Pennsylvania State University have reported finding a strange particle called a semi-Dirac fermion.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Standard Model of Particle Physics; Basic understanding of the terms- Fermions, Bosons, Quasi-particles and semi-Dirac fermion.

What is the Standard Model of Particle Physics?

The Standard Model of Particle Physics is scientists' current best theory to describe the most basic building blocks of the universe. It attempts to explain how the basic building blocks of matter (fundamental particles) interact, governed by fundamental forces.
The Model describes the behaviour of:
- Fundamental particles- Fermions (six types of quarks and six types of leptons)
- Three fundamental forces (Strong force, Electromagnetic force & Weak force) and their four associated particles (Bosons)
- Higgs boson (particles associated with the Higgs field. Any particle that interacts with Higgs Bosons gets mass, and particles that do not interact remain massless).
As per the Model:
- All the known matter is made up of fundamental particles called quarks and leptons.
- These particles interact with each other in accordance with rules known as the fundamental forces.
Limitations: Currently, the Model is incomplete and does not explain:
- Fourth fundamental force- Gravitational force (Graviton is the force-carrying particle for gravity which has not been discovered yet)
- Existence of dark matter and dark energy.

Fermions and Bosons

Fermions (Quarks + Leptons) are the fundamental particles which have half-integer spin. Fermions are the fundamental building blocks of matter. E.g., Electron, Proton.
Boson is a name given to particles that carry fundamental forces. Each fundamental force has its own corresponding force carrier (boson). E.g., Photon
- Strong force is carried by gluons.
- Electromagnetic force is carried by photons.
- W and Z bosons are responsible for the Weak force.
- Graviton is a suggested force carrier for Gravitational force (Graviton is still not discovered)

Quest for New Particles

Physicists explore ‘new physics’ in terms of whether it agrees or disagrees with the Standard Model (SM) of particle physics.
They use particle collider experiments (particularly CERN’s Large Hadron Collider) to find new fundamental particles to verify the predictions/ or challenge the Standard Model and find the missing answers.
The CERN supercollider smashes billions of protons head on with energy equivalent to the Big Bang (dawn of the universe).

Large Hadron Collider (LHC):

LHC is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator.
Built by: The European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN).
It lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres in circumference and as deep as 175 metres beneath the France-Switzerland border near Geneva.
Inside the LHC, two high-energy particle beams of protons are directed at each other at nearly the speed of light and made to collide in the 27-kilometre ring of superconducting magnets.
These collisions generate new particles and using detectors scientists study their properties and interactions to understand fundamental laws of the universe.
Note: Hadrons are subatomic particles composed of two or three fundamental particles known as quarks, which are held together by strong Nuclear force. E.g., Proton, Neutron.

Semi-Dirac Fermion

Semi-Dirac fermion is a quasi-particle (a collection of particles), first theorised 16 years ago, recently spotted inside a crystal of semi-metal material called zirconium silicon sulphide (ZrSiS).
Properties:
- Semi-Dirac fermion has mass when it is moving in one particular direction, but is massless when moving in another direction.
Experimental Set-up:
- ZrSiS was cooled to near absolute zero and was subjected to a magnetic field 2.7 lakh times stronger than the Earth’s magnetic field.
- Infrared light was directed at the crystal to reveal its quantum behaviour. The experiment confirmed the presence of semi-Dirac fermions.
Significance of finding Semi-Dirac Fermion: Understanding behaviour of semi-Dirac Fermion may lead to advances in a range of emerging technologies, like quantum computing, high-end electronics, batteries and sensors.

Three Indian Nuclear Entities removed from the US Entity List

Context: The United States has announced the removal of three Indian entities from its restrictive Entity List, in a move to remove hurdles for civil nuclear partnership between Indian and American firms.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about the US-India Civil Nuclear Agreement 2008; US Entity List.

Major Highlights:

US Entity List: The US Entity List is a list of foreign individuals, businesses, and organisations that are subject to export restrictions and licensing requirements for certain goods and technologies.
- Being placed on the Entity List does not outrightly prohibit transactions but imposes stringent licensing requirements.
- Inclusion on this list indicates that the US government has reasonable grounds to believe these entities may engage in activities contrary to US national security or foreign policy interests.
The three entities removed from the US entity list are:
- Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
- Indira Gandhi Atomic Research Centre (IGCAR)
- Indian Rare Earths (IRE)
Significance: The removal of Indian entities is an attempt to facilitate implementation of the landmark India-U.S. Civil Nuclear agreement 2008.

US-India Civil Nuclear Agreement

The US-India Nuclear Deal or the US-India Civil Nuclear Agreement is a bilateral agreement signed between the US & India in 2008. It is popularly known as the 123 Agreement.
Aim: To pave the way for allowing the US to share civilian nuclear technology with India.
Benefits:
- Ends India’s nuclear isolation and technology denial regimes against India.
- Enables India to have civil nuclear cooperation as an equal partner with the US and the rest of the world.
- Allows US companies to supply nuclear fuel and dual-use nuclear technology (including materials and equipment that could be used to enrich uranium or reprocess plutonium) for India’s civilian nuclear energy program.
- Enables India to meet the twin challenges of energy security and environmental sustainability.
India agrees to allow inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Association (IAEA), the United Nations’ nuclear watchdog group, access to its civilian nuclear program.

Key Facts

India is not a signatory to the treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), which it views as discriminatory.
India has not signed the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT).
India is not a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), the main reason being its refusal to sign the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

Read More: US-India Civil Nuclear Cooperation

INS Surat, INS Nilgiri and INS Vaghsheer Commissioned

Context: Recently, three naval combatants INS Surat, INS Nilgiri, and INS Vaghsheer were commissioned into the Indian Navy at the Naval Dockyard in Mumbai.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about INS Surat, INS Nilgiri, INS Vaghsheer, Project 75.

About INS Nilgiri

INS Nilgiri is the lead ship of the Project 17A stealth frigate class.
- The Nilgiri-class stealth frigate is built under the codename Project 17A.
- It is a follow-on vessel of Shivalik class or Project 17 frigates currently in service.
INS Nilgiri is the first of seven frigates in Project 17A being built indigenously by:
- Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL)
- Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GRSE).
The multi-mission frigates are capable of dealing with both conventional and non-conventional threats.
The ships are fitted with:
- supersonic surface-to-surface missile system
- Medium Range Surface-to-Air Missiles (MRSAM) system
- 76 millimetre upgraded gun
- combination of rapid-fire close-in weapon systems.
Significance: With their versatile weapons and capabilities, these ships can play a crucial role in anti-surface, anti-air, and anti-submarine warfare.
Note: Other six ships of this class — Himgiri, Taragiri, Udaygiri, Dunagiri, and Vindhyagiri — are at various stages of construction at MDL and GRSE.

About INS Surat

INS Surat is the fourth and final stealth guided missile destroyer under Project 15B.
- INS Visakhapatnam, INS Mormugao, and INS Imphal have been commissioned over the past three years.
Key Features:
- INS Surat is a guided missile destroyer with a displacement of 7,400 tonnes and overall length of 164 metres.
- INS Surat:
  - is equipped with state-of-the-art weapons and sensors, including surface-to-air missiles, anti-ship missiles, and torpedoes.
  - is powered by a Combined Gas and Gas (COGAG) propulsion set comprising four gas turbines, it has achieved speeds exceeding 30 knots (56 km/h) during sea trials.
  - has modern sensors and communication facilities making them a key asset in network-centric warfare.
  - is Indian Navy’s first Al (artificial intelligence) enabled warship, which will utilise indigenously developed Al solutions to enhance its operational efficiency manifold.
Indigeneously built by: Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL)
Significance: The warships have high speed and manoeuvrability, greater strike capability, and longer endurance, making them key assets in naval operations (mainly offensive).
Note:
- Project 15A: The guided missile destroyers of the Kolkata class built under the project codenamed 15A — INS Kolkata, INS Kochi, and INS Chennai — have been commissioned into the Navy.
- Project 15B: To build an advanced variant of the Kolkata class, a contract for the construction of four more guided missile destroyers under the project codenamed 15B was signed in 2011.

About INS Vaghsheer

The sixth and final submarine of the Scorpene-class project or Kalvari class submarine built under Project 75.
- Vaghsheer is named after a type of sandfish found in the Indian Ocean.
Design is based on the Scorpene class submarines developed by the French defence major Naval Group, and the Spanish state-owned entity Navantia.
Key Features:
- The submarines have Diesel Electric transmission systems.
- One of the world’s most silent and versatile diesel-electric class of submarines.
- They are attack submarines or the ‘hunter-killer’ type which are designed to target and sink adversary naval vessels.
  - armed with wire-guided torpedoes, anti-ship missiles, and advanced sonar systems.
  - allows for future upgrades such as integration of Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) technology.
- Have the capability of operating in a wide range of Naval combat including:
  - anti-surface warfare and anti-submarine warfare
  - intelligence gathering and surveillance
  - underwater mining operations and naval mine laying.

Project 75

Under Project 75, six Scorpene-class submarines (Kalvari class) are being constructed indigenously (at Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited Mumbai) with Transfer of Technology from France.
The project was initiated in 1997, and five submarines are currently commissioned. Submarines under Project 75 (Kalvari-class):
- INS Kalvari: Inducted in 2017
- INS Kandheri: Inducted in 2019
- INS Karanj: Inducted in 2021
- INS Vela: Inducted 2021
- INS Vagir: Inducted 2023
- INS Vagsheer: Commissioned in Jan 2025.
Budget size: Rs 23,000 crore.

Conclusion: Addition of these three vessels was a step towards achieving the force level required for the Navy to be a formidable deterrent against any regional threats, and to bolster India’s strategic maritime influence in the Indian Ocean Region and beyond.

Anti-tank guided missile Nag Mark-2

Context: India has successfully conducted field evaluation trials of indigenously-developed third-generation anti-tank guided missile Nag Mark-2. The trials were conducted at the Pokhran field range in Rajasthan, where the missile showcased exceptional precision and reliability.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Nag Mk-2.

About Nag Mark-2 Missile

Nag Mk-2 is an indigenously made all-weather, fire-and-forget, lock-on after launch, anti-tank guided missile (ATGM).
Developed by: Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
Nag Mk-2 missile is launched from the NAMICA (Nag Missile Carrier).
- NAMICA is an anti-tank armored vehicle or tank destroyer vehicle used by the Indian Army to launch anti-tank missiles.
- NAMICA is based on SARATH BMP-II. SARATH BMP-II is an amphibious infantry combat vehicle (ICV) used by the Indian Army.
Estimated Range of Nag Mk-2 missile: 7 to 10 kilometres.
- It is a significant improvement over Nag Mark 1, which has a 4-kilometre range.

Key features:

Third-Generation Fire-and-Forget Technology: Enables precision targeting with minimal operator intervention post-launch.
Versatile Performance: Capable of neutralising modern armoured vehicles, equipped with explosive reactive armour (ERA).
High-explosive anti tank (HEAT) warhead: The missile has a tandem HEAT warhead for increased destructive power.
Platform Compatibility: Successfully integrated with Nag Missile Carrier (NAMICA), enhancing battlefield mobility and deployment flexibility.

Significance:

Underscored India's growing capabilities in anti-tank warfare and enhances Indian Army's ability to counter evolving armour threats.
Reaffirms India's commitment to achieving self-reliance in defence manufacturing.

What are Small Language Models?

Context: Small Language Models (SLMs) are a perfect artificial intelligence system for a country like India, where the scope of Artificial Intelligence (AI) adoption is immense but resources are constrained.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Basic understanding of terms like Large Language Models, Small Language Models.

What is a Language Model?

A language model is the core component of modern Natural Language Processing (NLP). It is a statistical model that is designed to analyse the pattern of human language and predict the likelihood of a sequence of words or tokens.
Large language models (LLMs) are AI systems capable of understanding and generating human language by processing vast amounts of text data (has at least one billion or more parameters). E.g., ChatGPT (by Open AI), Gemini (Google), Llama (Meta).

What is a Small Language Model (SLM)?

Small Language Models (SLMs) are compact AI systems designed for natural language processing tasks.
SLMs typically have fewer than 1 billion parameters (ranges from millions to a few billion parameters), making them more efficient in terms of computational resources and energy consumption.
SLMs are capable of performing various NLP tasks such as text generation, translation, and sentiment analysis, with potentially reduced capabilities compared to larger models.

Benefits of Small Language Model:

Ideal for specialised tasks: SLMs are cheaper to run and maintain and ideal for specific use cases. For a company that needs AI for a set of specialised tasks, a large AI model is not required.
Lesser training time: Training small models requires less time, less computation and smaller training data.
High inference speeds: SLMs have faster inference speeds (reduced latency due to fewer parameters) because of their smaller size. This is beneficial for real-time applications where quick responses are crucial. E.g., chatbots or voice assistants.
Use fewer resources: Their smaller size allows for deployment on edge devices, can run offline on smaller devices like mobile phones or embedded systems, making them valuable for applications where resources are limited or privacy is a concern.
- In India, where the scope of AI adoption is immense but resources are constrained, SLMs are perfect.

Examples of Small Language Model

Microsoft Phi (the latest Phi-3-mini has 3.8 billion parameters).
LLaMA 3 (by Meta)
Gemma (by Google)

Limitations of Small Language Model

Less capable of handling complex tasks: Smaller size of SLMs limits their ability to capture and process large amounts of contextual and nuanced information, hence, making them unsuitable for highly intricate tasks, like detailed data analysis or advanced creative writing.
Less accuracy and creativity: Their reduced scale (limited data training) restricts the richness of their outputs, leading to less imaginative or less varied responses, compared to LLMs.
Bias and reduced Performance: Since SLMs operate on fewer parameters and smaller datasets, they are more prone to bias.

What is Pink Fire Retardant used against California Wild Fire?

Context: Pink retardants are being used to contain Los Angeles and Southern California wildfires, with thousands of gallons of it being dropped using the planes.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Pink Fire Retardant.

What is the pink fire retardant?

Fire retardant is a mix of chemicals used to extinguish or slow down the spread of fires. There are different types of fire retardants but Phos-Chek (a brand of fire retardant) is the most common in the United States.
Phos-Chek is a mix of water, fertilizer, and colour. Phos-Chek commonly contains two types of salt: diammonium phosphate ([NH4]2HPO4) and ammonium polyphosphate ((NH4PO3)n).
- Salts such as ammonium polyphosphate do not evaporate easily like water and stay for longer.
- The retardant is sprayed ahead of the fire to coat vegetation and prevent oxygen from allowing it to burn.
- The reaction between the retardant and cellulose (in plants) consumes heat energy from the approaching fire and produces non-flammable carbon material.
Colour is usually added to the fire retardant to ensure that firefighters can see it against the landscape. This helps them create fire lines around the fire retardant, potentially saving lives and property.

What are the concerns?

A 2024 US found that Phos-Chek is laden with toxic metals.
- Between 2009 and 2021, more than 400 tons of heavy metals were released into the environment from fire suppression.
- These toxic metals include chromium and cadmium which can cause cancer, and kidney and liver diseases in humans.
- Further, these metals can enter waterways (growing source of pollution for rivers and streams) and can kill aquatic life.
The effectiveness of Phos-Chek also remains unclear. Aerial retardant is effective over a narrow range of conditions (dependent on slope, fuel type, terrain and weather). The windows of opportunity for these conditions are narrowing each year due to climate change.

Cause of the devastating wild fires

Southern California (the site of the fires) has been experiencing drought conditions and has not seen significant rainfall for months.
The dry conditions are aided by the Santa Ana winds (dry and hot winds common in the area) which most likely caused the wildfires.
Further, climate change has contributed to an increase in the frequency, season length and burned area of wildfires.

Read more:Santa Ana winds drive Wildfire

What are the Applications of Bacteria?

Context: The researchers at IIT-Bombay have identified two genera of bacteria, Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter, that have great potential in agriculture.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Applications of Bacteria.

Major Highlights

1. Bacteria can breakdown aromatic compounds:

Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter groups of bacteria can break harmful aromatic (or ring-shaped) compounds that enter the soil through insecticides, herbicides and industrial effluents into useful nutrients for plants.
- Aromatic compounds like naphthalene, benzoate and phthalates are used to make cosmetics, textiles, food preservatives and pesticides.
- When these compounds enter the soil, they hinder seed germination, inhibit plant growth and bioaccumulate.
In the process, the bacteria release nutrients useful to plants, such as, Phosphorus, Potassium, growth hormone indoleacetic acid etc.
Significance: Two genera of bacteria can co-exist; which can be utilised to make biofertilizer-cum-biocontrol formulations.

2. Bacterial enzymes to degrade plasticizers:

Recently, researchers from IIT Roorkee have successfully used an enzyme — esterase enzyme — produced by soil bacteria Sulfobacillus acidophilus to break down diethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) plasticizer into water and carbon-dioxide.
- Plasticizers are chemicals added to plastics and personal care products to enhance flexibility and shine, and are commonly found in items such as baby toys, shampoos, soaps, and food containers.
- Plasticizers can be absorbed through the skin and are carcinogenic in nature.

What are Bacteria?

Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms.
Bacteria inhabit the air, soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of Earth's crust.
Bacteria also live in mutualistic, commensal and parasitic relationships with plants and animals.
Several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy, tuberculosis, tetanus, bubonic plague etc.
However, many types of bacteria can also be beneficial to humans.

Beneficial use cases of Bacteria:

S. No.	Bacteria (species/class)	Uses
	Rhizobium	Form symbiotic relationships with leguminous plants and convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use, promoting soil fertility.
	Mycorrhizal	Form symbiotic relationships with plant roots, aiding in nutrient uptake, especially phosphorus.
	Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)	Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic microorganisms that can convert sunlight into chemical energy through photosynthesis.Fourth generation biofuels envisage using genetically modified organisms like algae and cyanobacteria for biofuel production.
	Lactobacillus	Fermentation of various food products, including curd, cheese. Contribute to preservation of food and development of distinct flavours and textures.When consumed as probiotics, they contribute to the maintenance of a healthy gut microbiome.
	E. Coli	Used as a host organism in genetic engineering to produce various proteins, enzymes, and other products, like insulin, growth hormones etc.
	Activated Sludge Bacteria	Anaerobic bacteria, such as Methanogens, are employed in anaerobic digestion processes. They break down organic matter in the absence of oxygen, producing biogas (methane and carbon dioxide) as a byproduct.
	Pseudomonas	Ability to break down a wide range of pollutants, including hydrocarbons and toxic chemicals. Used in bioremediation processes to clean up contaminated environments.
	Cellulolytic bacteria	Some bacteria are capable of breaking down cellulose (complex carbohydrates found in plant cell walls) which is fermented to produce bioethanol and other biofuels.
	Bacterial vectors as Gene Therapy Products	Bacteria can be modified to prevent them from causing infectious disease and then used as vectors (vehicles) to carry therapeutic genes into human tissues.