Science & Technology

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Use of Artificial Intelligence in Defence

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Detailed question on scope, and challenges regarding AI use in the Defence sector.

AI and Defence Integration in India

India is at the nascent stage of integration of AI with military technology. One such example is the Indrajal drone defence system.
Institutional framework: India has launched an institutional framework for inducting AI with the military in 2022.
- Defence Artificial Intelligence council chaired by the Defence Minister of India to to provide necessary guidance and structural support.
- Defence AI Project Agency (DAIPA) has been created under the Chairmanship of Secretary Department of Defence Production (DDP) for enabling AI based processes in defence Organisations.
Listing priorities: In 2022, the government published a list of 75 priority projects related to using AI for defence; these focused on data processing and analysis, cyber security, simulation and autonomous systems, particularly drones.
AI embedded centers in armed forces: AI-application centres embedded in each of the three armed-service branches – at the Military College of Telecommunication Engineering, Mhow (Army), the INS Valsura (Navy) and Air Force Station Rajokri (Air Force).

Scope of AI in Defence sector

Autonomous systems:
- Defence: AI driven autonomous systems can aid armed forces in difficult operations and prevent casualties. E.g., Indrajaal system on drone defence is based on an autonomous AI system; AI-enabled Robot Sentries.
- Offence: Can be used to conduct precision strikes and support armed forces in offence. E.g., AI-powered killer robots and Armed UAVs; AI-embedded guided missiles (determines target’s range and adjust flight patterns without human intervention).
- Surveillance: AI-embedded radars, satellites, software-identification systems can aid in geospatial analysis, detection of illegal or suspicious activities and alerting authorities. E.g., Indian Army uses facial recognition system ‘Project Seeker’ for monitoring, surveillance, and garrison security.
Cyber-security: AI can be utilised to timely detect and launch a counter attack on cyber attack.
Data Analysis: Defence data is complex like intelligence data, enemy movement, previous trends and strategy analysis can be done effectively with use of AI.
Predictive maintenance: AI can be utilized for predicting the maintenance needs to prevent failure during crucial operations.
Simulations and training: AI can generate multiple and complex hypothetical situations to train soldiers and operatives for unpredictable threats.

Risks and Challenges Associated:

Security risks: AI based defence technologies are susceptible to hacking and cyber attacks leading to catastrophic results.
Ethical questions: AI based decision making in defence can cause collateral damage creating questions of accountability in case of unintended harm.
Interoperability issue: Integrating AI across diverse military platforms (aircraft, naval ships, ground vehicles) is complex. Existing systems might not be compatible, limiting its effectiveness.
Bias and poor data quality: AI systems rely on data for training, and if the data is biased or incomplete, AI models can produce flawed decisions. E.g., biased training data could lead AI inappropriately identifying enemy targets based on incomplete intelligence.
Legal issue: AI based operations lack the global consensus, as AI is not subjected to the Geneva convention, unlike traditional wars and conflicts.

Conclusion: AI in the military offers significant potential for enhancing capabilities, including autonomous systems and cybersecurity. However, it also faces challenges such as security risks, ethical concerns, and technical limitations. A balanced approach involving robust research, international cooperation, and ethical considerations will ensure that AI serves as a strategic asset for defense.

Draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025

Context: The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has published the Draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025 on January 3, 2025 for public consultation. The Draft Rules have evoked a mixed response, with criticism that the rules might go against the concept of privacy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Right to Privacy; Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023; Draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025.

Right to Privacy in India

Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs. Union of India Case, 2017: In the landmark case, the Supreme Court held that Right to Privacy is a distinct and independent Fundamental Right under Article 21 of Indian Constitution.
Privacy is essential to the dignity and autonomy of individuals, the Right ensures protection from state overreach.
The SC held that the Right to Privacy was not absolute in nature. It may be restricted, but such restrictions must meet the three-fold requirement, to ensure that the restrictions are not arbitrary or excessive.
- Legality (Restrictions on privacy must be backed by an existing law. A mere Executive order or arbitrary action is insufficient).
- Need (Restrictions must serve a legitimate purpose of the state).
- Proportionality (Restrictions must not be excessive or disproportionate to the objective sought)

Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023

The Digital Personal Data Protection Act received Presidential assent in August 2023.
Need: Digitisation using the personal data of individuals has transformed the delivery of services enhancing ease of living, but it is also increasingly at risk of misuse. Therefore, it is imperative that digitised personal data be protected.
The DPDP Act 2023, obligates data fiduciaries to protect personal data and makes them accountable.
- Digital platforms can collect only those data that are required for their functioning and providing services which users have opted for.
- E.g., Users will not have to give a microphone or contact access to use a torch app on their mobile phone.
The Act 2023 has provisions to impose penalties of up to ₹250 crore on data fiduciaries. The Act provides for graded financial penalties in case of violation of the Act and the rules.

Key Terms:

Data Principal: Individual to whom the personal data belongs to.
Data Fiduciary: Entities such as social media platforms, e-commerce companies and online gaming platforms, etc. that collect and process an individual's personal data. They can use such data only after the individual's consent for specified purposes.
Significant data fiduciaries: Digital platforms with a large number of users such as Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, Amazon, Flipkart, Netflix, etc.

Draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025:

Aim: To operationalise the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 and ensure robust protection and privacy of personal data in the digital realm.

Notable provisions of the Draft Rules are mentioned below

1. Notice for Consent:

To obtain informed consent from a Data Principal, a Data Fiduciary must provide the Data Principal with a clear and standalone notice outlining- what data is to be collected, the purpose for the processing, and how consent can be withdrawn.

2. Consent Managers and Rights of Data Principals:

Defined under the DPDP Act, a Consent Manager is registered with the Data Protection Board and serves as a single point of contact for Data Principals to give, manage, review, and withdraw consent through a transparent and secure platform.
Data Fiduciaries and Consent Managers must clearly publish on their website or app the process for Data Principals to exercise their rights under the Act, including the right to request access to or deletion of their personal data.

3. Security Safeguards:

Data Fiduciaries must implement adequate security measures to protect personal data, such as encryption, access control, monitoring for unauthorised access, and data backups.
Contracts between Data Fiduciaries and Data Processors must also ensure that security measures are in place to prevent data breaches.

4. Data Breach Notification:

In the event of a breach, Data Fiduciaries must promptly notify affected Data Principals, with explanation of the nature, extent, and timing of the breach.
Within 72 hours, Data Fiduciaries must additionally notify the Data Protection Board of the breach.

5. Data Retention:

Certain e-commerce entities, online gaming intermediaries, and social media platforms with a significant number of registered users in India must delete personal data within a specified period of time, unless the user actively maintains their account.
Generally, these entities may only retain personal data for up to three years from the date of a user’s last interaction.

6. Processing Personal Data Of Children:

A Data Fiduciary is required to adopt technical and organisational measures to ensure verifiable consent of parents is obtained for processing the personal data of a child.
Certain Data Fiduciaries, such as healthcare providers or educational institutions, may be exempt from specific obligations, under defined conditions.

7. Data Protection Impact Assessments (DPIAs):

If the Central Government identifies an entity as a Significant Data Fiduciary based on certain enumerated factors (including volume, sensitivity of data) that entity must conduct annual DPIAs to assess risks associated with their data processing activities.

8. Cross-Border Data Transfers:

The rules provide for the transfer of personal data outside India, but only of certain as approved by the government from time to time.
The draft rules envisage a committee that may recommend restrictions on such transfer by a significant data fiduciary with respect to specified personal data.

9. Penalty provisions:

The draft rules do not elaborate on the penalty but spell out a mechanism to set up a Data Protection Board that will levy penalties based on the nature of the breach as listed in the DPDP Act 2023.

ISRO’s Satellite Launch Vehicles

Context: The Central Government has appointed Dr V Narayanan as the new chairperson of the Indian Space Research Organisation (SRO), and also as the secretary of the Department of Space. He has played a key role in the development of the indigenous cryogenic engine technology.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV); Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV); Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3); Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV); Cryogenic Engine (CE-20).

About Dr V Narayanan

He has worked in the Solid Propulsion area of Sounding Rockets and Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) and Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) at Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC).
He has played a key role in India's development of the cryogenic engine, a technology that was denied to the country by Russia following pressure from the US.
Prior to his elevation as the chairman of ISRO, he was serving as the head of the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) in Kerala since 2018.
He is the Chairman of the National Level Human Rated Certification Board (HRCB) for Gaganyaan, India's planned human spaceflight mission.

Satellite Launch Vehicles of ISRO

1. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV):

PSLV is an expendable launch vehicle developed and operated by ISRO since its first successful launch in 1994.
Workhorse of ISRO known for its reliability, versatility, and cost-effectiveness since 1994.
Stages: Four-stages launch vehicle
- First stage is powered by a solid rocket motor (strap-on motors to provide additional thrust to the rocket to overcome air resistance).
- Second stage uses a liquid propulsion system (Vikas Engine)
- Third stage is a solid rocket motor
- Fourth stage is a liquid-fueled engine
PSLV can deliver payloads of up to:
- 3250 kg to Low Earth Orbit
- 1600 kg to Sun Synchronous Orbit
- 1400 kg to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit
Successful launches: Chandrayaan-1 Mission (2008), Mars Orbiter Mission/Mangalyaan (2013), 104 satellites at one go (2017).
It has been used for launching a wide range of payloads, including Earth observation satellites, navigation satellites, communication satellites, and scientific payloads for various domestic and international customers.

2. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV):

Stages: Three-stage launch vehicle
- First Stage: Uses four strap-on solid boost motors (HS200).
- Second Stage: Liquid core stage (L110) powered by two Vikas liquid engines.
- Third Stage: Cryogenic Upper Stage with cryogenic engine using liquid Hydrogen and liquid Oxygen for high specific impulse and efficiency.
GSLV can carry more than 2,200 kg to geostationary orbits, and over 6,000 kg to LEO. Ideal for large communication satellites.
Issues: GSLV has a patchy track record, has flown 16 times of which 4 are unsuccessful (high failure rate for any rocket). The problems have mainly been with the cryogenic engine used by GSLV that is reverse-engineered on a Russian design.

3. Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3):

LVM3 (previously referred to as Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III, GSLV Mk III) is a three-stage medium-lift launch vehicle developed by ISRO.
Stages: Three-stage launch vehicle
- First stage: Solid fuel S200 stage.
- Second stage: Liquid fuel L110 stage. (Vikas Engine)
- Third stage: Cryogenic fuel C25 stage (uses 25 tonnes of a mixture of liquid Hydrogen and Liquid oxygen). This upper stage (CE-20 cryogenic engine) is developed entirely in India.
Payload capacity (one of the most powerful rockets in ISRO's fleet):
- 4,000 kilograms to geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO).
- 10,000 kilograms to low Earth orbit (LEO).
Primarily designed to launch communication satellites into geostationary orbit.
Successful launches: Chandrayaan-2, Chandrayaan-3. Human-rated LVM-3 is due to launch crewed missions under Gaganyaan Mission.

4. Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV):

New small satellite launch vehicle developed by ISRO to launch small satellites to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) on ‘launch-on-demand’ basis.
Three-stage Launch Vehicle configured with three Solid Propulsion Stages and liquid propulsion based Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) as a terminal stage.
Can launch Mini, Micro, or Nanosatellites (10 to 500 kg mass) up to 500 km in LEO.
Capable of multiple orbital drop-offs i.e., launch multiple microsatellites in one launch.
SSLVs will cost 1/10th of a PSLV and will need only 72 hours for launch in comparison to 45 days for PSLV.

ISRO’s Cryogenic Engine (CE-20)

ISRO has used three cryogenic engines over the years: KVD-1, CE-7.5, and CE-20.
- KVD-1 was supplied to India in the 1980s by Russia (the Soviet Union).
- CE-7.5, and CE-20 are India-made, although the design of the CE-7.5 is based on the KVD-1.
- The GSLV Mk II launch vehicle uses CE-7.5 engines to power the third stage of its ascent.
CE-20 is an indigenous cryogenic engine ISRO developed to use with the GSLV Mk III (LVM3 launch vehicle). It represents an improvement on the CE-7.5 cryogenic engine.
Fuel: Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as propellants stored at extremely low temperatures (around -253°C for hydrogen and -183°C for oxygen).
Advantages:
- Cryogenic propellants have a high energy density, high fuel efficiency and high specific impulse (more thrust per kilogram of propellant). This allows rockets to carry less fuel, reduces their overall weight and can carry heavier payloads or travel further.
- Cryogenic engines are throttleable (ability to vary/adjust their thrust levels during flight). This capability is essential for precise control during ascent, orbit insertion, manoeuvring, and controlled re-entry of a rocket.
Challenges:
- They require complex and expensive infrastructure to store and handle extremely cold propellants. E.g., Hydrogen in liquid form needs to be maintained at -253 degrees C (and the liquid oxygen at -184 degrees C) and leaks very easily.
- The initial development process of cryogenic engines and maintenance is expensive.
Note: ISRO accomplished the human rating of its cryogenic engine (CE-20), which will power the cryogenic stage of the human-rated LVM3 launcher for India’s first human space flight mission (Gaganyaan).

Microsoft to invest $3 billion on AI, cloud infrastructure in India

Context: Microsoft CEO has announced plans to invest $3 billion in India in AI and cloud infrastructure, including setting up new data centres over the next two years. The company is also aiming to train 10 million Indian people with AI skills by 2030.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Key facts about AI, Cloud infrastructure in India, Government Initiatives.

Major Highlights:

Efficiency metrics for AI applications: The formula to measure the efficiency of AI applications is stipulated to be: Tokens per dollar per watt.
- Tokens per dollar per watt signify how many tokens (units of information) can be generated per dollar spent on computing power, per unit (watt) consumption of energy, required to produce those tokens.

Key Terms:

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial intelligence (AI) is broadly defined as the capability of a machine (computer systems) to imitate intelligent human behaviour. E.g., Machines can perform cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving, learning, problem-solving and decision-making.

What is Cloud Computing?

Cloud computing involves the rental of computing resources—such as servers, storage, applications, and databases— over the internet, as opposed to owning physical infrastructure. At its core, cloud computing relies on the infrastructure provided by data centers.
E.g., Software as a Service (SaaS): SaaS grants users access to software applications hosted by the cloud service provider.

What are Data Centres?

Data centers are highly specialised facilities designed to house computing systems and their related components, such as, physical hardware, servers, networking equipment and storage systems.
The primary purpose of data centers is to process, store, and distribute data for various applications and services, such as websites, cloud computing, and enterprise operations.
Data centers empower organisations to handle large volumes of data securely and efficiently and enable cloud computing to function seamlessly.

Potential of Data Centres in India

India aims to become a global hub for AI innovation and data centre development.
Current capacity:
- As of 2024, India's data centre capacity is at approximately 1,255 MW, which is expected to surge to 17 GW by 2030.
- India holds 20% of global data but only 3% of data centre capacity.
Expansion potential of data centres in future, due to:
- Increasing digitalisation & data consumption
- Rise in demand for AI and generative AI projects
- Nationwide roll-out of 5G
- Need for edge computing to allow data processing on devices
- Need to store data locally (within National borders).
Concentration of data centres in India: About 95% of the existing data centre capacity is in metros and big cities. Mumbai has >50% of current capacity due to its central location, reliable power and cable landing stations.

Government Initiatives in this Regard

1. Data Localisation Rules: India’s laws mandate that certain data be stored locally, such as:

Reserve Bank of India's Directive (2018) mandates payment system providers to store entire payment data (transaction details, customer information and related data) within India.
IRDAI (Maintenance of Insurance Records) Regulation, 2015 requires covered organisations to store insurance data within India.
The draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules focus on targeted data localisation, addressing children's online age verification challenges, and data protection.
- Digital Personal Data Protection Act permits cross-border data transfers to all countries, unless restricted by the Central Government by notification.

2. Digital India Mission:

Digital India campaign launched in 2015, aims at the development of secure and stable digital infrastructure (including data centres), delivering government services digitally, and universal digital literacy.

3. IndiaAI Mission:

The Rs 10,370 croreIndiaAI Mission aims to:
- establish a computing capacity of more than 10,000 GPUs.
- help develop foundational models with a capacity of more than 100 billion parameters trained on datasets covering major Indian languages for priority sectors like healthcare, agriculture, and governance.
The idea is that if such an infrastructure exists in the country, start-ups could plug into it for developing AI systems.
Of the total outlay, Rs 4,564 crore has been earmarked for building computing infrastructure.

Read More: IndiaAI Mission

India & U.S. to jointly manufacture Sonobuoys for Indian Navy

Context: In a significant development, India and the U.S. announced cooperation on co-production of U.S. Sonobuoys for the Indian Navy, a high-end technology that allows tracking submarines in the deep seas and oceans, to enhance undersea domain awareness (UDA).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Sonobuoys, P-8I Maritime Aircraft.

Recent Development

India and the U.S. will manufacture sonobuoys for the Indian Navy to US Navy standards in accordance with ‘Make in India’ principles.
Co-production of sonobuoys:
- US-based Ultra Maritime and Indian defence PSU Bharat Dynamics Ltd (BDL) will co-produce sonobuoys.
- Co-production will happen through transfer of technology from Ultra Maritime to BDL.
- These will be produced at a facility in Visakhapatnam, which will go operational by 2027.
The Indian Navy operates 12 P-8I maritime patrol aircraft. These sonobuoys are dropped from the aircraft into the sea for anti-submarine warfare.
Significance: Help augment the Indian Navy’s capability to detect and track underwater objects, particularly the submarines and enhance undersea domain awareness.

What are Sonobuoys?

Sonobuoys are expendable, electro-mechanical acoustic sensors that relay underwater sounds emitted from ships and submarines.
They remain active for about 24 hours and help in detection, classification and prosecution of adversarial ships and submarines.
Working Mechanism:
- A naval helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft generally drops sonobuoys in a pattern. They are dropped in canisters and are deployed automatically upon impact with water.
- An inflatable system with a radio transmitter remains on the surface for communication with the ship or aircraft tracking it, while sensors descend below the surface to a pre-determined depth. It then relays acoustic information back to those monitoring them.
- A group of sonobuoys deployed in a pattern can find out the exact location of the submarine which then can be tracked by other systems.
Types of Sonobuoys:
- Active sonobuoys emit sound energy and receive the echo, based on which it transmits information back to the aircraft.
- Passive sonobuoys only listen for sounds coming from ships or submarines. They then transmit the sound back to the aircraft.

About P-8I Maritime Aircraft

P-8 Poseidon is a maritime patrol and reconnaissance aircraft developed and produced by United States' Boeing Defense.
The P-8I is a variant of the P-8 Poseidon specially designed for the Indian Navy.
Utility: P-8I is responsible for coastal patrolling, maritime surveillance, anti-submarine and anti-surface warfare, search-and-rescue, anti-piracy, and supporting operations of other arms of the military.

US-India Civil Nuclear Cooperation

Context: The US National Security Advisor has announced that the United States is finalising steps to remove long-standing regulatory barriers that have hindered collaboration between American Nuclear companies and India’s leading energy institutions. Beyond the nuclear deal, the iCET initiative holds immense promise for the future of US-India ties

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: US-India Civil Nuclear Agreement; Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010.

Mains: India-US Bilateral Regions: Technological Cooperations and Agreements.

Background- The Road to Civil Nuclear Cooperation:

1. India’s Nuclear Isolation:

India’s Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) in 1974 and its voluntary exclusion from the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) led to India’s isolation from trade in nuclear power plant materials.

2. US-India Nuclear Deal:

The US-India Nuclear Deal or the US-India Civil Nuclear Agreement is a bilateral agreement signed between the US & India in 2008.
It is popularly known as the 123 Agreement.
Benefits:
- Ends India’s nuclear isolation and technology denial regimes against India.
- Enables India to have civil nuclear cooperation as an equal partner with the US and the rest of the world.
- Allows US companies to supply nuclear fuel and dual-use nuclear technology (including materials and equipment that could be used to enrich uranium or reprocess plutonium) for India’s civilian nuclear energy program.
- Enables India to meet the twin challenges of energy security and environmental sustainability.
India agrees to allow inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Association (IAEA), the United Nations’ nuclear watchdog group, access to its civilian nuclear program.

3. NSG India-specific Agreement:

In 2008, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) agreed on an India-specific exemption to its nuclear export guidelines after complex negotiations.
Following the NSG India-specific agreement, civil nuclear cooperation agreements have since been signed with the US, Russia, France, Australia and Kazakhstan, among other countries.
Note: India is not a member of the NSG, the main reason being its refusal to sign the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

Associated Challenges:

The Civil Nuclear Cooperation between India and US has faced numerous challenges over the years:

1. Nuclear Liability law of India:

India’s Nuclear Liability law (Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010) has been a barrier to the growth of the nuclear energy industry.
- India’s strict liability law places the burden of compensation for nuclear accidents on the plant operator, which can deter private companies from investing in nuclear power.
- Also, according to the Act, the liability can be shifted from the operator to the vendor or supplier in case the accident is due to equipment or material.
This has created apprehension among potential foreign suppliers, delaying India’s ambitious nuclear energy plans. E.g., Nuclear liability is the major issue why the deal to install French European Pressurised Reactors at Jaitapur, Maharashtra, has not made progress.

2. Limitations of the US Atomic Energy Act of 1954:

On the American side, a significant impediment is the ‘10CFR810’ authorisation (Part 810 of the US Atomic Energy Act of 1954), which gives US nuclear vendors the ability to export equipment to countries such as India under some strict safeguards.
However, it does not permit them to manufacture any nuclear equipment or perform any nuclear design work in India.

Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010:

India enacted CLNDA in 2010 to provide a quick compensation mechanism for victims of a nuclear accident.
The Act establishes a strict and no-fault liability for nuclear plant operators, meaning they are liable for damage regardless of fault.
However, the operator of the nuclear installation, after paying the compensation for nuclear damage shall have the right to recourse where-
- The nuclear incident has resulted as a consequence of an act of supplier or his employee, which includes supply of equipment or material with patent or latent defects or sub-standard services.
- The nuclear incident has resulted from the act of commission or omission of an individual done with the intent to cause nuclear damage.
The operator will have to maintain a financial security to cover its maximum liability of ₹1,500 crore for civil nuclear damage and requires the operator to cover liability through insurance or other financial security.
In case the damage claims exceed ₹1,500 crore, the gap will be bridged by the Central Government. The government liability amounts to the rupee equivalent of 300 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) or about ₹2,100 to ₹2,300 crore.

Recent Developments:

However, the National Security Advisor of the US has confirmed that the US is moving closer to formalising agreements that will facilitate the transfer of US nuclear technology to India, needed for India to expand its clean energy capacity.
- This includes removing Indian government entities from the US entity list, these could include: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC); Indira Gandhi Atomic Research Centre (IGCAR) and Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL).
- The US Entity List is a list of foreign individuals, businesses, and organisations that are subject to export restrictions and licensing requirements for certain goods and technologies.
Additionally, the US-India collaboration in critical technologies is growing. The US-India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET) has focused on cutting-edge fields like artificial intelligence, quantum computing, space, and defence.

Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET):

US-India iCET is a framework agreed upon by India and the U.S. to strengthen their strategic partnership and drive technology and defence industrial cooperation.
Launch: 2023
Objective: Fosters cooperation on critical and emerging technologies in areas including artificial intelligence, quantum computing, semiconductors, space and wireless telecommunication.
Significance:
- Facilitates dual-use technology transfer.
- Streamline defense and tech cooperation via frameworks like INDUS-X.

Significance of advancement of Nuclear Cooperation & iCET for India:

On the Nuclear front, iCET could pave the way for plans to jointly manufacture nuclear components for any new project in India by deploying American Atomic reactors.
Presently, India is over-reliant on Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) for nuclear energy production, however, the Light Water Reactors (LWR) that are now the most dominant reactor type across the world.
Furthering Civil Nuclear Cooperation between India and US will allow India to deploy American Light Water Atomic Reactors.

Dr. Rajagopala Chidambaram

Context: Eminent Indian physicist and nuclear scientist Dr. Rajagopala Chidambaram passed away on January 4, 2025.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Contributions of Dr. Rajagopala Chidambaram.

About Dr. Rajagopala Chidambaram (1936-2025):

Born in 1936, Chidambaram was an alumnus of Presidency College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu and Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru, Karnataka.
His career comprises numerous prestigious positions he held, including:
- Principal Scientific Adviser to the government of India (2001–2018)
- Director of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (1990-1993)
- Chairman of Atomic Energy Commission
- Secretary to the government of India, DAE (1993-2000).
He also served as chairman of the Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (1994–1995).
He was honoured with Padma Shri in 1975 and the Padma Vibhushan in 1999 (for his stellar contributions to making India a nuclear weapons state).
His autobiography: India Rising (highlights his leadership in designing and executing the peaceful nuclear explosion experiment at Pokhran in 1974)

Contributions of Dr. R Chidambaram:

Development of India’s Nuclear Programme:
- He was integral to the Nation's first Nuclear Test in 1974.
- He led the Department of Atomic Energy team during the Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998.
- This makes him one of the rare atomic scientists who contributed to India’s both Nuclear tests:
  - Smiling Buddha (Pokhran) in 1974
  - Operation Shakti (Pokhran) in 1998.

Foundation for Modern Materials Science Research:
- His research in high-pressure physics, crystallography, and materials science significantly advanced the scientific community's understanding of these fields.
- His pioneering work laid the foundation for modern materials science research in India.

As Principal Scientific Advisor (2001-2018), he:
- set up the National Knowledge Network for high-speed connectivity to educational and research institutions.
- backed National Supercomputing Mission, Mission on Quantum Technologies, Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) India (Indian node of LIGO to probe the universe) etc.
- established programmes such as the Rural Technology Action Groups and the Society for Electronic Transactions and Security.
- established rural technology laboratories at several engineering colleges.
- pushed for the development of cleaner and more efficient thermal power plants, backed research in Ayurveda.
- funded a number of projects that looked at integrating Ayurveda with modern medicine.

Dr. Chidambaram was a firm believer in self-reliance and strongly opposed reliance on imported technology. His unparalleled contributions furthered India's nuclear prowess and strategic self-reliance and his legacy will continue to inspire generations.

Osteoporosis: Explained

Context: Winter poses additional risks for Osteoporosis sufferers, with cold weather exacerbating bone and joint issues. A 2019 study revealed that India was the highest contributor to osteoporosis fracture-related deaths and disabilities worldwide.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Osteoporosis.

About Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis literally means "porous bone”. It is a bone disease that causes a loss of bone density and leads to the weakening of bones.
- Bone is a living tissue that is constantly being broken down and replaced.
- When viewed under a microscope a healthy bone looks like a honeycomb.
- When osteoporosis occurs, the holes and spaces in the honeycomb are much larger than in healthy bone.
- Osteoporotic bones lose density or mass and contain abnormal tissue structures.
Impact: For people with osteoporosis bone loss outpaces the growth of new bone. Bones become porous (less dense), brittle and the fracture can occur with a minor fall, bump or sudden movement. It also causes changes in posture and the person stoops.
Risk Factors:
- Age, gender, low body weight, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and a family history of the disease.
- Individuals with low physical activity after the age of 40 or a history of fractures are also at higher risk.
Occurrence: The prevalence of osteoporosis occurs more with ageing. The prevalence of osteoporosis in elderly females is slightly higher than in males as Estrogen, a hormone in women that protects bones, decreases sharply when women reach menopause.
- Projected data shows that at least 46 million women in India currently live with post-menopausal osteoporosis.
Diagnosis: Bone mineral density scan (DEXA) helps healthcare providers detect osteoporosis by measuring how much Calcium and other minerals are present in an area of a bone.
Prevention: Nutritional intake of adequate Calcium, Protein, and Vitamin D and regular exercise.

Concerns

High prevalence: Owing to the large elderly population and prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies, particularly in women, and the lack of physical exercise, there is a high index of suspicion/occurrence of osteoporosis in India.
Knowledge Gap: There are no large-scale studies on osteoporosis in India and enormous gaps in knowledge about osteoporosis, even among doctors.
Infrastructural Gap: Most of the Indian population does not have access to DEXA or bone mineral density scan. A study found that in India, there are only 0.26 DEXA machines per million of the population.

Way Forward

Adequate Calcium intake, Sunlight exposure and Vitamin D levels, regular physical activity, and avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol consumption are essential for preventing bone loss in young adults.

Deal to buy Rafale Fighter Jets reach Final Stage

Context: Two large defence deals in the pipeline between India and France are being finalised, amid expectations that the Indian Prime Minister will visit Paris in February 2024 for the Artificial Intelligence Action Summit to be hosted by the French President.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Rafale-M fighter jets; Scorpene-class conventional submarines.

Major Highlights:

The deals together worth over $10 billion will include:
- Purchase of 26 Rafale-M fighter jets for the Indian Navy’s INS Vikrant & INS Vikramaditya aircraft carriers.
  - At present, the INS Vikramaditya and INS Vikrant operate with the Russian Mikoyan MiG-29K fighter aircraft.
- Three additional Scorpene-class conventional submarines.
The deal is an integral part of India's ongoing efforts to modernise its naval forces, especially amid growing regional security concerns.

What are Rafale fighter jets?

IAF Rafale:
- Indian Air Force (IAF) has already acquired 36 Rafale combat aircraft (4.5 generation aircraft) from France.
- India had ordered the combat aircrafts in a Rs 59,000-crore government-to-government deal in September 2016.
- France completed the delivery of all 36 Rafale jets to the IAF in December 2022.
Rafale-M:
- Dassault Rafale is a French twin-engine, canard delta wing, multirole 4.5th generation fighter aircraft.
- Designed and built by: Dassault Aviation
- Rafale M is an omnirole aircraft, i.e., it can conduct both air-to-air and air-to-ground missions simultaneously.
- Rafale M is a single-seat aircraft capable of performing a wide range of missions, including deep strikes, air defence, and reconnaissance.
- It is designed to operate from aircraft carriers.
  - It has various modifications, including a reinforced undercarriage, strengthened landing gears, and a longer and strengthened nose.
  - Due to modifications, the Rafale M is slightly heavier than the air force Rafale.

What are Scorpene-class conventional submarines?

About: They are diesel-attack submarines based on the Scorpène design developed by Naval Group (France).
Under Project 75, six Scorpene-class submarines have been constructed indigenously (at Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited Mumbai) with Transfer of Technology from France.
The project was initiated in 1997, and five submarines are currently commissioned.

Submarines under Project 75 (Kalvari-class):

INS Kalvari: Inducted in 2017
INS Kandheri: Inducted in 2019
INS Karanj: Inducted in 2021
INS Vela: Inducted 2021
INS Vagir: Inducted 2023
INS Vagsheer: To be commissioned in January 2025.

Diesel Electric submarines: This class of submarines have Diesel Electric transmission systems and are attack submarines or the ‘hunter-killer’ type which are designed to target and sink adversary naval vessels.
They have the capability of operating in a wide range of Naval combat including anti-warship and anti-submarine warfare, intelligence gathering and surveillance, underwater mining operations and naval mine laying.

HMPV outbreak in China

Context: China is reportedly witnessing a surge in human metapneumovirus (HMPV) cases, sparking concerns of another health crisis after COVID-19 pandemic. The Chinese authorities and the World Health Organisation (WHO) have not declared a state of emergency yet.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the human metapneumovirus disease.

What is human metapneumovirus (HMPV)?

Discovered in 2001, HMPV belongs to the Pneumoviridae family, the same family as respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).
HMPV is a respiratory virus that typically causes upper and lower respiratory infections, presenting symptoms similar to a common cold or flu.
Risk:
- It can affect individuals across all age groups.
- Children under five years old, older adults (particularly those over 65) and individuals with weakened immune systems or chronic respiratory conditions are at higher risk.

Mode of Transmission:

HMPV spreads through droplets from coughing or sneezing, close contact such as touching or shaking hands, contaminated surfaces.
HMPV has a seasonal pattern, circulating in late winter and spring in temperate regions.

Symptoms of HMPV:

Cough and runny or stuffy nose, fever, sore throat, wheezing or shortness of breath in severe cases.
In some cases, the infection can escalate to bronchitis, pneumonia or asthma exacerbations.

Testing and diagnosis:

Infection with HMPV can usually be confirmed by:
- Direct detection of viral genome by nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT).
- Direct detection of viral antigens in respiratory secretions using immunofluorescence or enzyme immunoassay.

Treatment options:

There is no specific antiviral treatment or vaccine for HMPV.

Nucleic Acid Amplification Test (NAAT):

Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (NAATs) are molecular diagnostic tests that detect the presence of specific genetic material (DNA or RNA) from pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.
It is a powerful tool for diagnosing a wide range of infections, including, COVID-19, influenza, HIV, hepatitis, tuberculosis etc.

How does NAAT work?

Sample Collection: A sample is collected from the patient, such as a swab from the nose or throat, blood, or urine.
Extraction: The nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) is extracted from the sample.
Amplification: The target nucleic acid sequence is multiplied (amplified) millions of times using specific techniques like Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).
Detection: The amplified nucleic acid is detected and identified, confirming the presence of the target organism.

How does HMPV compare to COVID-19?

HMPV and COVID-19 both cause respiratory issues such as coughing, fever, congestion, sore throat and shortness of breath, and both spread through respiratory droplets.
HMPV typically peaks during winter and spring, unlike COVID-19 which can spread year-round due to evolving variants.

What are Biofuels?

Context: Private textiles manufacturers in India are looking forward to replacing coal as the raw material used in manufacturing processes with biofuel. However, this requires a reliable supply-chain of biofuel, to substitute coal.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Biofuels: Sources, Types, Advantages.

Biofuels

Biofuel is any fuel that is derived from organic sources such as biomass and organic waste (plant or algae material or animal waste).
It is considered to be a source of renewable energy (as such feedstock material can be replenished readily), unlike fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas.

Sources of Biofuels

First-generation biofuels: Consists of fuels obtained from food crops (corn, wheat, soybeans, sugarcane). E.g., Biofuels created from vegetable oils, such as bioethanol and biodiesel.
Second-generation biofuels: Fuels that come from organic wastes (agri-food and forestry industries), used cooking oils and the organic matter from urban wastes. E.g., Renewable diesel (HVO), sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), biogas, and biomethane.
Third-generation biofuels: Fuels extracted from algae and aquatic plants with a natural oil content of at least 50%.
Fourth-generation biofuels: Fuel sought to be extracted from genetically modified microorganisms to improve the efficiency of CO₂ Capture and Storage.

Types of Biofuels:

Bioethanol:
- Obtained through the fermentation of materials rich in sugars or starches, such as corn, sugar cane, sugar beet etc. This process converts the sugars present in these materials into ethanol.
- Bioethanol is widely used as an additive in petrol to increase octane number, and bring down carbon monoxide and other toxic emissions.
Biodiesel:
- Fuel made from vegetable oil, recycled cooking oil, soybean, palm oil, peanut oil, animal fat, and fatty acids, through a process of conversion is known as Transesterification.
- The energy content in Biodiesel is about 90% that of petroleum diesel. Compared to petroleum-based diesel, Biodiesel burns cleaner and eliminates sulfur dioxide emissions.
Bio-gas:
- Bio-gas is a blend of gases such as methane (main component), carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
- Biogas is produced from anaerobic breakdown of biomass (raw materials such as manure, green waste, food waste, agricultural waste). It burns just like natural gas.
Bio-hydrogen:
- Biohydrogen is typically produced through fermentation of organic materials such as agricultural waste or algae, bacteria, and achaea.
- Some of the common methods of developing biohydrogen are photo fermentation, dark fermentation, direct photolysis, and indirect photolysis.
Aviation Biofuel:
- Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is an alternative fuel to fossil-based jet fuel. SAF can be made from renewable and waste-based sources such as used cooking oil, municipal and agricultural waste.
- It has the potential to reduce lifecycle emissions by up to 80% (when used neat) compared with conventional aviation fuel. SAF can also be blended with conventional aviation fuel.

Advantages of Biofuels:

Lesser Greenhouse emissions: Biofuels emit fewer greenhouse gases compared to fossil fuels.
Circular Economy: Use of organic wastes for fuel production favours the reuse of resources and reduces the arrival of waste at landfills.
Energy Security: Using biofuels can increase energy security by diversifying energy supply. By blending biofuels with conventional fuels, it can reduce import dependence on fossil fuels and save forex reserves.
Economic Opportunity: Domestic or localised production and use of biofuels can create new jobs in a variety of industries, including agriculture, engineering, and transportation etc.

Limitations:

Food Security: Biofuel crops competing with food crops for land and water raises concerns about food security.
Land Use Issues: Cultivating crops for biofuel often requires large areas of land, leading to concerns like deforestation and habitat destruction.
High Cost: Producing biofuels requires substantial investment in infrastructure and technology. As a result, biofuels tend to be more expensive than traditional fossil fuels, limiting access for consumers.
Unintended consequences: Biofuels production sourced from previously forested land or converted land can release carbon stored in soil and vegetation.
Supply-chain limitations: Limited-supply chains in India limits the scalability of biofuels.

Government Initiatives for Biofuel Production

National Policy on Biofuels (2018):
- The National Policy on Biofuels - 2018 was notified by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas to promote the production of biofuels.
- The policy was amended in 2022 to advance the target of 20% blending of ethanol in petrol to 2025-26 from 2030.

PM JI-VAN Yojana:
- In 2019, the Government launched Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN (Jaiv Indhan- Vatavaran Anukool fasal awashesh Nivaran) Yojana.
- Aim: To provide financial support to integrated bio-ethanol projects for setting up Second Generation (2G) ethanol projects using ligno-cellulosic biomass and other renewable feedstocks.

The diverse range of biofuels offers promising alternatives to traditional fossil fuels. Their renewable nature reduces carbon footprint, and their potential for sustainable energy makes them pivotal in our transition towards a clean environment.

How in-flight Internet works?

Context: Tata Group’s Air India has announced the rollout of free in-flight Internet service on board domestic and international flights, making the group the first in India to offer internet connectivity on domestic flights.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Detailed question on working on the internet on flight.

Working of in-flight Internet

In-flight internet has various components that facilitates the connectivity:
- Aircraft antennas- There are two kinds of internet antennas in flight for different types of technologies.
  - ATG type antennas are underside the aircraft.
  - Satellite antennas are dome shaped mounted on the top of the aircraft.
- WiFi access point- Also known as cabin server that allows cabin to distribute the internet to passengers via Wi-Fi.
- Service provider- Service providers provide infrastructure to facilitate internet connectivity examples; Gogo, Starling etc.

There are two modes of the Transmission

Air-to-Ground (ATG) Systems:
- The aircraft connects to ground-based cellular towers designed to communicate with planes in flight.
- The system includes an antenna mounted underneath the aircraft that maintains a connection with ground stations.
- Data is transmitted back and forth between the airplane and the ground, similar to a mobile data network.
Satellite-Based Systems: The airplane connects to satellites orbiting the Earth to access the internet.
- Geostationary satellites and Low-Earth orbit satellites are used to transmit internet on the flight using dome shaped antennas.
- Various service providers like Starlink provide such services to the flights.

Step-by-step working of in-flight Internet

Connection Establishment: As aircraft are airborne, the onboard system activates the internet connection.
Data Transmission: Passenger generates the data request and on-board antenna sends signal to the satellite or the ground based facility.
Return Path: The response (E.g., the requested web page) follows the reverse path: from the internet backbone → ground station or satellite → aircraft antenna → onboard router → passenger’s device.
Seamless Handoffs: Both ATG and satellite based systems adjust connections during the flight’s movement.

Challenges to in-flight Internet

Limited bandwidth- The bandwidth shared with the passengers is limited and leads to slower speeds during peak usage.
Latency- Satellite systems have higher latency due to long distance of data travel.
Cost- The cost of in-flight internet is highly expensive in nature both during installation as well as in operations. E.g., Air India needs to spend $400 Million for retrofitting new aircraft.

New Emerging Technologies to enhance in-flight Internet Connectivity

LEO satellites: LEO systems like Starlink Aviation are revolutionizing the internet with faster speed and low latency.
Flat- Panel Antennas: These are smaller antennas for more efficient data sharing and reducing operational costs.
Integration with 5G: Emerging technologies aim to integrate in-flight internet with terrestrial 5G networks for better speed and reliability.

Conclusion: Air India’s step to provide internet on flight can be a game changer in the domestic airlines adding to quality of service and improving customer experience on flight.