Science & Technology

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SpaDeX: Space Docking Experiment

Context: SpaDeX is the name of a new mission to be flown by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The technology will be essential for the ‘Bharatiya Antariksh Station,’ a new India-made space station ISRO has begun work on.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about SpaDeX. 

SpaDeX

  • Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) is a new indigenous space mission commissioned by Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). 
  • It is a cost-effective technology demonstrator mission for the demonstration of in-space docking using two small spacecraft launched by PSLV.
    • Space docking involves precise connection of two spacecraft, whether manned or unmanned, allowing those to operate as a single unit for critical tasks such as refuelling, repair, and crew exchange.
  • The Mission involves two spacecraft – “Target” and “Chaser” launched into orbit around the earth. There they will demonstrate technologies to dock and undock while in motion.

Objectives:

  • Primary Objective: To develop and demonstrate the technology needed for rendezvous, docking, and undocking of two small spacecraft (SDX01, which is the Chaser, and SDX02, the Target ) in a low-Earth circular orbit. 
  • Secondary objectives include:
    • Demonstration of the transfer of electric power between the docked spacecraft, which is essential for future applications such as in-space robotics,
    • Composite spacecraft control, and
    • Payload operations after undocking.

Challenges:

image 148

Significance:

  • Advancements in space docking technology: Mastering in-space docking technology is essential for complex space missions that require assembling modules in space, satellite servicing etc. Successful demonstration of the technology will make India the fourth country (after Russia, USA and China) in the world to have space docking technology.
  • Facilitation of future missions: This technology is essential for India’s space ambitions such as manned missions on Moon, sample return from the Moon, the building and operation of Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS), etc.

Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS):

  • Timeline: Planned development from 2028 to 2035.
  • Objective: Establish an indigenous space station to enable advanced research in microgravity conditions.
  • Features:
    • A modular space station with capabilities for extended human presence.
    • Facilities to conduct experiments in life sciences, material sciences, and astrophysics.
  • Strategic Importance:
    • Enhances India's capabilities in human spaceflight and long-duration missions.
    • Positions India as a key player in global space research.

K-9 Vajra Artillery gun

Context: The Defence Ministry has signed a ₹7,629-crore contract with Larsen & Toubro (L&T) for additional 100 units of K9 Vajra-T artillery guns for the Indian Army.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about K9 Vajra-T Artillery gun.

About K9 Vajra-T Artillery gun:

K-9 Vajra Artillery gun
  • K9-Vajra is a 155 mm, 52-calibre tracked self-propelled howitzer built in India. 
  • Built by: L&T with technology transferred from a South Korean defence firm (Hanwha Defense) based on its K9 Thunder.
    • They are being manufactured at the Armoured Systems Complex of L&T in Hazira, Gujarat. 
  • Each gun weighs 50 tonnes and has a firing range of 50 kilometres with high accuracy.
  • It is able to operate in sub-zero temperatures in high-altitude areas to its full potential.
    • The K9 Vajra was mainly bought for use in deserts but can be deployed in mountains and plains as well. 

Note: The Army has already inducted 100 units of 155mm/52 calibre K9 Vajra-T guns (the contract for which was signed between India & South Korea in May 2017).

Significance: 

  • It will catalyse the artillery modernisation and enhance the overall operational readiness of the Indian Army.
  • It augments India’s long-range fire power in the Northern borders, enabling deeper strike with precision.
    • The induction of Dhanush, K-9 Vajra and M777 Ultra Light Howitzers has enhanced the reach of artillery firepower on the northern borders.
    • At the height of tensions in eastern Ladakh in 2020, Indian Army deployed one regiment of K-9 Vajra howitzer in Ladakh.  
  • The project will generate employment of more than nine lakh man-days and encourage active participation of various Indian industries including MSMEs.

AIIMS devises new Breast Cancer Detection Tool

Context: The All India Institute of Medical Science (AIIMS) in New Delhi has recently unveiled an AI-based solution to assist in the early detection of Breast Cancer. 

Relevance of The Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Breast Cancer; New AI Cancer Detection Tool

What is Breast Cancer?

  • Breast cancer results from abnormal growth in breast cells which form tumours.
    • Breast cancer cells begin inside the milk ducts and/or the milk-producing lobules of the breast. The cells can spread into nearby breast tissue and create tumours. 
    • The earliest form (in situ) is not life-threatening if detected in early stages. 
    • In later cases, invasive cancers can spread to nearby lymph nodes or other organs (metastasize). Metastasis can be life-threatening and fatal.
  • Females at highest risk: Approximately 99% of breast cancers occur in women and 0.5–1% of breast cancers occur in men.
  • Treatment: Chemotherapy, radiation therapy, surgical removal of breasts etc.
  • Prevalence in India: Breast Cancer is the most common cancer in women in India. India ranks highest in the number of estimated breast cancer deaths (98,337) for the year 2022 among females.  
factors increasing & decreasing

Risk Factors: 

Certain factors increase the risk of breast cancer, they include-

  • Increasing age (females over 40 years). 
  • Lifestyle factors: Obesity, harmful use of alcohol, tobacco use, history of radiation exposure etc.
  • Genetic factors: The risks of developing breast cancer are markedly increased in people who inherit mutated BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes. 
    • BRCA1 or BRCA2 are tumour suppressor genes present in both males and females. They produce proteins that repair DNA and are responsible for the stability of genetic material. 
    • Mutations in these genes increase the chances of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer and pancreatic cancer. 
BRCA genetic mutation

About New AI Cancer Detection Tool:

  • The All India Institute Of Medical Science (AIIMS) in New Delhi has recently unveiled an AI-based solution that assists with the early detection of Breast Cancer. 
  • Aim: Improving early breast cancer detection and reducing mortality by identifying breast cancer patterns specific to Indian women. 
  • The project is part of the Indian government’s flagship scheme to establish three Centres of Excellence (CoE) in AI, focusing on healthcare, agriculture, and sustainable cities.

How will the AI model work?

  • The AI model will first scan a five-year database of women tested for breast cancer at some medical institutions (presently pilot study- AIIMS Delhi, NCI Jhajjar and PGI Chandigarh) regardless if they were tested negative or had developed cancer. 
  • For identifying Indian risk factors for breast cancer, ASHA workers will collect data (after detailed conversations with families about their personal health status and family history of diseases) which will be fed into the AI tool. 
  • After analysing the data, the AI tool will predict the risk of developing breast cancer by combining a patient’s general test results with their lifestyle and family history data.
    • It will extract common risk factors and then recommend mammograms (specialised X-rays to check for signs of breast cancer) for women it thinks are cancer-prone. 
    • It will also help codify what constitutes a no-risk category.

Benefits of AI Cancer detection Tool:

  • Facilitate early screening: AI-trained systems can recognise complex features in mammograms that indicate cancer, thus picking up even the smallest signs. 
  • Data-profiling based on risk factors: AI can interpret the data pool and identify which women may need mammograms while reassuring others with low-risk profiles. 
  • Reduce cost: The AI-trained systems would not require a radiologist, help reduce the amount of manual work involved in screening which can lower costs.
  • Facilitate cancer detection in remote areas: The tool can provide advanced breast cancer screening, even in remote areas where there is a shortage of trained radiologists.

Presently, a pilot project has been initiated. If the AI tool is found to be effective, then an economic assessment will be conducted on the cost required to scale this up pan-India and take it up for licensing. 

Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

Context: Recently, renowned musician Ustad Zakir Hussain passed away following complications with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis. 

What is Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis?

  • It is a chronic, progressive lung disease characterised by scarring (fibrosis) of the lung tissue, leading to irreversible loss of lung function. The exact cause of IPF is unknown, so it is termed idiopathic.
  • In case of a healthy lung, the oxygen easily passes through the walls of the air sacs (alveoli) and goes into the capillaries, and eventually the bloodstream. In IPF, the fibrosis thickens and stiffens the lungs, reducing their ability to expand and take in oxygen.
    • IPF specifically targets the interstitium (the tissue surrounding the air sacs). As a result, the alveoli walls get thicker, which makes it difficult for the oxygen to move into the bloodstream.
    • Over time, this leads to persistent breathlessness, fatigue, and reduced quality of life.  
  • Symptoms: Shortness of breath, prolonged dry cough, pain in joints and muscles, fatigue and weight loss. 
alveoli in pylmonary
gas excgange with alveoli

What are the risk factors for IPF?

The exact cause of IPF is unknown, however, there are several factors that come into the play when considering the risk an individual is under to get IPF:

  • Age: Older people (over age 50, generally 60-70) are at a higher risk of developing idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.
  • Lifestyle: Smoking habit, prolonged exposure to dust, wood, or metal particles may increase the risk. 
  • Gender: More common in men than women.
  • Family history and genes: The genes a person inherits might make it more likely for them to develop IPF, especially if the genes carry mutations. E.g., mutation in gene MUC5B (which makes a mucus protein that helps clear harmful substances, like bacteria, from the lungs) increases the risk of IPF.

Treatment for IPF:

  • There is no cure for IPF, at present. However, medicines and other treatments (oxygen therapy and ventilator support) might help slow down the lung damage. 
  • Lung transplant might be an option, however, it can cause major complications, such as infection or rejection of the new organ by the body. 

What are Black Holes? 

Context: Black holes are some of the most fascinating objects in space. Recent research has suggested a new way to measure the properties of black holes (mass, spin) by analysing the echoes of light produced when light interacts with Black Holes. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Black Holes; Terms related to Black Holes; General Theory of Relativity.  

Major Highlights:

  • Gravitational lensing: When light passes near a black hole, it bends due to the immense gravitational pull of the black hole. This phenomenon is called gravitational lensing. 
  • Creation of light echoes: Gravitational lensing can create light echoes.
    • Light passing around a black hole can take different paths: Some beams of the light may take a direct route to the viewer, while others may pass around the black hole a few times, before getting back on its original path. 
    • This causes the light emitted from a distant object to reach Earth at different intervals. This phenomenon is called a light echo (the beam to arrive second will be an echo of the beam that arrived first).
  • Long-baseline interferometry: Scientists theorised that they can use light echoes to measure masses and spins of black holes. The study proposes the use of a technique called long-baseline interferometry (which aims to detect the interference pattern between the light beams arriving at different times) to study characteristics of black holes. 
  • Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity has also predicted the phenomenon of light echoes.

Black Holes

Black holes are the regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light and other electromagnetic waves, has enough energy to escape. The boundary of no escape is called the event horizon. 

  • Formation: A black hole forms when a massive star (at least three times the mass of our Sun), exhausts its fuel, explodes in a supernova, and collapses under gravity into an incredibly dense core called a singularity.

Types of Black Holes:

  • Stellar Black Holes: 
    • Formed by the collapse of a single massive star at the end of its life cycle. 
    • Mass typically ranges between 3 to 100 times mass of the Sun. 
  • Intermediate Black Holes:
    • Formed through merger of stellar black holes or collapse of massive star clusters.
    • Mass between 100 and 1,00,000 times that of the Sun.
  • Supermassive Black Holes:
    • Found at the centres of most galaxies, including our Milky Way. Their origin is not exactly understood, but may involve accretion of matter, merger or collapse of massive gas clouds. 
    • Masses range from millions to billions of times the sun’s mass.
inside a black hole

Are Black Holes Observable?

  • Black holes are not directly observable with telescopes that detect X-rays, light, or other forms of electromagnetic radiation. 
  • However, their presence can be inferred through their effects on surrounding matter, and the gravitational waves they produce. E.g.,
    • Emission of X-rays and powerful Gamma rays: If a black hole passes through a cloud of interstellar matter or if a star passes close to a black hole, it will draw matter inward in a process known as accretion. As the attracted matter accelerates and heats up, it emits X-rays and powerful gamma ray bursts that radiate into space. This reflects the presence of black holes.
    • Gravitational waves: Merger of two blackholes produces powerful gravitational waves. The detection of these gravitational waves (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory, LIGO) can confirm the existence/ location of the black holes. 

Common Terms related to Black Holes: 

1. Supernova: 

  • Supernovae are incredibly powerful explosions that occur when a massive supergiant star reaches the end of its life (exhausts its fuel). 
  • These explosions release an astonishing amount of energy, up to 10^44 joules.

2. Singularity: 

  • The centre of a black hole is a gravitational singularity, a point where the general theory of relativity breaks down, i.e. where its predictions do not apply. 
  • A black hole’s great gravitational pull emerges as if from the singularity.

3. Event Horizon (a point of no return): 

  • The event horizon is like a boundary around a black hole (around the singularity). Once anything (matter, energy, light) crosses this boundary, it can not escape unless it travels faster than the speed of light (which is impossible). 
  • This means nothing, not even light, can escape the black hole's strong gravity because the speed needed to escape at the event horizon should be greater than the speed of light.
black hole regions

4. Ergosphere: 

  • The Ergosphere is a bigger sphere, outside the event horizon of a black hole, where matter can enter and then return (escape the black hole's gravitational pull), if they are moving with speeds very close to the speed of light.
  • Rotating (Kerr) black holes have an ergosphere. In the Ergosphere, spacetime is dragged along with the rotation of the black hole. 
  • Ergosphere derives its name from the fact that energy can be extracted from the black hole via the Penrose process.
    • Researchers have proposed the concept of directing objects into the ergosphere of a black hole, allowing it to accelerate there along the black hole’s direction of rotation, resulting in an increased velocity upon exiting. 

5. Accretion Disc: 

  • An accretion disc is a flat, rotating structure of matter (such as gas, dust, or other material) that forms around a black hole. 
  • The material in the accretion disc spirals inward due to gravitational attraction of the black hole. 
  • As it spirals inward, the material often heats up due to friction and gravitational forces, emitting various forms of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, X-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. 
Accretion Disc

6. Spaghettification: 

  • Spaghettification refers to the effect of extreme gravitational pressure on any particle or body of matter, in particular, when exposed to the extreme forces of the black hole. 
  • When a particle draws too close to the event horizon, it is stretched into long thin shapes. E.g., If an astronaut falls into the event horizon, as the gravity is inversely proportional to distance, the pull on the falling astronaut’s legs will be substantially greater than the pull on his or her upper torso. Subsequently, stretching him like spaghetti (pasta). 
Spaghettification

General Theory of Relativity (GTR): 

  • GTR is a fundamental theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915.
  • According to the theory:
    • Massive objects cause a curvature in space-time structure, which causes other objects to move along a curved path. 
    • Speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames. (Speed of light remains the same for all observers, regardless of their position or motion within a gravitational field)
  • GTR predicted the existence of gravitational waves, black holes, time dilation, gravitational lensing (light is deflected by objects with very strong gravity), and expansion of the Universe. 

Key Predictions of GTR:

1. Gravitational Waves: 

  • They are the ripples in space-time caused by accelerating massive objects (similar to ripples in a water pond). 
  • The curvature of spacetime is directly proportional to the mass of the object causing the curvature, i.e., the greater the mass, the greater the curvature of spacetime it causes. 
  • The waves travel at the speed of light and squeeze and stretch anything in their path.  
  • Gravitational waves are difficult to detect because gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental forces. The waves were finally detected in 2015 by LIGO - Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory. 
image 88

2. Black Holes:

  • Regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that not even light can escape. Black holes have been observationally confirmed. 

3. Time Dilation: 

  • Time dilation refers to the idea that time is relative and runs/passes at different rates for different observers, depending on their relative motion or their positions in a gravitational field.
  • Closer an object's velocity is to the speed of light, the more pronounced the time dilation effect becomes.
  • GTR predicts that time runs slower in stronger gravitational fields. This has been experimentally verified using high-precision atomic clocks, observations of Quasars etc.

James Webb Telescope spots Firefly Sparkle Galaxy

Context: NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has spotted a distant galaxy which can give insights on how the Milky Way might have looked like in its early stage of evolution. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: James Webb Space Telescope

Major Highlights:

  • The James Webb Space Telescope has observed the evolutionary stage of the distant galaxy Firefly Sparkle located ~13 billion light years away from Earth.
    • The light which is received by JWST took light 13 billion years to travel from the galaxy to the telescope. So, as we observe the light from Firefly Sparkle today, it is an infant galaxy formed in the immediate aftermath of the Big Bang.
    • Big Bang (the cosmic event that initiated the cosmos) occurred approximately 13.8 billion years ago.
  • The galaxy (which as per the observations is still in the process of assembling) can give a direct look at what galaxies like our Milky Way might have looked like in their infancy.

Note: 

  • The Milky Way (our galaxy) began forming very early in the universe’s history, likely around the same time as Firefly Sparkle. 

About James Webb Space Telescope:

  • JWST is the world’s most advanced telescope launched in 2021, designed to conduct infrared astronomy. 
  • It is the largest infrared telescope ever built (6.5 metre primary mirror). It detects near-infrared and mid-infrared wavelengths to observe faint and distant objects.
  • Location: It is orbiting the Sun at the L2 Lagrange point (1.5 million km from Earth)
  • It is equipped with high-resolution and high-sensitivity instruments, enabling investigations such as:
    • observation of the first stars and the formation of the first galaxies (almost to the beginning of the universe
    • detailed atmospheric characterisation of potentially habitable exoplanets. 
  • JWST can see further than Hubble Telescope and is considered as its successor. 
  • It is a collaboration between: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA) and Canadian Space Agency.
About James Webb Space Telescope

India’s Quantum Future 

Context: The United Nations has designated 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology. India has launched a National Quantum Mission to develop technologies for the future, however, it has to overcome a significantly large gap between its capabilities and those of the United States and China.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Basics of Quantum Computing; National Quantum Mission

Mains: Applications of Quantum Technology; Challenges in India’s Quantum Approach.

Basics of Quantum Computing:

  • Quantum technology leverages the principles of quantum mechanics to develop advanced systems that harness the unique properties of quantum particles/qubits. 
  • Quantum computers run on the laws of quantum physics as opposed to the classical computers (i.e., phones and laptops), which run on classical physics like Newton’s laws of motion and utilising the flow of electricity.
  • Quantum computers are based on Qubits, as compared to  classical computers which are based on Bits (transistors).
    • Qubits can stay in three states (1,0 and intermediate undefined stage) while traditional bits are based on two states (0,1). This allows Quantum computers to solve complex problems which traditional computers have failed. 
    • Classical computers use familiar silicon-based chips, whereas qubits can be made from trapped ions, photons, artificial or real atoms, or quasiparticles.
Quantum Computing

Quantum Mechanical Properties: 

  • Quantum computing harnesses the laws of quantum mechanics, such as entanglement and superposition, to perform computation or solve problems. 

1. Quantum Superposition:

  • Superposition is a phenomenon in quantum computing that allows quantum objects to simultaneously exist in more than one state or location. This means that an object can be in two states at one time while remaining a single object. 
  • Superposition enables the qubits of the quantum computer to perform multiple operations simultaneously, making them faster than conventional computers.
bits vs QBITS

2. Quantum Entanglement:

  • When two or more particles become entangled, the state of one particle becomes linked with the state of the other(s), regardless of the distance between them. Changes to the state of one particle instantaneously affect the state of the other. 
  • Quantum entanglement is a crucial element in quantum computing algorithms. Entangled qubits in a quantum computer can be manipulated collectively, allowing for the parallel processing of information in a way that classical bits cannot achieve.

​​ The Challenge

  • Qubits are very fragile and susceptible to decoherence (slight disturbances in the surroundings may result in a change of the quantum state of the particle and can result in a change of the information). Thus, maintaining quantum coherence is difficult.
    • Decoherence can be caused by various factors, such as noise, heat, and measurement. It causes qubits to collapse into one of the two states and lose quantum information. 
  • Quantum coherence could only be achieved at extremely low temperatures, around -196°C (liquid nitrogen temperature). This makes building practical quantum computers challenging. 

Quantum Supremacy

  • When a quantum computer outperforms a classical supercomputer on a well-defined computer science problem, this achievement is known as quantum supremacy. E.g., Google’s quantum computer, named Sycamore, claimed ‘supremacy’ because it reportedly did the task in 200 seconds that would have apparently taken a supercomputer 10,000 years to complete.
  • Superposition allows qubits to carry more information: Because of quantum superposition, a quantum computer can mimic several classical computers working in parallel. This capacity of doing several computations in parallel gives quantum computers an advantage over classical computers, allowing them to perform a disproportionately greater number of operations. 

Applications of Quantum Technology

  • Quantum computers: Quantum computers can solve complex mathematical problems exponentially faster than classical computers, particularly used for cryptography, optimization, and quantum simulation. 
  • Quantum cryptography and communication:
    • Quantum key distribution ensures theoretically unbreakable encryption, making communications secure against any computational attack.
    • Quantum internet: A network leveraging quantum entanglement could enable ultra-secure data transmission and quantum internet development.
  • Quantum sensing: Quantum sensors can measure physical quantities, like magnetic fields, gravity, time and biological processes with unprecedented precision. This presents advancements in navigation, geological exploration, medical diagnostics, brain-computer interfaces, and neuroimaging.
  • Quantum simulators: Quantum simulators can accurately model behaviour of complex systems like climate models, financial markets, molecular interactions at quantum level. This can be used to accelerate drug development and designing novel-materials with specific properties. 

Thus, quantum technology can revolutionise various sectors like health, meteorology, telecommunications, environment, logistics & finance etc. 

National Quantum Mission: 

  • India formally joined the race to quantum computing by establishing the National Mission for Quantum Technology and Applications in 2020. 
  • The mission is approved with a budget of Rs 6003 crore (for 5 years), with defined milestones to be achieved in eight years (2023-24 to 2030-31). 
  • The mission aims to develop: 
    • Intermediate-scale quantum computers with 50-1000 physical qubits in 8 years. 
    • Satellite-based secure quantum communications between ground stations over 2000 kilometres range within India. Long-distance secure quantum communications with other countries. 
    • Inter-city quantum key distribution over 2000 km range.
    • Multi-node quantum network with quantum memories.
  • Other Targets:
    • Help develop magnetometers with high sensitivity in atomic systems, and atomic clocks for precision timing, communications and navigation.
    • Support the design and synthesis of quantum materials such as superconductors, novel semiconductor structures and topological materials for the fabrication of quantum devices. 
  • Four Thematic Hubs (T-Hubs) would be set up in top academic and National R&D institutes on the domains of ‘quantum computing’, ‘quantum communication’, ‘quantum sensing and metrology’ and ‘quantum materials and devices’. 
image 73

Key gaps in India’s approach in Quantum Computing:

  • Policy gaps: India has loosely built a quantum ecosystem where metrics to assess outcomes of its quantum efforts are not clearly defined. Merely achieving quantum supremacy will not necessarily safeguard India’s national interests.
  • Fund constraints: Indian quantum computing startups struggle with funds for product development and scaling due to low venture capital investment.
    • India’s Rs 6,000 crore translates to about USD 0.75 billion over five years. 
    • This is very less compared to China (USD 15 billion), United Kingdom (USD 4.3 billion), the United States (USD 3.75 billion), Germany (USD 3.3 billion) etc. 
  • R&D in silos: India lacks a common platform for quantum research and development. At present research is carried out in silos, and lacks industry connect. 
  • Fewer Patents: India is far behind the United States and China in terms of patents obtained in quantum technologies till now, and in publications in top journals.
  • Insufficient talent pool: India has a small pool of researchers, industry professionals and entrepreneurs as compared to China or the US.
  • Poor-infrastructure: India lacks in hardware manufacturing and still imports critical quantum components. India lacks sufficient superconducting materials, semiconductor chips, processors, and fabrication labs.

Way Forward: 

  • Rework Indian technology policy objectives, frameworks, and deliverables to move from importer of quantum technology to exporter.
  • Developing knowledge ecosystem by inculcating entrepreneurship, innovation, university courses, training programmes in quantum technology.
  • Develop metrics to assess success of strategy and short & long-term action plan.
  • Periodic feedback system to map progress of Quantum-Enabled Science and Technology initiatives.
  • Boost to the investor ecosystem to amplify production of hardware components of quantum computers plus simultaneous push to the semiconductor industry.

India needs to address policy-level and implementation gaps timely to benefit from quantum technologies and emerge as global leaders in the quantum technology space.

Seasonal Outbreak of Influenza

Context: Every year, seasonal illnesses keep doctors and public health authorities busy. The outbreak of respiratory illnesses in children and adults caused by Influenza A ((H1N1), (H3N2), and Influenza B viruses, becomes more pronounced in winter in India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: - Influenza; Types of Influenza Viruses

What is Influenza?

  • Influenza (flu) is a highly-contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses that impacts the nose, throat and lungs. 
  • Symptoms: Seasonal influenza is characterised by a sudden onset of fever, cough (usually dry), headache, muscle and joint pain, severe malaise (feeling unwell), sore throat and a runny nose.
  • Risks: 
    • Most people recover from fever and other symptoms within a week without requiring medical attention. 
    • But influenza can cause severe illness or deaths, especially in people at high risk. They include- young children and people with co-morbidities like asthma, diabetes, heart disease, weakened immune systems and neurological or neurodevelopmental conditions. 
image 67

Types of Influenza Viruses:

Influenza viruses are of four different types: A, B, C and D. 

  • Type A: 
    • Influenza A is associated with severe respiratory illness and deaths in humans. Only influenza type A viruses are known to have caused pandemics. 
    • They are further classified into subtypes according to the combinations of the proteins on the surface of the virus. E.g., 
      • H3N2 (HongKong Flu) and H1N1 (Swine Flu) viruses are subtypes of Influenza A virus. 
      • H5N1 (Avian influenza/ Bird Flu) is also a subtype of the Influenza A virus that primarily infects birds but can also infect humans and other mammals.
  • Type B:
    • Influenza B almost exclusively infects humans, and is less common than influenza A.
  • Type C:
    • Detected less frequently and usually causes mild infections, thus does not present public health importance. 
  • Type D:
    • Primarily affects cattle and are not known to infect or cause illness in people.

Influenza viruses are constantly evolving, the factors include: 

  • High population density, poor hygiene practices, weather conducive to the survival and spread of the virus increase the risk of flu transmission.
  • Indiscriminate antimicrobial use due to the absence of definitive diagnosis and influenza symptoms coinciding with other acute respiratory infections.
  • Low Vaccination rates as strategies for influenza prevention and control have not been prioritised by the Indian Medical Association. Influenza vaccine is not included into the government’s Universal Immunisation Programme. 
  • Due to climate change, seasonal epidemics of influenza may shift spatially and temporally, with rising temperatures and abnormal rainfall patterns being contributing factors.

Way Forward: 

  • Adult immunisation programmes in India must be leveraged for making Influeza vaccines available in the country. E.g., National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) has recommended the prudent use of the Southern Hemisphere’s 2024 quadrivalent influenza vaccine.
  • Expansion of the Universal Immunisation Programme to include influenza vaccines can reduce community transmission, unnecessary antimicrobial prescriptions and superimposed bacterial infections that can complicate influenza. 

What is Disease X?

Context: Disease X represents an unpredictable, novel threat that requires rapid global response and adaptation. This becomes significant due to increased interconnectedness of our world (with frequent international travel and trade), making it easier for localised outbreaks to escalate into pandemics, as seen with COVID-19.

Disease X?

  • Disease X is not a specific disease but is the name given to a potential novel infectious agent. It represents an illness which is currently unknown but could pose a serious microbial threat to humans in the future. 
  • In 2018, the World Health Organisation (WHO) added Disease X to the ‘list of pathogens’ to prioritise preparation on the emerging diseases that do not yet have vaccines or drug treatments, and could give rise to a severe epidemic. 
  • It could originate from Pathogen X, which could be a virus, a bacterium, a parasite, fungi, helminths, or even a prion (a misfolded protein capable of causing severe neurological diseases). 
image 66

WHO’s priority list of Pathogens:

  • The list of pathogens is a strategic tool published by WHO in 2018 to focus global attention and resources on the most serious infectious disease threats. 
  • This list identifies diseases that have:
    • High mortality rates
    • Epidemic or pandemic potential
    • Lack of adequate preventive (vaccine) or therapeutic options.
  • The current list (not exhaustive ) includes: Ebola virus disease, Marburg virus disease, Lassa fever, Nipah virus, Rift Valley fever, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, Zika virus, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Disease X. 

Significance: It helps policymakers, researchers, and health organisations prioritise efforts toward controlling the diseases (to guide research and development, allocate funding, and enhance preparedness).

Risk Factors for Disease X:

  • Zoonotic Spillover: Increased risk of zoonotic spillover due to human encroachment on wildlife habitats, deforestation, and the intensification of agriculture.
    • Since 1940, researchers have identified more than 300 emerging infectious diseases, about 70% of which have zoonotic origins (transmitted from animals to humans). 
  • Increasing Antimicrobial Resistance: Resistance acquired by any microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasite) against antimicrobial drugs or treatments to which they were previously susceptible.
    • Incomplete doses of medication, self-medication, inappropriate disposal of unused or expired medication in the environment.
    • Using antibiotics in farm animals, herbicides may enrich AMR genes (ARGs) and Mobile genetic elements (MGEs) by altering soil microbiomes.
    • Biofilms on microplastics and untreated solid and liquid waste can act as a reservoir of AMR microbes.
  • Risk of Bioterrorism and Accidental lab leaks. Beyond the WHO’s guidelines, there is no universal law, regulation or international oversight mandating even basic requirements, such as external independent inspections of biosafety laboratories (which host a range of pathogens). 
  • Climate Change:
    • Climate change is expanding the burden of infectious diseases (transmitted by insect vectors and through contaminated water). It is also pushing pathogens to adapt to new hosts and environments.
    • With global warming there is a risk of thawing permafrost which harbours viruses up to a million years old (older than the human species).

Way Forward:

  • Need for robust surveillance systems to detect new outbreaks early and global alliance for developing its treatment. E.g., Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) has set a target of 100 days to develop, test and produce a new vaccine against pathogen X (COVID-19 vaccine took 326 days).
  • Investing in Research and Innovation: Utilising advances in genomic sequencing, artificial intelligence, and real-time data sharing as essential tools for developing diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines. 
  • Strengthening healthcare infrastructure particularly in low- and middle-income countries.
  • Global Collaboration: Frameworks like the Nagoya Protocol (which ensure equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources) could be expanded to include biological materials like pathogens. It would promote global collaboration, ensuring fair access to research and medical countermeasures during outbreaks. 

Conclusion: While epidemiology cannot predict the exact moment or source of Disease X, it can help identify high-risk regions and behaviours. Governments must work together to share data, pool resources, and ensure equitable access to diagnostics, treatments, and vaccines.

Climate Footprint of Space Exploration

Context: The world is increasing its reliance on space technology for vital functions like climate monitoring. However, it gives rise to the concerns about satellite interference and the accumulation of orbital debris.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains - Environmental consequences of space activities and what are the barriers in achieving space sustainability.

Key Environmental Consequences of Space Activities:

Climate Footprint of Space Exploration
  • Exacerbating Global Warming: 
    • Every rocket launch releases carbon dioxide, black carbon, and water vapour into the atmosphere. Black carbon absorbs sunlight 500-times more effectively than carbon dioxide. 
    • Satellites also use propulsion systems to adjust their location and orientation in orbit, and their emissions amplify global warming. As commercial space ventures become more common, the cumulative impact of these emissions will worsen.
  • Depletion of Ozone: 
    • Rocket propellants (especially those using chlorine-based chemicals) deplete the ozone layer at high altitudes.
    • This increases the exposure to ultraviolet radiation on the ground as well as disrupts atmospheric circulation, both of which affect the global climate.
  • Metallic Ash:
    • When satellites burn up in the atmosphere at the end of their missions, they release "satellite ash" into the middle layers of Earth's atmosphere. This metallic ash can harm the atmosphere and potentially alter the climate.
  • Energy Intensive Processes:
    • The production of satellites demands energy-intensive processes involving metals and composite materials, whose extraction and preparation have large carbon footprints. 
    • The rise of extracting valuable (on the earth) minerals from asteroids could lead to increased industrial activity both in space and on the ground. 
  • Dangers of Orbital Debris: 
    • As of September 2024, over 19,590 satellites have been launched, with 13,230 still in orbit of which 10,200 are functional. Non-functional objects in Earth's orbit contribute to pollution and can disrupt scientific research by interfering with data collection and radio waves.
  • These risks significantly impact mission costs and pose severe threats to human-crewed missions (such as the International Space Station).

Barriers to Space Sustainability:

  • No specific international regulations: Space activities currently fall outside international sustainability instruments like the Paris Agreement. Without clear guidelines, the unchecked growth of emissions and debris will harm Earth's climate and increase barriers to future space exploration.
  • Lack of regulation for Space Debris: Currently, there are no international space laws pertaining to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) debris. 
  • Lack of binding provisions: The principles of the Outer Space Treaty lack binding provisions to regulate countries' exploration and use of outer space (including the Moon and other celestial bodies), thus limiting its effectiveness.

Way Forward: 

  • Establish Enforceable Standards:
    • The UN Office for Outer Space Affairs should set standards for governing activities in outer space.
    • Governments should set domestic standards for emissions from rockets and satellites.
    • International cooperation through bodies like the Committee on the Peaceful Use of Outer Space (COPUOS) is necessary to create enforceable standards for emissions and debris management.
  • Reusable Rockets: Such as developed by SpaceX and Blue Origin reduce manufacturing waste and lower costs by allowing engineers to reuse rocket components in multiple missions.
  • But the reusable parts are often heavier, which increases fuel consumption. These also have limited applicability for high-orbit missions, requiring costly refurbishments.
  • Cleaner fuels: Such as liquid hydrogen or biofuels can minimise harmful emissions during lift-offs.
  • However, hydrogen is currently produced using non-renewable energy, which negates its environmental benefits.
  • Designing satellites with Biodegradable materials: That naturally disintegrate during re-entry can prevent long-term debris accumulation. 
  • These materials currently lack the durability required for the extreme conditions of space. High development costs and limited adoption further slow progress.
  • Autonomous Debris Removal (ADR) technologies: Such as robotic arms and laser systems also offer hope for cleaning up orbital debris.
  • They are currently expensive as well as need more legal clarity before they can begin to operate safely.
  • Global Traffic System: To monitor satellites and debris in real time could reduce collisions and optimise orbit use.
  • Resistance to data sharing, including due to security and commercial concerns, and the lack of a unified international authority hinder its development.

Policy and technical measures on a global scale are necessary to ensure that space is a safe, sustainable, and accessible domain for all. 

Gene Therapy for Haemophilia

Context: The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) along with the Centre for Stem Cell Research (CSCR) at Christian Medical College (CMC), Vellore, Tamil Nadu has successfully executed a first-in-human gene therapy using lentiviral vectors to treat Haemophilia-A. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Haemophilia; Gene Therapy Products; National Guidelines For Gene Therapy

Mains: Gene Therapy: Mechanism; Applications, Challenges 

What is Haemophilia? 

  • Haemophilia is a rare genetic severe bleeding disorder caused by the deficiency of clotting Factor VIII, leading to spontaneous internal and external bleeding episodes.
    • People with Haemophilia have lower levels of clotting factors (proteins in blood that help it clot). This can lead to excessive bleeding, even after a minor injury.
  • It is an X-chromosome linked recessive disorder, which means that it is more common in males than in females. Females can carry the haemophilia gene, but they usually do not have symptoms unless they have two copies of the gene, one from each parent. 
  • India bears the world’s second-largest burden of Haemophilia.
    • It is a lifelong condition with no permanent cure. 
    • Current treatments involve frequent Factor VIII replacement therapy (to replace the deficient clotting factor through infusions). 
image 58

What is Gene Therapy?

  • Gene therapy is a technique that seeks to modify or manipulate the expression of a gene or to alter the biological properties of living cells for therapeutic use (treat or cure disease). 
  • Gene therapies can work by several mechanisms:
    • Inactivating a disease-causing gene that is not functioning properly.
    • Replacing a disease-causing gene with a healthy copy of the gene. 
    • Introducing a new or modified gene into the body to help treat a disease.

Modes of Gene Therapy:

  • Germline Gene Therapy:
    • This involves modifying genes in reproductive cells (sperm or egg), which means the changes would be passed onto future generations.
    • Gene editing of embryonic cells is banned across the world (and in India by ICMR Guidelines 2019)
  • Somatic Gene Therapy:
    • This involves modifying genes in any cell other than a reproductive cell. Changes made through somatic gene therapy affect only the treated individual and are not inherited by their offspring. This is the primary focus of current gene therapy research due to its safety and ethical considerations.
modes of gene therapy

Gene Therapy Products:

  • Gene Therapy Products (GTP) are biological substances designed to introduce genetic material into a patient's cells to treat or prevent a disease.

Key Components of GTP:

  • Therapeutic Gene: This is the specific genetic material intended to treat the disease.
  • Vector: A carrier that delivers the therapeutic gene into the target cells. This can be a virus (viral vector) or a synthetic carrier (non-viral vector).   
  • Other Components: Depending on the specific product, additional components may be included, such as promoters, enhancers, or markers to optimise gene expression.

Types of Gene Therapy Products: 

  • Plasmid DNA: Circular DNA molecules can be genetically engineered to carry therapeutic genes into human cells.
  • Viral vectors:
    • Viruses have a natural ability to deliver genetic material into cells, and therefore some gene therapy products are derived from viruses. 
    • Once viruses have been modified to remove their ability to cause infectious disease, these modified viruses can be used as vectors/vehicles to carry therapeutic genes into human cells.
  • Bacterial vectors: Bacteria can be modified to prevent them from causing infectious disease and then used as vectors (vehicles) to carry therapeutic genes into human tissues.
  • Patient-derived cellular gene therapy products: Cells are removed from the patient, genetically modified (often using a viral vector) and then returned to the patient. 
gene therapy

Applications of Gene Therapy:

  • Cardiovascular Diseases: Gene therapy is being explored to treat conditions like heart failure, coronary artery disease, and arrhythmias.
  • Cancer: This is a major focus area for gene therapy, with various approaches being investigated, including CAR T-cell therapy, tumour suppressor gene therapy, and oncolytic viruses.
  • Genetic Disorders: Gene therapy holds great promise for treating genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy by correcting the underlying genetic defect.
  • Neurological Disorders: Conditions like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and spinal cord injuries are being targeted with gene therapy to restore neuronal function.
  • Infectious Diseases: Gene therapy is being explored as a potential treatment for HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases by enhancing the immune response.

 Challenges involved in Gene Therapy:

  • Delivery of genes: Effectively getting the genetic material to the target cells can be difficult.   
  • Immune response: The body might reject the introduced genetic material.
  • Long-term effects: The long-term consequences of gene therapy are still being studied.
  • Ethical Concerns: Germline Gene Therapy raises significant ethical concerns (designer babies, unintended consequences on future generations) and is currently banned in many countries.

 National Guidelines For Gene Therapy: 

  • The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) released National Guidelines for Gene Therapy Product Development and Clinical Trials in 2019. The guidelines are a crucial framework for the advancement of gene therapy in India. 
  • Purpose: To ensure the ethical, scientific, and safe conduct of gene therapy clinical trials and promote the development of gene therapies for treating genetic and rare diseases.
  • Scope: Covers all aspects of gene therapy product development, from preclinical testing to clinical trials and post-market surveillance.
  • Ethical Emphasis: Strong focus on patient safety, informed consent, and ethical considerations.
  • GTAEC: Establishes the Gene Therapy Advisory and Evaluation Committee (GTAEC) to oversee gene therapy activities.
  • Focus on Rare Diseases: Aims to address the unmet needs of patients with rare genetic disorders. 

Mechanism used in the latest Gene Therapy to treat Haemophilia:

  • The gene therapy approach uses a lentiviral vector to introduce a normal copy of the Factor VIII gene into autologous haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs).
    • Lentiviral vectors are a type of viral vector that can be used to transfer genetic material into cells for gene therapy.
  • These modified HSCs generate blood cells capable of producing functional Factor VIII over extended periods, thus terminating the need for repeated infusions. 

INS Tushil

Context: Stealth guided missile frigate INS Tushil was commissioned into the Indian Navy at Kaliningrad, Russia. 

RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC Prelims: Key facts about INS Tushil.

Background:

INS Tushil
  • In October 2016, India and Russia signed a deal for four stealth frigates, two to be built in Russia and two to be constructed at Goa Shipyard Limited under technology transfer. 
  • INS Tushil is the first of the two ships to be constructed in Russia. 
  • The second frigate Tamal is expected to be delivered to the Indian Navy in Russia in the first quarter of 2025. 

Key Facts about INS Tushil: 

  • INS Tushil is an upgraded Krivak III class frigate (warship) under Project 1135.6.
  • Specification: 125-metre-long, 3,900-tonne ship.
  • All Krivak frigates are powered by engines from Zorya Nashproekt of Ukraine.
  • Operational capabilities: Designed for blue water operations across the spectrum of naval warfare in all four dimensions air, surface, underwater and electromagnetic. 
  • Armament and Technology: It is armed with a range of advanced weapons, including:
    • Brahmos supersonic cruise missiles (jointly developed by India-Russia)
    • Vertically-launched Shtil Surface-to-Air missiles with enhanced ranges
    • Medium-range anti-air and surface gun with advanced stealth features
    • Optically-controlled close-range rapid fire gun system
    • Anti-submarine torpedoes and rockets
    • Advanced electronic warfare and communication suite. 
  • The ship is also capable of embarking the upgraded anti-submarine and airborne early warning helicopters, the Kamov 28 and Kamov 31.
  • Speed: Powered by an advanced gas turbine propulsion plant with state-of-the-art controls, it is capable of achieving speeds in exceeding 30 knots.

Significance:

  • INS Tushil reinforces the Indian Navy’s role as a net security provider in the Indian Ocean Region.
  • Reflects collaborative prowess of Russian and Indian industries and technological excellence through jointmanship.

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