Science & Technology

All (4265)Current Affairs (4243)Mains Practice (77)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

TrailGuard AI

Context: TrailGuard AI has helped wildlife officials at the Similipal Tiger Reserve, Odisha to arrest 96 poachers and seize more than 86 country-made guns.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts on TrailGuard AI and Similipal Tiger Reserve. 

About TrailGuard AI

  • TrailGuard AI is an end-to-end AI-powered camera-based alert system to enhance wildlife conservation and promote human-wildlife coexistence in remote areas. 
  • It autonomously detects target objects and transmits real-time alerts that can trigger rapid-response. 
  • The TrailGuard system comprises of two units: 
    • The camera unit is of size less than a pen.
    • The battery/communication unit is the size of a notepad. 
    • Both units are connected using a two-metre long cable. 
  • Developed by: Nightjar Technologies, a Gurgaon-based social impact enterprise. 
image 140

Key features of TrailGuard AI: 

  • Compact sized: TrailGuard AI is approximately the size of an index finger that can be easily camouflaged/ installed in areas of interest. 
  • Embedded AI: It has on-board AI that processes images to accurately identify humans, vehicles and wildlife in remote areas or areas of interest. 
  • Real-Time Alert: Upon detecting the target, TrailGuard AI transmits human and wildlife activities in under 30 seconds to designated devices via various networks, enabling real-time interventions. These network transmissions include GSM, long-range radio or satellite, facilitating prompt intervention by authorities. 
  • Extended Battery life of at least 6 months, reduces frequent maintenance and minimizes disturbance to deployment areas. 

Utility- Multiple Use Cases:

TrailGuard AI can be utilised for monitoring:

  • Human-wildlife conflict
  • Wildlife monitoring 
  • Illegal logging in protected areas
  • Mine security
  • Border security
  • Building intrusion monitoring
image 141

About Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR): 

  • The tiger reserve is located in the Mayurbhanj District, Odisha.
  • It is part of the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve, which includes three protected areas—Similipal Tiger Reserve, Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary.
  • It is surrounded by high plateaus and hills, the highest peak being the twin peaks of Kiriburu and Meghashini. 
  • It derives its name from the abundance of red silk cotton trees (Simul tree) growing in the area.
  • STR along with a 'transitional area' of 2250 sq. km has been a part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2009.
  • It is Asia’s second largest biosphere reserve and India’s only wild habitat for Melanistic Royal Bengal Tigers.
  • Budhabalanga, Salandi and many tributaries of Baitarani river flow from the reserve.
  • Major Fauna: Bengal tiger, Asian elephant, gaur, chausingha.
  • The region around STR is home to various tribes including Kolha, Santhala, Bhumija, Bhatudi, Gondas, Khadia, Mankadia and Sahara. 

Age of Saturn’s Rings 

Context: A combined research of Institute of Science Tokyo and Paris Institute of Planetary Physics has estimated that planetary rings of Saturn can be more than 4.5 billion years old. 

Relevance of the Topic- Prelims: Questions based on planets and space missions.

About Saturn

  • Saturn is the sixth planet in solar system position and is the second largest planet in the solar system after Jupiter.
  • Saturn is the least dense planet in the Solar System with density even less than that of water. 
  • Saturn is a gas giant dominated by hydrogen and helium. Its atmosphere contains hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia, and other gases, giving it a yellowish-brown appearance.
  • The mass of Saturn is 95 times the mass of Earth. However, Saturn's gravity is only 1.08 times the gravity on Earth. 
image 139

Saturn’s Rings: 

  • Saturn’s rings are composed of dust and ice particles. These dark pieces of dust are omnipresent and constantly bombard the planet.
  • There are seven rings named A, B, C, D, E, F and G. The Cassini division is the largest gap, located between the ring A and B.
  • When it comes to the origin of rings, it is hypothesised that they may be remnants of shattered moons or comets. Some theories suggest an age of 100 million years.

Debate on the age of Saturn’s ring

One faction of scientists claim the age of Saturn’s rings to be about 100 million years, whereas, the new research has hypothesised that it can be more than 4.5 billion years old. 

1. Claims supporting young age of rings: 

The data of Cassini spacecraft of NASA, which orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017, indicated younger rings due to following reasons: 

  • Rings appear unusually bright and clean, predominantly composed of the water and ice with very little contamination of dust.
    • If the rings were old, then the omnipresent dark dust must have accumulated making rings dark. 
    • But as rings are clear, this suggests that rings are not that old enough to accumulate significant impurities.
  • Minor darkening signs: When micrometeoroids collide with the ice particles in the ring they deposit dark material over time. As Cassini observed minor darkening it is believed that rings have not been exposed to cosmic impact for billions of years.

2. Reasons supporting old age of rings (4.5 billion years):

  • Explanation of vaporisation mechanism: It is observed in the research that micrometeoroids vaporise after the impact with the rings.
    • When the micrometeoroids impact the ring with high velocity, the immense energy causes the micrometeoroids to vaporise upon impact. 
    • This leads to the ejection of the contaminants making the rings clean and clear. Therefore, clean rings does not imply that rings are new.
  • The study posits that the rings could have formed during early stages of the solar system, aligning the age of Saturn itself.

Importance of studying Saturn’s rings

  • Understanding evolution: Estimating the age of rings of Saturn can allow researchers to understand about the primordial conditions that shaped the planets and moons.
    • E.g., If the rings are 100-400 million years old, they are formed long after the solar system stabilisation, raising questions about what cataclysmic event created them.
  • Clues about Saturn’s and its ring’s fate: It is often claimed that Saturn’s rings are facing disappearance due to a phenomenon called “ring rain”. Research to establish the age of 4.5 billion years could help to predict the future stability of Saturn’s moons and its rings.
  • Understanding cosmic recycling mechanism: The vaporisation of micrometeoroids highlights the self-cleaning mechanism of the solar system that prevents debris buildup over billions of years.
  • Providing impetus to human habitation: The study will help to understand the impact of rings on the moons (Saturn's moons like Enceladus) which are evaluated as the future habitation for humans. 

Note: 

  • NASA is the primary agency that has sent missions to study Saturn, these are:
    • Pioneer 11 (1979): First flyby of Saturn. 
    • Voyager 1 and 2 (1980-81): First detailed image of Saturn and its rings. 
    • Cassini (1997-2017) explored Saturn and its moons. Revealed Titan’s methane lakes and water plumes on Enceladus. Both Titan and Enceladus are the moons of Saturn. 

Determining the true age of Saturn’s rings impacts our understanding of planetary evolution, solar system history, and even exoplanetary systems.

Chandrayaan-3 Hop Experiment

Context: The successful hop experiment of the Vikram lander was never a part of the original Chandrayaan-3 mission and it came as a surprise to everyone.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Chandrayaan mission series. 

Chandrayaan-3 Hop Experiment

  • Chandrayaan-3 lander (Vikram), made a soft landing on the Moon in August 2023. After the soft landing on the Moon, Vikram still had some propellant left. 
  • With the unused propellant, ISRO decided to simply lift the lander again and place it nearby.
    • The engines of Vikram were reignited and it rose to a height of 40 cm before landing around 30-40 cm away from its original landing site.
    • The Vikram lander ended up carrying out an unexpected hop experiment on the Moon.
  • Significance: 
    • In the process, ISRO demonstrated its capability to get the lander to fire its engines and produce the thrust to lift it off the ground. 
    • This capability is key to future lunar missions which will involve return journeys to Earth.
image 136

About Chandrayaan-3 Mission 

  • ISRO’s third lunar mission launched in 2023. 
  • Launch vehicle: Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3)
  • The lunar mission consisted of an indigenous propulsion module, lander module (Vikram), and a rover (Pragyan).
  • The Vikram lander touched down on the Moon on August 23, 2023. It successfully demonstrated ISRO’s end-to-end capability in safe landing and roving on the Moon's surface.
    • Chandrayaan-3 made one of the closest approaches to the moon's South Pole. 
    • The landing site is located about 600 kilometers from the South Pole of the Moon, on the near side of the Moon. 
  • Pragyan rover operated for one lunar day (approximately 14 Earth days). It aimed to collect lunar samples, do in-situ experiments and send data to Vikram lander, to transmit it back to Earth for comprehensive analysis.
  • ​​Virtual Launch Control Centre at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre played a vital role in continuous real-time monitoring of the launch activities from SHAR.
  • International Astronomical Union has approved the name “Statio Shiv Shakti” for the landing site of Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander. 
  • India became the fourth country to have landed a spacecraft on the Moon—after the United States, Russia, and China. India became the first country to have made a soft landing near the lunar south pole. 

Also Read: Chandrayaan-4 Mission 

DDoS Attack on Kaveri 2.0 Portal

Context: In January 2025, web-based portal Kaveri 2.0, which streamlines property registrations in Karnataka, faced server outages and performance issues. The investigations concluded that it was due to a motivated Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack using automated tools or bots. 

Fake accounts were created, and entries were made into the database using these accounts, overwhelming the system. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack; Kaveri 2.0 Portal.

What is a DDoS Attack?

  • A DDoS attack is a malicious attempt to disrupt the normal functioning of a targeted server, service, or network by overwhelming it with a flood of internet traffic.
  • Unlike a Denial of Service (DoS) attack, which typically involves a single source, a DDoS attack leverages multiple compromised systems, often infected with malware, to generate the traffic.
    • These compromised systems are collectively known as a botnet. 
    • Such attacks may be aimed at saturating the bandwidth of a particular site, exploiting weaknesses in the network protocol stack, or targeting specific weaknesses in applications or services. 
DDoS Attack

Implications of DDoS Attack

  • Disruption of services: DDoS attacks can lead to service downtime which render services unavailable, leading to a disruption or potential loss of revenue. 
  • Distraction to execute other attacks: DDoS attacks do not directly steal data, but they can be used as a distraction while other forms of cyberattack, such as data breaches are executed. 
  • Reputational damage: Organisations falling victim to DDoS attacks may suffer reputational damage, as customers and partners question their ability to protect against cyber threats.
  • Financial losses: Downtime can lead to lost revenue, especially for e-commerce platforms and online services.

Read More: What is Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack? 

How can such attacks be mitigated?

To protect against DDoS attacks, organisations can implement:

  • Advanced traffic filtering mechanisms to distinguish between legitimate and malicious traffic. 
  • Monitoring tools to help identify unusual traffic patterns and take pre-emptive actions. 
  • Enforcing rate limiting to control the number of requests a user can make in a given time frame, preventing the system from being overwhelmed. 
  • Bot detection technologies, such as CAPTCHA challenges and behavioural analysis, to identify and block automated tools or bots. 
  • Robust authentication mechanisms and regular security audits to strengthen the security of online services and prevent unauthorised access. 

The DDoS attack serves as a wake-up call for organisations, particularly government agencies, to prioritise cybersecurity.

Kaveri 2.0 Portal: 

  • Kaveri 2.0 is a web-based portal launched by Karnataka in 2023 to reform land registration.
  • It is the new online property registration system to enable a faster and more transparent registration process.
  • It empowers citizens with vital information on stamp duty, property guidelines, and efficient data entry processes.  

Ultra-High Energy Neutrino Detected

Context: Astrophysicists have observed the most energetic neutrino ever seen. The particle was spotted by the Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope (KM3NeT), which is still under construction at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Neutrinos; Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope. 

Major Highlights: 

  • KM3NeT detected an ultra-high energy neutrino having 30 times more energy than any previously detected neutrino. The energy was 220 petaelectronvolts.
    • An electronvolt is the energy of an electron accelerated by a voltage of just one volt.
  • This means that the neutrino had:
    • 100 trillion times more energy than a typical particle at the centre of the Sun. 
    • Trillion times more energy than medical X-rays
    • Ten billion times more than the most dangerous radioactive particles. 
    • Twenty thousand times more energetic than any particle in the most powerful particle collider (Large Hadron Collider).
  • It is anticipated that the particle came from outside the Milky Way galaxy; its exact source still remains to be detected.

What are Neutrinos?

  • Neutrinos belong to a group of fundamental particles called leptons in the Standard Model of Particle Physics. 
  • They have no electric charge and very little mass (nearly massless). 
  • They are the second-most abundant particles after photons (particles of light) and the most abundant among particles that make up matter.
  • They very rarely interact with matter and that is why they are called ghost particles. This means they can travel through vast distances, including entire planets, almost undetected.
  • There are three main types of neutrinos: Electron neutrino, Muon neutrino and Tau neutrino. These particles are produced when particles called leptons interact with matter.
    • For example, when a type of lepton called a muon interacts with matter, the interaction produces a muon-neutrino. The same goes for electrons (electron-neutrino) and tauons (tau-neutrino). 
  • Source of Neutrinos: Stars, Supernovae, Galaxies, Nuclear reactions. 
standard model beyond the atom

Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope (KM3NeT)

  • KM3NeT is a gigantic deep sea neutrino telescope, being built by an international collaboration of more than 300 scientists and engineers from 21 countries. The enormous device is still under construction.
  • KM3NeT consists of two deep-sea components:
    • ARCA (Astroparticle Research with Cosmics in the Abyss): 3.4 km deep near Sicily, Italy, focused on detecting high-energy neutrinos.
    • ORCA (Oscillation Research with Cosmics in the Abyss): 2.4 km deep near Provence, France, to study low-energy neutrinos.
  • KM3NeT will be made up of more than 6,000 light detectors inside the ocean. When the telescope is complete, it will cover about a cubic kilometre of sea.

Working

  • Neutrino interacts with matter so weakly that it can pass through kilometres of ocean (and even thousands of kilometres of Earth itself) to reach the KM3NeT detector.
  • Most of the neutrinos would pass through the detector unnoticed. In very rare cases, a neutrino will collide with a water molecule.
    • This collision will produce secondary particles (like muons etc.). 
    • These secondary particles travel faster in the water than the speed of the light in the water, thus producing a faint bluish glow known as Cherenkov radiation. 
    • The light detectors (KM3NeT’s optical sensors) will detect the Cherenkov radiation and send a signal to the surface.
    • By studying the pattern of Cherenkov radiation, scientists can reconstruct/ study the original energy of the neutrino and its direction. 
image 120

Why study Neutrino?

The study of neutrinos is an area of immense interest among particle physicists and astrophysicists. 

  • Neutrinos can travel vast distances with minimal interaction, hence, they carry information about the early universe, moments after the Big Bang. Studying them can provide insights into the universe's evolution. 
  • The mechanism by which neutrinos acquire mass is still not fully understood. Studying their properties might shed light on the Higgs mechanism and mass generation in general. 
  • There are discrepancies between Standard Model's predictions (Neutrino is massless) and the observed behaviour of neutrinos (have non-zero mass). Studying these anomalies could lead to the discovery of new physics beyond the Standard Model.

Darjeeling Zoo gets Biobank

Context: India’s first ‘bio bank’ in a zoo has been set up at Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park or Darjeeling Zoo in West Bengal. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Bio Banks; Darjeeling Zoo. 

Major Highlights:

  • The biobank was established in July 2024 and DNA materials — cellular and tissue samples — from 60 animals of 23 species have been collected, till date.
  • The facility collects and preserves:
    • Cell and tissue samples from endangered animals. 
    • Reproductive cells (gametes) from dead animals.
  • The samples are being preserved in minus 196 degree Celsius in liquid Nitrogen in cryogenic state (Cryo-preservation). The samples can be stored in the biobank for at least 40 to 45 years. 
  • Initiative of: Darjeeling Zoo, in collaboration with the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), under the Ministry of Science and Technology. 

Utility

  • R&D: Samples can be preserved for future research. E.g., Study on mutations, impact of climate change on the organisms. 
  • Wildlife conservation: Samples can be used to potentially bring back critically endangered species that have gone extinct or are on the verge of extinction.

Cryogenics:

  • Cryogenics is the study of the production and behaviour of materials at extremely low temperatures (below -150 degrees Celsius). 
  • Most common gases turned into liquid for cryogenics are: Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen and Helium.

Potential applications of Cryogenics:

  • Cryosurgery: Cryogenic temperatures are used to kill unwanted or malignant tissues, such as cancer cells or moles.
  • Cryopreservation: Preservation of organisms, tissue, and genetic material using cryopreservation. E.g., Freezing of eggs and embryos for fertility preservation and research purposes, storage of vaccines, blood banking, food preservation. 
  • Cryonics: Cryopreservation of animals and humans with the goal of reviving them in the future. 
  • Cryoelectronics: Study of superconductivity, variable-range hopping, and other electronic phenomena at low temperature. 
  • Cryoengines: Rocket engine using cryogenic fuels, including liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. 
  • Research: Cryogenic technology is used in Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to determine the chemical structure of a molecule.

Biobanks

  • Biobank is a repository of biological samples, such as blood, DNA, cells, tissues, and/or organs alongside their genetic data. 
  • It collects and preserves samples from animals and consenting individuals (humans) to carry out research.
    • As of 2024, there are 19 registered biobanks in India, hosting many biological specimens, including cancer cell lines and tissues.
    • They provide researchers with access to diverse genetic information, enabling the development of targeted therapies. 
  • India needs comprehensive biobanking regulations to govern the collection, storage, sharing, and ethical use of biological samples at par with global standards.  
image 118

Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park

  • Location: Darjeeling, West Bengal. 
  • Largest high altitude zoo in India. 
  • Specialises in breeding animals adapted to alpine conditions, and has successful captive (conservation) breeding programs for species including:
    • Snow leopard
    • Endangered Himalayan wolf
    • Red panda 
  • Major fauna: The zoo contains endangered animals like snow leopards, red pandas, gorals (mountain goats), Siberian tigers and endangered birds.

Brahmos Missile and its Variants

Context: The next-generation BrahMos missile or BrahMos NG is approaching its first flight test, slated for 2026. The missile system is at an advanced stage of development with production set to commence in 2027-28.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Brahmos Missile and its Variants. 

Brahmos Missile and its Variants

1. Brahmos Missile: 

  • World's fastest supersonic cruise missile.  
  • Jointly developed by: DRDO (India) and NPO Mashinostroyenia (Russia), which have together formed BrahMos Aerospace Private Limited.
  • Key Features:
    • It weighs 3 tonnes (3000 kg) and measures 9 meters long.
      • The airforce variant is lighter (2.5 tonnes/ 2500 kg) 
    • Top speed: 2.8 Mach
    • Range: 290 kilometers 
    • Propulsion: Two-stage missile (solid propellant engine in first stage and liquid ramjet in second stage).
    • Launched from multiple platforms, including land, air, and sea with pinpoint accuracy during day and night, irrespective of weather conditions.
      • Fire and Forget principle of operation, difficult to intercept.
      • Stealth technology and guidance system. 
  • Export Potential:
    • India delivered the first batch of BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles to the Philippines in 2024. 
    • Indonesia and Vietnam are soon set to ink a deal for the BrahMos missile. 
image 106

2. BrahMos NG (Next Generation): 

  • BrahMos NG is a supersonic cruise missile. It is significantly smaller and lighter than its predecessor (original Brahmos missile). 
  • Key Features:
    • It weighs 1.6 tonnes and measures 6 meters in length. 
    • Top speed: 3.5 Mach
    • Range: 290 kilometers 
    • Launched from multiple platforms, including land, air, and sea
    • BrahMos NG has a reduced radar cross-section, AESA radar that enhances its precision and stealth capabilities.
  • Launch platform: Can be fitted in Tejas, Sukhoi-30MKI, Rafale, AMCA etc. 
  • Expected induction: 2027-28. 

3. BrahMos-II Missile: 

  • BrahMos-II is a hypersonic cruise missile.
    • Hypersonic Weapon Systems are advanced military technologies capable of travelling at extremely high speeds (typically Mach 5 or higher).
  • Under joint development: DRDO (India) and NPO Mashinostroyenia (Russia).
  • Key Features:
    • Expected speeds: over Mach 7 (possibly reaching Mach 8)
    • Expected range: around 620 miles (1000 kms).
    • Launched from multiple platforms, including land, air, and sea
    • Likely to have the same characteristics as Russia's Tsircon missile.
  • Expected induction: Around 2028. 
image 107

Key Facts: 

  • India is a party to the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). 
  • MTCR allows the country to develop a missile with a range of >300 km and weight >500 kg, but not to export it to other countries. 
  • The export version of BrahMos is capped at 290 kms to comply with the MTCR restrictions of 300 kms.

Scope of ISRO Technologies in Daily Life

Context: Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe) has identified over 150 technologies developed for various ISRO missions that can be shared with industry to be utilised for other purposes.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Questions on scope of usage of space technologies in daily life.

Mains: Examples can be utilised in relating space R&D with daily life.

Space Technologies and their use in other domains

TechnologiesUsage
Collision Avoidance system: The software, camera and algorithms designed in Chandrayaan-3 lunar landing to reduce speed to prevent collision. It can be used to assist in hazard detection and navigation, offering potential improvements in automotive safety systems.
Automatic Deployment sensors: Pressure sensors used to monitor propellant levels during rocket launch.It can be repurposed to determine optimal airbag deployment timing in vehicles, thereby enhancing safety of passengers during collisions.
Anti-Corrosive coatings like NRCM-204 are capable of protecting metals and composites from various types of corrosion.Construction material: This coating can be utilised in construction to safeguard structures against environmental degradation.Fire resistance: Benzoxazine polymer developed by ISRO is easily processable, stable across different temperatures and can act as an effective flame retardant.
3D LiDAR: Technology is used for space navigation by generating 3D images with depth information.Detection and counting of people in heavily crowded places. Near-terrain flight assistance for helicopters and hazards or pedestrian detection to avoid collision. Healthcare: LiDAR cameras can be used for body measurements with precision (like waist & hip size) to predict the risk of lifestyle diseases.Appliances: It can be used in home devices, including gesture recognition in mobile phones, television and gaming platforms.
Lithium ion battery: ISRO’s cost effective Li-ion batteries making technology.This technology can be utilised for the electric vehicles technology increasing their efficiency.
Vibration control technology to bear the shocks and vibrations in the rocket and payload.Seismic control: The technology can be used to make buildings earthquake resistant.Enhancing comfort: The technology can further enhance the comfort of road, airways, railways and sea transportation. 

About IN-SPACe

  • The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre is an autonomous agency under the Department of Space, Government of India.
  • Key functions of the agency: 
    • Promotion and authorisation of the private entities including non-governmental enterprises to engage in various space-related activities.
    • Infrastructure sharing including ISRO facilities with the private players.
    • Facilitating new facilities established by private entities, fostering innovation and growth within the sector.

Malaria Elimination: Efforts & Challenges  

Context: The World Health Organisation (WHO) has officially certified Georgia as Malaria-free. Despite decades of global efforts, Malaria still causes over 240 million cases and more than 600,000 deaths annually.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Malaria; Malaria vaccines; CRISPR and Gene Drive. 

About Malaria

  • About: Life-threatening disease caused by plasmodium parasites transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
  • Transmission: Through blood transfusion, organ transplant, shared use of needles or syringes contaminated with blood, because malaria parasite is found in red blood cells of an infected person.
  • Types: There are 5 parasite species that cause malaria in humans, and 2 of these species: Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax pose the greatest threat.
    • Vivax plasmodium is known to hide in the liver and cause recurrent infections.
  • Symptoms: Fever, chills, sweats, headaches, muscle aches, and fatigue. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as organ failure and death.
  • Diagnosis: Through blood tests.
  • Antimalarial medications: Chloroquine, artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs), but drug resistance is a growing concern.
  • Prevention: To control the vector, insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) are used by endemic countries.
  • Vaccine: RTS,S/AS01 (brand name Mosquirix) and R21/Matrix M.
  • Path to malaria eradication:
    • By WHO: Reducing case incidence and mortality rates by 75% in 2025 and 90% in 2030. 
    • By India: Malaria-free by 2027 and to eliminate the disease by 2030.

Malaria parasite’s life-cycle

  • An infected Anopheles mosquito bites a human, injecting Plasmodium sporozoites that are highly infective into the bloodstream. 
  • These parasites first travel to the liver, invading liver cells and multiplying undetected by the immune system. 
  • After this phase, they re-enter the bloodstream, infecting red blood cells and causing malaria’s characteristic fever and chills. 
  • The parasite multiplies asexually within RBCs, however, some develop into sexual forms known as gametocytes, which are then taken up by another mosquito when it bites an infected individual. 
  • Inside the mosquito, these gametocytes undergo sexual reproduction, maturing into sporozoites that migrate to the mosquito’s salivary glands, making the mosquito infectious to new human hosts. 
image 101

Challenges in developing a universal Malaria Vaccine: 

  • Deception to evade Immune system: 
    • Plasmodium is a protozoan parasite and eukaryotic organism with multiple stages of development, each featuring different surface antigens. The Malaria parasite masters deception, evading the human immune system.
      • Its greatest strength is antigenic variation, where it frequently changes its surface proteins, making it difficult for immune cells to recognise it and respond.
      • Plasmodium follows an intracellular lifestyle, hiding within the liver and RBCs, shielding itself from immune surveillance. 
    • This ability to evade detection weakens the body’s ability to develop long-lasting immunity, making reinfection common. 
  • Adaption and Evolution:
    • Malaria’s life cycle spans multiple stages across two hosts—humans and mosquitoes. So when a vaccine is developed, the parasite’s genetic adaptability enables it to evolve resistance. 
    • When scientists find a way to combat one strain, the parasite alters its proteins and genetic structure to bypass immunity. The adaptability makes it difficult to develop a universal and long-lasting vaccine.

Malaria vaccines

  • RTS, S malaria vaccine (brand name Mosquirix) was the first to receive WHO approval for large-scale rollout in endemic regions after 60 years of research.
    • It targets the liver stage of the parasite’s life cycle. However, its efficacy is limited, reducing malaria cases by approximately 36% after four doses over four years in children. 
    • RTS, S requires multiple doses, posing logistical challenges in resource-limited regions.
  • Second-generation malaria vaccines:
    • R21/Matrix-M vaccine is one second-generation malaria vaccine which enhances the immune response and has shown 77% efficacy over 12 months. 
    • PfSPZ vaccine is a whole-parasite vaccine that attenuates Plasmodium sporozoites to stimulate immunity against the liver stage of infection. 
    • RH5-based vaccines prevent Plasmodium from invading red blood cells and target the blood stage after symptoms. 
    • Transmission-blocking vaccines aim to halt the spread of malaria by preventing mosquitoes from becoming carriers.

CRISPR and Gene Drive: Global fight for Malaria

  • Under normal law of inheritance, a specific trait from an organism has a 50/50 chance to be passed. (Offspring inherit one copy of each gene from each parent, resulting in a random chance of expressing either mother’s version or father’s version)
  • Gene Drive is the use of gene-editing techniques to alter the law of inheritance to pass on a particular genetic trait from one generation to the next generation, faster than the normal rate.
    • This is achieved by editing a particular gene in a way that it can copy and paste itself into its corresponding location on the other chromosome, instead of the 50/50 inheritance pattern that occurs naturally. 
    • This copying and pasting occurs during the production of reproductive cells (sperm or egg), resulting in a higher probability that the gene will be passed down to the next generation. 
image 102
  • CRISPR is being used to edit a gene called ‘doublesex’ in female mosquitoes which are the main transmitters of Malaria. 
  • When the female mosquitoes inherit two copies of the disrupted gene, they develop like males and are unable to bite or lay eggs.
  • This genetic tweak of double-sex gene follows gene drive inheritance. With this, in 8 generations female mosquitoes are completely eliminated.

Malaria is a neglected tropical disease (i.e, mainly prevalent among impoverished communities in tropical areas). Malaria vaccine research has long suffered from underfunding. Countries risk resurgence of Malaria due to shifting mosquito habitats. 

An effective malaria control strategy will require a combination of more efficient vaccines, mosquito control & improved treatment options.

Role of AI in Drug-testing

Context: In the last decade, the number of submissions from drugmakers that include an AI or machine-learning component has seen an exponential rise. In January 2025, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) proposed draft guidelines on the use of artificial intelligence (AI) to assess the safety and effectiveness of drugs.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Role of AI in Drug-testing- Applications & Limitations. 

Limitations of Conventional Testing & Need for AI

  • Dependence on animal models:
    • Pharma industries have traditionally used animal models’ response to various compounds to assess whether a drug can proceed to human clinical trials. 
    • But different populations globally respond differently to drugs and diseases according to age, sex, pre-existing medical conditions, and genetic variabilities etc. This range can not be captured by the response of a homogenous, lab-bred animal population. 
    • E.g., Rats can eliminate some drugs from their bodies much faster than humans. For the same dose level, humans need to be exposed to the drug for a longer duration. 
  • High cost and low success rates: 
    • It takes nearly 10 years and over a billion dollars to develop a drug using conventional (animal-based) processes, which have a success rate of only 14%.

Role of AI in drug development:

image 98

Limitations of the AI models

Despite the potential to overcome barriers of conventional testing, AI has its own challenges. 

  • Reliability and bias: Use of biased and/or under-representative data of a target population will also compromise the output. An incorrect prediction could have life-threatening implications.
  • Lack of Transparency: Algorithms of most AI models are not open to independent scrutiny, nor is the data used to train them easily accessible. Hence the models’ performance can not be assessed as required.
  • Ethical concerns: There is no legal accountability and responsibility arising out of the decisions made by AI (as AI models can self-learn and adapt over time). 

Recent developments in AI-driven drug testing: 

  • US: FDA’s draft guidelines focusses on: 
    • Improving the quality and quantity of data used to train the AI model.  
    • Need to continuously monitor AI models for reliability. Encourage the industry to discuss and design appropriate ways to assess their AI models.
    • Use of AI in the preclinical stage in particular to assess/approve the safety and effectiveness of a drug (or a compound of interest) before starting human clinical trials.
  • India: New Drugs and Clinical Trials (Amendment) Rules 2023: 
    • It allowed data generated by advanced computational models to be used to assess the safety and efficacy of new drugs, freeing researchers from relying on animal trials alone.

There is a need for convergence of guidelines issued by global regulators that can help harmonise (i) government policy, (ii) manufacturers’ expectations and compliance burden, (iii) researchers’ strategy, and (iv) consumer safety. This will be crucial for utilising AI to develop a more effective and affordable healthcare system.

Scientists discover ‘Einstein Ring’ around nearby galaxy

Context: The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Euclid space telescope has discovered a rare ring of light (known as an Einstein ring) around a galaxy nearly 590 million light-years away from Earth.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Einstein Ring; Gravitational lensing; Euclid space telescope. 

What is an Einstein Ring?

  • An Einstein ring is a ring of light around a form of dark matter, galaxy or cluster of galaxies. It is an example of strong gravitational lensing.
    • Gravitational lensing is a phenomenon which occurs when a massive celestial object (such as a galaxy, cluster of galaxies or black hole) creates a strong gravitational field which distorts and amplifies the light (causes the light to bend/curve) from a distant object positioned directly behind it. 
    • The object causing the light to curve is called a gravitational lens.
    • Gravitational lensing can result in several types of image configurations, including an Einstein ring.
image 93

Discovery of the recent Einstein Ring: 

  • The Einstein ring was discovered around NGC 6505, a galaxy that was first found in the 19th Century & is nearly 590 million light-years away from Earth.
    • NGC 6505 acted as the gravitational lens. It distorted and amplified the light coming from a distant unnamed galaxy, located 4.42 billion light-years away.
      • A light-year is the distance light travels in one year, which is 9.46 trillion kilometres.
    • The photos taken by Euclid show a bright ball of light in the centre with a bright, cloudy ring around it.

Rarity of Einstein Rings:

  • Einstein rings are named after mathematician and physicist Albert Einstein, whose general theory of relativity predicted that light could bend and brighten around objects across the cosmos. 
  • The first Einstein ring was discovered in 1987, and since then, several more have been discovered. 
  • Notably, they are extremely rare — less than 1% of galaxies have an Einstein ring.
  • Einstein rings are not visible to the naked eye, and can be observed only through space telescopes such as Euclid.
image 94

Why do scientists study Einstein Rings?

  • Probing dark matter:
    • These rings help scientists investigate dark matter which has never been detected. Dark matter and dark energy together make up 95% of the universe.
    • This dark matter does not interact with light, but it does have a gravitational effect. Gravitational lensing thus allows us to indirectly detect dark matter. 
  • Studying distant galaxies:
    • Einstein rings enable scientists to learn about distant galaxies, which otherwise might not be visible.
  • Expansion of Universe:
    • They can also provide information about the expansion of the universe as the space between the Earth and other galaxies — both in the foreground and the background — is stretching.

About Euclid Space Telescope: 

image 95
  • The Euclid Space Telescope was launched in 2023 from Cape Canaveral in Florida on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket by the European Space Agency (ESA). 
  • The telescope is stationed 1.5 million km away from the Earth at the Lagrangian Point 2. 
  • It will observe the shapes, distances, and motions of billions of galaxies spanning over 10 billion light-years over the next six years. 
  • Objective:
    • To create the largest cosmic 3D map of the universe to better understand the distribution of dark matter and reveal the influence of dark energy in the early universe.
    • To understand the evolution of the Universe by looking at the light emitted from galaxies 10 billion years ago. 

Inclusive AI: AI Action Summit 2025

Context: Sixty countries, including India, China, Brazil, France, and Australia, signed a joint statement on “Inclusive and Sustainable Artificial Intelligence for People and the Planet” at the AI Action Summit in Paris, 2025.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: AI Action Summit 2025

Mains: AI Regulations- Different approaches, Challenges, Initiatives

AI Action Summit 2025

  • Held in Paris, France. Co-chaired by India and France.
  • Focus on: Inclusive and Sustainable AI development.
  • 60 countries signed the joint statement, including India, China, Brazil, France, Canada and Australia.
  • The United States and United Kingdom were non-signatories.
  • Provisions of Joint Statement:
    • Ensuring accessibility, trust, and safety in AI deployment.
    • Promoting AI for industrial growth and labour market development.
    • Encouraging global collaboration in AI innovation.
    • Building AI capacity in developing countries.
    • AI should be human-centric, ethical, safe, secure, and trustworthy.

Challenges in global AI governance

  • Front runners monopoly: US and China are shaping the AI governance discourse, potentially sidelining the specific needs of the Global South.
  • U.S. stance: Prioritizes AI innovation and deregulation over global ethical frameworks.
  • Potential conflict: between the European regulatory approach and the U.S. free-market approach.
  • Different governing models: Diverging AI governance models impact international cooperation on AI standards.
  • Resource gap: There is a significant resource gap between developed and developing countries, which affects their ability to advance in AI.

India’s Role in AI Governance

  • Leadership in AI Policy Development:
    • India’s co-chairing of the AI Action summit highlights its growing global AI leadership.
  • Active Participation in Global Forums: 
    • India is actively engaged in global platforms like the UN, G-20, and Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI).
    • India emphasizes equitable AI access and governance for developing countries.
  • Advocacy for Fair AI Governance: 
    • India has raised concerns about equitable access to AI resources, including data, infrastructure, and knowledge-sharing mechanisms.
  • Recent Achievements: 
    • India’s leadership in the G-20 New Delhi Leaders Declaration and GPAI emphasized fair AI benefits and risk mitigation.
  • Inclusive Global AI Governance: 
    • India is pushing for an AI governance model that includes marginalized voices from the Global South, focusing on fairness, human rights, and diverse global perspectives.

India’s AI Policies and Initiatives

  • National Strategy for AI - NITI Aayog’s AI for All:
    • India’s first comprehensive AI strategy, focusing on social inclusion, innovation, and governance.
    • Key focus areas: Healthcare, Agriculture, Education, Smart Cities, and Smart Mobility.
  • Responsible AI Initiatives:
    • Digital India Bhashini: AI-powered language translation platform for regional inclusivity.
    • IndiaAI Mission: Aims to develop AI infrastructure, promote innovation, and ensure AI governance.
  • AI Policy and Regulation Framework:
    • Personal Data Protection Act (PDPA) and Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023 to regulate AI-driven data processing.
    • India's Draft National AI Policy (under discussion) focuses on ethics, bias mitigation, and regulatory oversight.
  • AI in Governance and Public Services:
    • AI-powered chatbots, predictive analytics, and automation in public service delivery.
    • AI in crime detection, judicial processes, and e-governance (e.g., AI-powered courts).

Global AI Regulatory approaches

  • European Union’s (EU) AI Act:
    • First comprehensive AI regulatory framework globally.
    • Risk-based classification of AI systems:
      • Unacceptable risk AI (banned): Social scoring, real-time biometric surveillance.
      • High-risk AI: Used in healthcare, law enforcement, recruitment, and finance (strict regulation).
      • Limited risk AI: Subject to transparency obligations.
  • United States: Pro-Growth AI Policy
    • No single AI law, but sector-specific regulations (e.g., AI in healthcare and finance).
    • White House AI Bill of Rights (2022) – focuses on AI ethics, fairness, and non-discrimination.
    • The recently announced AI Executive Order aims to boost AI research while minimizing regulatory burdens.
  • China: Government-Controlled AI Development
    • Strict AI regulations with state-controlled AI ethics and content moderation policies.
    • Generative AI laws require AI models to align with state-approved narratives.
    • Heavy investment in AI-powered surveillance and military applications.
  • United Kingdom: Flexible AI Framework
    • Regulation-by-sector approach, allowing AI innovation with industry-specific oversight.
    • Focus on AI transparency, data privacy, and accountability without imposing EU-style restrictions.

Also Read: Artificial Intelligence and its Regulation 

Challenges in AI Regulation for India

  • Balancing Innovation and Regulation: Need for strong AI governance without stifling growth.
  • AI Bias and Ethical concerns: Addressing algorithmic biases, privacy violations, and discrimination.
  • Data Privacy & Security: Strengthening data protection laws for AI applications.
  • Infrastructure & Research Gaps: Need for investment in AI R&D, computing power, and skilled workforce.
  • Global AI Standards Compliance: Aligning Indian AI policies with global best practices.

Trending now

Captagon
B’nei Menashe: Identity, Migration, and the “Lost Tribes” Debate
Bauxite Mining Conflict in Odisha
Impact of Rising Energy Costs on Migrant Labourers