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Scientists discover ‘Einstein Ring’ around nearby galaxy

Context: The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Euclid space telescope has discovered a rare ring of light (known as an Einstein ring) around a galaxy nearly 590 million light-years away from Earth.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Einstein Ring; Gravitational lensing; Euclid space telescope. 

What is an Einstein Ring?

  • An Einstein ring is a ring of light around a form of dark matter, galaxy or cluster of galaxies. It is an example of strong gravitational lensing.
    • Gravitational lensing is a phenomenon which occurs when a massive celestial object (such as a galaxy, cluster of galaxies or black hole) creates a strong gravitational field which distorts and amplifies the light (causes the light to bend/curve) from a distant object positioned directly behind it. 
    • The object causing the light to curve is called a gravitational lens.
    • Gravitational lensing can result in several types of image configurations, including an Einstein ring.
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Discovery of the recent Einstein Ring: 

  • The Einstein ring was discovered around NGC 6505, a galaxy that was first found in the 19th Century & is nearly 590 million light-years away from Earth.
    • NGC 6505 acted as the gravitational lens. It distorted and amplified the light coming from a distant unnamed galaxy, located 4.42 billion light-years away.
      • A light-year is the distance light travels in one year, which is 9.46 trillion kilometres.
    • The photos taken by Euclid show a bright ball of light in the centre with a bright, cloudy ring around it.

Rarity of Einstein Rings:

  • Einstein rings are named after mathematician and physicist Albert Einstein, whose general theory of relativity predicted that light could bend and brighten around objects across the cosmos. 
  • The first Einstein ring was discovered in 1987, and since then, several more have been discovered. 
  • Notably, they are extremely rare — less than 1% of galaxies have an Einstein ring.
  • Einstein rings are not visible to the naked eye, and can be observed only through space telescopes such as Euclid.
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Why do scientists study Einstein Rings?

  • Probing dark matter:
    • These rings help scientists investigate dark matter which has never been detected. Dark matter and dark energy together make up 95% of the universe.
    • This dark matter does not interact with light, but it does have a gravitational effect. Gravitational lensing thus allows us to indirectly detect dark matter. 
  • Studying distant galaxies:
    • Einstein rings enable scientists to learn about distant galaxies, which otherwise might not be visible.
  • Expansion of Universe:
    • They can also provide information about the expansion of the universe as the space between the Earth and other galaxies — both in the foreground and the background — is stretching.

About Euclid Space Telescope: 

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  • The Euclid Space Telescope was launched in 2023 from Cape Canaveral in Florida on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket by the European Space Agency (ESA). 
  • The telescope is stationed 1.5 million km away from the Earth at the Lagrangian Point 2. 
  • It will observe the shapes, distances, and motions of billions of galaxies spanning over 10 billion light-years over the next six years. 
  • Objective:
    • To create the largest cosmic 3D map of the universe to better understand the distribution of dark matter and reveal the influence of dark energy in the early universe.
    • To understand the evolution of the Universe by looking at the light emitted from galaxies 10 billion years ago. 

Inclusive AI: AI Action Summit 2025

Context: Sixty countries, including India, China, Brazil, France, and Australia, signed a joint statement on “Inclusive and Sustainable Artificial Intelligence for People and the Planet” at the AI Action Summit in Paris, 2025.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: AI Action Summit 2025

Mains: AI Regulations- Different approaches, Challenges, Initiatives

AI Action Summit 2025

  • Held in Paris, France. Co-chaired by India and France.
  • Focus on: Inclusive and Sustainable AI development.
  • 60 countries signed the joint statement, including India, China, Brazil, France, Canada and Australia.
  • The United States and United Kingdom were non-signatories.
  • Provisions of Joint Statement:
    • Ensuring accessibility, trust, and safety in AI deployment.
    • Promoting AI for industrial growth and labour market development.
    • Encouraging global collaboration in AI innovation.
    • Building AI capacity in developing countries.
    • AI should be human-centric, ethical, safe, secure, and trustworthy.

Challenges in global AI governance

  • Front runners monopoly: US and China are shaping the AI governance discourse, potentially sidelining the specific needs of the Global South.
  • U.S. stance: Prioritizes AI innovation and deregulation over global ethical frameworks.
  • Potential conflict: between the European regulatory approach and the U.S. free-market approach.
  • Different governing models: Diverging AI governance models impact international cooperation on AI standards.
  • Resource gap: There is a significant resource gap between developed and developing countries, which affects their ability to advance in AI.

India’s Role in AI Governance

  • Leadership in AI Policy Development:
    • India’s co-chairing of the AI Action summit highlights its growing global AI leadership.
  • Active Participation in Global Forums: 
    • India is actively engaged in global platforms like the UN, G-20, and Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI).
    • India emphasizes equitable AI access and governance for developing countries.
  • Advocacy for Fair AI Governance: 
    • India has raised concerns about equitable access to AI resources, including data, infrastructure, and knowledge-sharing mechanisms.
  • Recent Achievements: 
    • India’s leadership in the G-20 New Delhi Leaders Declaration and GPAI emphasized fair AI benefits and risk mitigation.
  • Inclusive Global AI Governance: 
    • India is pushing for an AI governance model that includes marginalized voices from the Global South, focusing on fairness, human rights, and diverse global perspectives.

India’s AI Policies and Initiatives

  • National Strategy for AI - NITI Aayog’s AI for All:
    • India’s first comprehensive AI strategy, focusing on social inclusion, innovation, and governance.
    • Key focus areas: Healthcare, Agriculture, Education, Smart Cities, and Smart Mobility.
  • Responsible AI Initiatives:
    • Digital India Bhashini: AI-powered language translation platform for regional inclusivity.
    • IndiaAI Mission: Aims to develop AI infrastructure, promote innovation, and ensure AI governance.
  • AI Policy and Regulation Framework:
    • Personal Data Protection Act (PDPA) and Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023 to regulate AI-driven data processing.
    • India's Draft National AI Policy (under discussion) focuses on ethics, bias mitigation, and regulatory oversight.
  • AI in Governance and Public Services:
    • AI-powered chatbots, predictive analytics, and automation in public service delivery.
    • AI in crime detection, judicial processes, and e-governance (e.g., AI-powered courts).

Global AI Regulatory approaches

  • European Union’s (EU) AI Act:
    • First comprehensive AI regulatory framework globally.
    • Risk-based classification of AI systems:
      • Unacceptable risk AI (banned): Social scoring, real-time biometric surveillance.
      • High-risk AI: Used in healthcare, law enforcement, recruitment, and finance (strict regulation).
      • Limited risk AI: Subject to transparency obligations.
  • United States: Pro-Growth AI Policy
    • No single AI law, but sector-specific regulations (e.g., AI in healthcare and finance).
    • White House AI Bill of Rights (2022) – focuses on AI ethics, fairness, and non-discrimination.
    • The recently announced AI Executive Order aims to boost AI research while minimizing regulatory burdens.
  • China: Government-Controlled AI Development
    • Strict AI regulations with state-controlled AI ethics and content moderation policies.
    • Generative AI laws require AI models to align with state-approved narratives.
    • Heavy investment in AI-powered surveillance and military applications.
  • United Kingdom: Flexible AI Framework
    • Regulation-by-sector approach, allowing AI innovation with industry-specific oversight.
    • Focus on AI transparency, data privacy, and accountability without imposing EU-style restrictions.

Also Read: Artificial Intelligence and its Regulation 

Challenges in AI Regulation for India

  • Balancing Innovation and Regulation: Need for strong AI governance without stifling growth.
  • AI Bias and Ethical concerns: Addressing algorithmic biases, privacy violations, and discrimination.
  • Data Privacy & Security: Strengthening data protection laws for AI applications.
  • Infrastructure & Research Gaps: Need for investment in AI R&D, computing power, and skilled workforce.
  • Global AI Standards Compliance: Aligning Indian AI policies with global best practices.

IIT Madras develops Shakti-based Semiconductor Chip

Context: The Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Madras and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) have developed an indigenous aerospace quality Shakti-based semiconductor chip. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about IRIS; RISC-V. 

About Shakti-based Semiconductor Chip

image 88
  • The chip is named IRIS (Indigenous RISC-V Controller for Space Applications).
  • It is based on the SHAKTI microprocessor and is part of India’s push for self-reliance in semiconductor technology.
    • SHAKTI systems use RISC-V (an open-source processor technology) and are supported by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology under the ‘Digital India RISC-V’ (DIRV) initiative.
    • The DIRV initiative aims to promote indigenous development of microprocessor-based products that offer best-in-class security and visibility for users adopting RISC-V technology. 
  • This is the third SHAKTI chip successfully fabricated in India after RIMO in 2018 and MOUSHIK in 2020.
    • The two chips built earlier (RIMO & MOUSHIK) were technology demonstrators and not fully optimised for performance and error correction. 
  • Utility: IRIS can be used for applications on launch vehicles, ground stations and Internet of Things (IoT) and industrial IoT applications.

Key features of IRIS Chip: 

  • Developed to support ISRO’s command and control systems and other critical functions.
  • Designed for fault tolerance and reliability, making it suitable for space missions.
  • Includes custom modules like watchdog timers and advanced serial buses.
  • Can be expanded for future missions through multiple boot modes and hybrid memory extensions.
  • Fully Made in India. 

Significance: 

  • IRIS marks a milestone in the Make in India efforts in semiconductor design and fabrication. 
  • The development will indigenise semiconductors used by ISRO for its applications, aligning with self-reliance in space technologies. 

About RISC-V

  • RISC-V is an open standard Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) based on established RISC principles. Each computer hardware will support a particular ISA.
    • Unlike most other ISA designs, RISC-V is provided under open-source licenses that do not require fees to use. 
    • RISC-V can be extended or customised for a variety of hardware or application requirements.
  • India has developed two series of microprocessors:
    • SHAKTI series of microprocessors by IIT Madras.
    • VEGA microprocessors by C-DAC.

Russia offers India for joint production of Su-57E fighter aircraft

Context: Russia has offered to partner with India for the joint production of Russian fifth generation fighter aircraft Sukhoi Su-57E for the Indian Air Force. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Su-57E fighter aircraft and India’s aircraft requirements. 

Major Highlights:

  • Russia’s state-owned defence export company, Rosoboronexport, has proposed the localised production of the Su-57E, the export version of Russia’s  fifth-generation fighter jet. 
  • It has also offered technological assistance for India’s indigenous Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) project. It includes technology transfers related to engines, Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radars, optics, artificial intelligence, software, and advanced weapons.
  • This offer is aimed to revive the Fifth-Generation Fighter Aircraft (FGFA) programme between India and Russia.
    • The FGFA programme was formalised in 2010. Till 2018, India spent $300 million on the project, working jointly with Russia. 
    • In 2018, India withdrew from the programme after key differences — disagreeable terms of transfer of technology. 
    • However, India is open to rejoining the programme in future.
  • Russia has been the main weapons supplier to India (the world's biggest arms importer), and Russian fighter jets are a part of India's military fleet.

India’s Aircraft Fleet

  • Indian Air Force (IAF) has 31 fighter squadrons as against the sanctioned strength of 42 squadrons, significantly below the optimal readiness requirements.
    • Of the current 31 squadrons, the phase out of two MIG-21 squadrons has been extended due to the delayed deliveries of LCA-Mk1A. 
  • LCA-Mk2 & AMCA are critical for IAF’s modernisation plans.
    • India's first indigenous 5th-generation stealth fighter jet — Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) will reach production stage in 2034-35. It is still in the design phase. 
    • Light Combat Aircraft-Mk2 (LCA-Mk2 Tejas) — 4.5 generation Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft — is expected to be inducted into the Indian Air Force by 2028-29. 
  • Rosoboronexport (Russia) has offered Su-57E (5th-generation fighter jet) for joint production as early as in 2025.
    • Presently, India does not have any fifth-generation stealth fighter jet.  
    • India plans to meet IAF's requirements by exploring options at Russian Su-57 or the American F-35, until Tejas production is streamlined and AMCA is realised. 
image 87

About Su-57E fighter aircraft

  • Sukhoi Su-57 is a twin-engine stealth multirole fifth-generation fighter aircraft developed by Sukhoi. 
  • Key features:
    • It has a maximum speed of Mach 1.8.
    • It can carry up to 7.4 tonnes of weapons, including air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles. 
    • It has a maximum operating altitude of 54,100 feet and has a combat range of 1,864 miles (~ 3000 kms). 
    • Su-57E has low radar and infrared signature and has advanced air weapons. 

IAF’s Modernisation Plans: LCA-Mk2 & AMCA

Context: The first prototype of the country’s fifth-generation fighter jet, the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) is expected to be rolled out by the end of 2026 or early 2027. The first prototype of the Light Combat Aircraft-Mk2 (LCA-Mk2) is expected by the end of 2025. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Basic understanding of India’s aircraft technological development.

India’s Aircraft Fleet

  • Indian Air Force (IAF) has 31 fighter squadrons as against the sanctioned strength of 42 squadrons, significantly below the optimal readiness requirements.
    • Of the current 31 squadrons, the phase out of two MIG-21 squadrons has been extended due to the delayed deliveries of LCA-Mk1A. 
    • LCA-Mk2 & AMCA are critical for IAF’s modernisation plans. 
  • IAF has acquired 36 Rafale (4.5 generation aircraft) from France through a government-to-government deal in 2016.

1. LCA-Mk2 (Tejas 2)

new tejas
  • LCA Mark 2 is a 4.5 generation Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft, an improved version of LCA Tejas fighter jet. 
  • Indigenous development by: Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
  • IAF plans to have about six squadrons of Tejas Mk2. Estimated induction: 2028-29

Key specifications of LCA-Mk2 (Tejas 2): 

  • Engine: Would be powered by GE-414 engine (a high-performance afterburning turbofan engine).
  • Combat Range: 1500 kms
  • Maximum Speed: 1.8 Mach 
  • With a weight of 17.5 tonnes, it can carry 6.5 tonnes of weapons. It has all indigenous weapons and about 11 weapon stations. 
  • Multirole aircraft: Designed to carry a range of air-to-air, air-to-surface and precision-guided weapons.
  • It is capable of carrying 8 Beyond-Visual-Range (BVR) missiles at once, in addition to incorporating modern armaments. 

2. Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA)

future's fighter
  • AMCA is a 5th-generation fighter aircraft (FGFA). It is currently the only 5th generation fighter under development in India.
  • Indigenous development: 
    • Designed by: Aeronautical Development Agency under the Defence Research and Development Organisation.
    • Manufactured by: state-owned Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
  • Full-stealth AMCA aircraft programme was sanctioned in 2024. Estimated induction: 2034 

Key specifications of AMCA: 

  • AMCA is a 25-tonne twin-engine aircraft. 
  • Max speed: Nearly 2,600 kilometres per hour (Mach 2.15)
  • Combat range: 1,620 km
  • Designed for multi-role missions, including air-to-air and air-to-ground operations, suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) and electronic warfare.
  • Stealth aircraft (capable of avoiding enemy radars and air defence mechanisms). The stealth fighter uses:
    • specialised paint coating and radar-absorbing material to reduce radar bounce-off
    • exhaust nozzles that reduce infrared radiation emitted by the engine
    • exhaust plume and fuselage technology that reduces the heat signature of the engine. 
  • First look, first kill: AMCA will be based on the ‘first look, first kill’ concept, where an AMCA pilot would see an enemy plane first, fire a missile and destroy it before the latter can react. 
  • Fuel and Weapons: AMCA will have a concealed internal fuel tank of 6.5-tonne capacity, and an internal weapons bay for a range of weapons, including indigenous weapons.
  • Engine:
    • AMCA Mk1 variant will have the US-built GE414 engine of the 90 kilonewton (kN) class.
    • The more advanced AMCA Mk2 will have a more powerful 110kN engine, to be developed indigenously by DRDO’s Gas Turbine Research Establishment in collaboration with a foreign defence major. 
  • AMCA can carry armament weighing 6,500 kg (1.5 tonnes internal payload capacity).
  • AMCA will carry:
    • BrahMos-NG (next generation) air-to-ground missiles
    • Astra air-to-air missiles
    • Rudram air-to-ground anti-radiation missiles
    • Anti-tank missiles, laser-guided bombs and precision munitions.

India plans to amend Nuclear Liability Laws

Context: India has announced plans to amend the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act 2010 and the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, to enable active participation of the American and French nuclear power firms in the Indian Nuclear Energy sector. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010; Atomic Energy Act, 1962. 

Mains: Significance of Nuclear Energy sector & impediments to its growth. 

Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010

  • India enacted CLNDA in 2010 to provide a quick compensation mechanism for victims of a nuclear accident.
  • The Act establishes a strict and no-fault liability for nuclear plant operators, meaning they are liable for damage regardless of fault. 
  • However, the operator of the nuclear installation, after paying the compensation for nuclear damage shall have the right to recourse where-
    • The nuclear incident has resulted as a consequence of an act of supplier or his employee, which includes supply of equipment or material with patent or latent defects or sub-standard services.
    • The nuclear incident has resulted from the act of commission or omission of an individual done with the intent to cause nuclear damage.
  • The operator will have to maintain a financial security to cover its maximum liability of ₹1,500 crore for civil nuclear damage and requires the operator to cover liability through insurance or other financial security.
  • In case the damage claims exceed ₹1,500 crore, the gap will be bridged by the Central Government. The government liability amounts to the rupee equivalent of 300 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) or about ₹2,100 to ₹2,300 crore. 

Atomic Energy Act, 1962

  • The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 provides for the development, control and use of atomic energy for the welfare of the people of India and for other peaceful purposes. 
  • The central government through the Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) holds the authority for activities related to nuclear energy, including its production, development, use, and disposal.
  • The Act restricts private companies from owning and operating nuclear power plants in India.
  • The 2015 amendment to the Atomic Energy Act, allows NPCIL to form joint ventures with other public sector units (PSUs) to secure funding for new projects. However, this does not extend to private or foreign companies. 
  • Currently, private companies can participate in specific areas like supplying components and reactors, but not owning or operating plants. Discussions are ongoing about allowing Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). This would require amendment to the Act.

Impediments in Nuclear Cooperation

India has signed the Civil Nuclear Agreement with the U.S. and France. Despite this several impediments hinder the progress of their collaboration. This includes: 

  • Nuclear Liability law of India: 
    • India’s Nuclear Liability law (Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010) has been a barrier to the growth of the nuclear energy industry. 
  • The strict liability law places the burden of compensation for nuclear accidents on the plant operator, which can deter private companies from investing in nuclear power. 
  • Also, as per the Act, the liability can be shifted from the operator to the vendor or supplier in case the accident is due to equipment or material. The Act contradicts the International Convention for Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC) which focuses only on the liability of operators of the plant. 
  • This has created apprehension among potential foreign suppliers, delaying India’s ambitious nuclear energy plans. E.g., Nuclear liability is the major issue why the deal to install French EPRs at Jaitapur has not made progress.
  • The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 prohibits investments by the private sector in nuclear power plants.
  • Regulatory Challenges:
    • The Indian regulatory framework for nuclear energy is stringent, it requires extensive safety certifications and compliance with international standards. 
    • E.g., Process of certifying European Pressurised Reactor (EPR) technology has been lengthy, which has slowed down project timelines and created uncertainties for investors.
  • Financial Considerations: High costs associated with building and maintaining nuclear power plants pose a financial challenge. The Jaitapur project (with an estimated capacity of 990 MW) requires large investment.
  • Technological transfer: While countries have committed to enhancing technological collaboration, concerns about intellectual property rights and technology transfer can create friction. 

Significance of the Proposed Amendments:

As of January 30, 2025, India’s nuclear capacity is 8180 MW from 22 reactors (the only foreign operator in India is Russia’s Rosatom). India aims to achieve 100 GW of Nuclear energy capacity by 2047. This would require greater participation from domestic private companies and foreign firms. 

  • CLNDA would be amended to separate operator’s liability from supplier’s liability to bring it in line with the International Convention for Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC). It will resume the progress of:
    • Electricite de France (EDF) MoU to build six EPR1650 reactors at Jaitapur in Maharashtra, signed in 2009.
    • American Westinghouse Electric Company’s MoU, to build six AP1000 reactors at Kovvada in Andhra Pradesh, signed in 2012. 
  • It is also expected to help India tap into new nuclear power technologies, particularly for small modular reactors (SMR). 
  • The amendment in the Atomic Energy Act would liberalise investment in power projects in India.

Also Read: Nuclear Energy Sector in Union Budget 2025-26 

Thus, the amendments will further the nuclear energy sector in India and will set clear legal standards in Indian domestic legislation aligned with international standards. 

Samudrayaan: India’s ‘Deep Ocean Mission’

Context: In 2026, India will launch Samudrayaan Mission, which will take three scientists in a submersible to explore the seabed at depths up to 6,000 meters. The Union has allocated Rs 600 crore for the Samudrayaan project. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Samudrayaan Mission.

Deep Ocean Mission

  • Deep Ocean Mission (DOM) is India’s ambitious quest to explore and harness the depths of the ocean. 
  • As part of the DOM mission, under ‘Samudrayaan mission’, an indigenously developed manned submersible 'Matsya 6000’ with a three-member crew is designed to be sent to a depth of 6 kilometres in the ocean.
  • The mission was approved by the Union Cabinet in 2021 at a cost of nearly ₹4,077 crore over a five-year period in a phased manner. 
  • Ministry of Implementation: Ministry of Earth Sciences.
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The mission has six pillars

  1. Development of technologies for deep-sea mining and a manned submersible to carry three people to a depth of 6,000 metres in the ocean. The submersible will be equipped with a suite of scientific sensors, tools and an integrated system for mining polymetallic nodules from the central Indian Ocean.
  2. Development of ocean climate change advisory services, involving an array of ocean observations and models to understand and provide future climate projections.
  3. Technological innovations for the exploration and conservation of deep-sea biodiversity.
  4. Deep-ocean survey and exploration aimed at identifying potential sites of multi-metal hydrothermal sulphides mineralisation along the Indian Ocean mid-oceanic ridges.
  5. Harnessing energy and freshwater from the ocean.
  6. Establishing an advanced Marine Station for Ocean Biology, as a hub for nurturing talent and driving new opportunities in ocean biology and blue biotechnology.
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Matsya 6000

  • Matsya 6000 is India’s flagship deep-ocean human submersible that aims to reach the ocean bed at a depth of 6000 metres in the central Indian Ocean in Matsya 6000. 
  • Accompanied by three crew members, the submersible carries a suite of scientific tools and equipment designed to facilitate observations, sample collection, basic video and audio recording, and experimentation.
  • It has an operational endurance of 12 hours, which is extendable to 96 hours in the event of an emergency.
    • The shallow-water personnel sphere of Matsya 6000 has been certified for human-rated operations at up to 500-m water depths.
    • A human acclimatisation test in a shallow-water sphere was conducted with three personnel for two hours at a depth of 7 m.
  • Developed by: National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT).
  • Constructed from a titanium alloy, the sphere is engineered to withstand pressures of up to 6,000 bar. It is equipped with propellers enabling movement in all six directions and features three viewports that allow the crew to observe its surroundings.
  • With Matsya, India will be the only country to have an entire ecosystem of underwater vehicles encompassing deep-water remote operated vehicles (ROVs), polar ROVs, autonomous remote vehicles (AUVs), deep-water coring systems. 

Key Facts

  • DOM is one of nine missions under the Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PMSTIAC). It is imperative that DOM supports the blue-economy priority area, blue trade, and blue manufacturing in India.
  • The ‘New India 2030’ document outlines the blue economy as the sixth core objective for India’s growth.
  • Years 2021-2030 have been designated by the United Nations as the ‘Decade of Ocean Science’.
  • NIOT has successfully conducted deep-sea locomotion trials on the seabed at a depth of 5,270 m using an underwater mining system, ‘Varaha’.
  • The U.S.A., Russia, China, France, and Japan have already achieved successful deep-ocean crewed missions. India is poised to join the ranks of these nations.

Why has a depth of 6,000 m been chosen?

  • United Nations International Seabed Authority (ISA) has allocated India, a 75,000-sq.-km area in the central Indian Ocean and an additional 10,000 sq. km at 26° S for this.
  • The decision to target a depth of 6,000 m for the DOM holds strategic significance. India has committed to the sustainable extraction of valuable resources, including polymetallic nodules and polymetallic sulphides. 
    • Polymetallic nodules, which contain precious metals like copper, manganese, nickel, iron, and cobalt, are found approximately 5,000 m deep, and polymetallic sulphides occur at around 3,000 m in the central Indian Ocean. 
  • Hence, India’s interests span depths of 3,000-5,500 m. By operating at a depth of 6,000 m, India can effectively cater to both the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone and the central Indian Ocean. 

Challenges facing DOM

  • Issues associated underwater:
    • High pressure in deep oceans: Being one metre underwater puts as much pressure on an object of one square metre area as if it were carrying 10,000 kg of weight. Operating under such high-pressure requires the use of meticulously designed equipment crafted from durable metals or materials. Additionally, electronics and instruments find it simpler to function in a vacuum or in space. Conversely, inside the water, poorly designed objects collapse or implode.
    • Landing on the ocean bed presents challenges due to its incredibly soft and muddy surface. This factor renders it exceedingly difficult for heavy vehicles to land or manoeuvre, as they would inevitably sink.
    • Extracting materials requires them to be pumped to the ocean surface, an undertaking that demands a large amount of power and energy. Unlike controlling rovers on distant planets, remotely operated vehicles prove ineffective in the deep oceans due to the absence of electromagnetic wave propagation in this medium.
    • Visibility also poses a significant hurdle as natural light can penetrate only a few tens of metres beneath the surface, whereas space observations are facilitated through telescopes.
  • All these intricate challenges are further compounded by factors like variations in temperature, corrosion, salinity, etc., all of which must also be dealt with.

Chandrayaan-4 Mission

Context: India is set to launch the Chandrayaan-4 Mission in 2027, marking a significant step in the nation’s space exploration efforts.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Chandrayaan-4 mission. 

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Chandrayaan-4 Mission

  • Chandrayaan-4 is a planned lunar sample return mission expected to launch around 2027.
  • Initiative of: Indian Space Research Organisation. Fourth iteration in Chandrayaan lunar series. 
  • Aim: To collect samples from the moon's surface and bring them back to the Earth.
  • Landing site: planned near Statio Shiv Shakti (landing site of Chandrayaan-3) located near to the lunar south pole region.

Spacecraft Design and Mission: 

1. Design: 

  • The spacecraft would comprise five modules across two separate launches, onboard two separate Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM-3) launch vehicles.
    • Ascender Module (AM), Descender Module (DM) in one launch. 
    • Re-entry Module (RM), Transfer Module (TM), and Propulsion Module (PM) in second launch.
  • After two launches, the stacks will be docked together in elliptical Earth orbit to form an integrated stack. 
image 55
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2. Lunar landing: 

  • Subsequent to docking, the Integrated Stack will perform the first set of Earth-bound maneuvers with the PM propulsion system.
    • In the final lunar orbit, DM + AM will get separated from TM + RM. 
    • DM + AM will undergo powered descent to achieve soft landing on the lunar surface.
  • After lunar landing, a robotic arm (Surface Sampling Robot) will scoop around 2-3 kg samples around the landing site. Additionally, a drilling mechanism will collect sub-surface samples. The samples will be sealed and brought back to Earth. 

3. Re-Entry into Earth’s Atmosphere:

  • Once sample collection is completed, AM would ascend to the lunar orbit and dock with the parked TM + RM. 
  • Samples will be transferred from AM to RM. After sample transfer, the TM + RM will be undocked from AM. Later, the TM + RM will perform maneuvers to return to Earth. 
  • At a suitable entry corridor, RM would get separated from TM and perform ballistic re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere and finally land onto Earth along with Lunar Sample.

Challenges:

  • Demonstration of successful docking capabilities in the Earth’s orbit and undocking in the lunar orbit. 
  • Successful re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere by withstanding intense heat and pressure. 
  • Preserving the lunar samples in an uncontaminated state on their way back to Earth. 

Significance: 

  • The mission will validate critical processes such as docking and undocking in lunar orbit, precise landing techniques, and the safe return of spacecraft through Earth's atmosphere. 
  • By mastering these technologies, Chandrayaan-4 will directly contribute to the development of systems required for India's planned crewed lunar landing in 2040.

Lunar Missions by ISRO:

1. Chandrayaan-1: 

  • India's first moon mission launched in 2008. 
  • Launch vehicle: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
  • Success:
    • The spacecraft orbited around the Moon at a height of 100 km. It mapped the Moon in infrared, visible, and X-ray light from lunar orbit and used reflected radiation to prospect for various elements, minerals, and ice.
    • It released an impactor (Moon Impact Probe- MIP) that studied the thin lunar atmosphere before crashing on the Moon’s surface. 
    • The mission gave definitive proof of the presence of water ice in the Moon’s atmosphere and surface.

2. Chandrayaan-2: 

  • Second moon mission launched in 2019. 
  • Launch vehicle: Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM-3)
  • The spacecraft consisted of an orbiter, a lander, and a rover. 
  • The orbiter circled the Moon in a polar orbit at a height of 100 km and has a planned mission lifetime of seven and a half years. 
  • Success:
    • The mission’s Vikram lander was planned to land on the moon (demonstrate soft landing). However, the lander crashed due to a software error.
    • Despite the loss of communication with Vikram Lander, 90-95% of the mission objectives have been accomplished.
    • It has enriched understanding of the Moon's evolution and mapped minerals and water molecules in the Polar Regions.

3. Chandrayaan-3: 

  • Third moon mission launched in 2023. 
  • Launch vehicle: Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3)
  • The spacecraft consists of a Vikram lander and a Pragyan rover. The Vikram lander touched down on the Moon on August 23, 2023. 
  • Success:
    • Chandrayaan-3 made one of the closest approaches to the moon's South Pole.
    • The landing site is located about 600 kilometers from the South Pole of the Moon, on the near side of the Moon. 
    • The rover operated for one lunar day (approximately 14 Earth days). It aimed to collect lunar samples, do in-situ experiments and send data to Vikram lander, to transmit it back to Earth for comprehensive analysis.
    • India became the fourth country to have landed a spacecraft on the Moon—after the United States, Russia, and China.

Nuclear Energy Sector in Union Budget 2025-26

Context: The Union Budget 2025-26 announced Rs 20,000 crore allocation for the Nuclear Energy Mission which aims to develop indigenous Small Modular Reactors (SMR).

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Nuclear Energy Mission; India’s Nuclear Energy Sector. 

Mains: Small Modular Reactors- Need, Advantages & Challenges. 

Major Initiatives in Budget for Nuclear Energy Sector:

1. Nuclear Energy Mission:

  • About: Nuclear Energy Mission is focused on research and development (R&D) of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). 
  • Budget: ₹20,000 crore
  • Aim: To develop at least five indigenously designed and operational SMRs by 2033.
  • The government will enter into partnerships with private sector to:
    • Set up Bharat Small Reactors
    • R&D of Bharat Small Modular Reactors
    • R&D of newer technologies for Nuclear Energy. Introduce new nuclear reactors including-
      • high-temperature gas-cooled reactors for hydrogen co-generation. 
      • molten salt reactors aimed at utilising India's abundant Thorium resources.
  • The private entities would provide land, cooling water, and capital. While the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) will handle design, quality assurance, and operation and maintenance, within the existing legal framework. 

2. Energy-sector Reforms: 

  • Amendments to the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 will be done. 
  • This is aimed to facilitate implementation of the Nuclear Energy Mission and to encourage private-sector investments in the nuclear power projects.

Significance of the Initiatives: 

  • As of January 30, 2025, India’s nuclear capacity is 8180 MW.
  • The initiatives align with India's commitment to achieving:
    • 100 GW of Nuclear energy capacity by 2047.
    • 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based energy generation by 2030, meeting 50% of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030, as pledged at COP26 Summit in Glasgow in 2021.

What are Bharat Small Reactors?

  • Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs) are 220 MW Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) with a proven safety and performance record. 
  • These reactors are being upgraded to reduce land requirements, making them suitable for deployment near industries such as steel, aluminium, and metals, serving as captive power plants to aid in decarbonisation efforts.

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR):

  • Fuel: Natural uranium (unenriched) 
  • Moderator and Coolant: Heavy water 
  • Cooling System: Combination of heavy water and light water to cool the reactor. Heat is transferred to a secondary loop, which then generates the steam to drive turbines.
  • Control Rods: Boron or cadmium control rods.
  • Fuel requirement: Annual requirement of fuel (UO2) of a 700 MW PHWR (at 85% Capacity Factor) is about 125 tons. 
  • Advantages: Use natural uranium fuel, produce less high-level radioactive waste, operate at lower pressures compared to other reactor types.
image 34

What are Bharat Small Modular Reactors?

  • Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are advanced nuclear reactors with a power generation capacity ranging from less than 30 MWe to 300+ MWe.
  • They provide a flexible, scalable, and cost-effective alternative to conventional large nuclear reactors.
    • Small – a fraction of the size of a conventional nuclear power reactor.
    • Modular – possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a location for installation.
    • Reactors – harnessing nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.
  • Applications: Electricity generation in remote locations, energy requirements for industrial processes, water desalination, nuclear submarines etc.
  • Advantages: 
    • Adaptable: can be scaled up or down to supply more or less power.
    • Only need to refuel every 3-7 years, as opposed to every 1-2 years for conventional nuclear plants. 
    • Extensive use of passive safety features to shut down and cool reactors under abnormal circumstances, reducing the risk of catastrophic failures. 
    • Have relatively lower-capital requirements, can make nuclear power more accessible.
    • Can complement renewable energy sources and stabilise the grid. 
  • Challenges: 
    • Higher cost per unit of electricity production in SMRs due to supply-chain issues and the absence of economies of scale. 
    • SMRs are inferior to conventional reactors with respect to radioactive waste generation and require spent fuel storage & disposal facilities.
image 35

Recent developments in Nuclear Energy in India:  

  • The government has initiated steps to increase nuclear power capacity from the current 8,180 MW to 22,480 MW by 2031-32.
    • This expansion includes the construction and commissioning of ten reactors, totalling 8,000 MW, across Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh. 
    • In-principle approval to set up a 6 x 1208 MW nuclear power plant in cooperation with the USA at Kovvada, Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh.
  • First two units of the indigenous 700 MWe PHWR at Kakrapar, Gujarat (KAPS - 3 & 4) have started commercial operation in FY 2023-24.
  • In 2024, Rajasthan Atomic Power Project's Unit-7 (RAPP-7), the third indigenous nuclear reactor, reached criticality (marking the beginning of controlled fission chain reaction).
  • Core loading commenced at the country's first Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR 500 Mwe) in 2024. This marks the second stage of India's three-stage nuclear power program.
  • NPCIL and National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) have signed a supplementary Joint Venture agreement to develop nuclear power facilities in the country.
    • The Joint Venture named ASHVINI will function within the existing legal framework of the Atomic Energy Act 1962 (amended in 2015).
    • It will build, own, and operate nuclear power plants, including the upcoming 4x700 MWe PHWR Mahi-Banswara Rajasthan Atomic Power Project.
  • A significant discovery of a new deposit in India's oldest Uranium Mine (Jaduguda Mines, Jharkhand) around the existing mine lease area. 

IndiaAI Mission gets Rs 2,000 Crore: Budget 2025-26

Context: The Union Budget 2025-26 has sanctioned Rs 2,000 crore for the IndiaAI Mission for 2025-26, which is nearly a fifth of the scheme’s total outlay of Rs 10,370 crore. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: IndiaAI Mission

Mains: Status of AI in India, challenges and suggestive measures

Major Highlights:

  • The government has shortlisted 10 companies that will provide nearly 19,000 graphics processing units (GPUs)- high end chips needed to develop machine learning tools -  for setting up artificial intelligence (AI) data centres. 
    • The initial aim of the IndiaAI Mission was to procure 10,000 GPUs.
  • The government also aims to build a domestic large language model (LLM) of its own, as part of the IndiaAI Mission.
  • The government will set up a new centre of excellence for AI for education with an outlay of Rs 500 crore. 

About IndiaAI Mission

  • IndiaAI Mission is an initiative of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). Total outlay: Rs 10,370 crores. 
  • It aims to build a comprehensive AI ecosystem that fosters innovation by democratising computing access, enhancing data quality and developing indigenous AI capabilities.
  • The mission aims to develop:
    • IndiaAI Compute Capacity: establish a computing capacity of more than 10,000 GPUs, via public-private partnerships, offering AI services and resources.
    • IndiaAI Innovation Centre: develop and deploy indigenous Large Multimodal Models and domain-specific foundational models, with a capacity of >100 billion parameters, for priority sectors like healthcare, agriculture, and governance.
    • IndiaAI Datasets Platform: streamline the access to high-quality non-personal datasets for AI innovation. 
    • Responsible AI development.  
  • A major portion of the total scheme outlay has been earmarked for building computing infrastructure.
  • The idea is that if such an infrastructure exists in the country, start-ups could plug into it for developing AI systems. 
image 33

Challenges in AI development in India

  • Talent shortage: Indian professionals lack skills requisite for the AI development in India. As 20% of companies reported that 50 to 100 AI projects are stalled at the planning stage due to shortage of skilled talent pool.
  • Data privacy and security concerns: AI development in India poses challenges to privacy, as India lacks the stringent and comprehensive implementation of data privacy rules.
  • Intellectual property violation: AI models threaten copyrighted work and sanctity of intellectual property rights.
  • Infrastructure deficit: Despite initiatives like AIRAWAT, India's AI-first compute infrastructure, the country still faces challenges in providing adequate computational resources necessary for advanced AI research and applications
  • Data deficit: There is a deficit of digitised data in India leading to limited creating a barrier in the development of AI based decision making. Eg; 26% of AI decision makers cited insufficient access to trusted data.
image

Suggestive Measures for AI Development: 

  • Government initiatives: 
    • National AI Mission: The Indian government has launched the IndiaAI Mission with a budget of Rs. 10,307 Cr. to foster AI development across various sectors, including healthcare, agriculture, and education
    • National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence: NITI aayog has released this strategy to focus on leveraging AI for inclusive growth and positions India as a global leader in AI.
  • Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): Collaborations between the government and private sector have led to the development of DPI, facilitating scalable AI solutions and fostering innovation
  • Enhancing computing capacity: Government should provide subsidised GPU to AI based startups in challenging circumstances when the US has changed India’s position to ‘watchful’ in US AI rules.
  • Strengthening data governance: Implementing comprehensive data protection rules and digitisation of data can balance privacy and efficacy of data required for AI development.
  • Fostering collaboration: Efforts to encourage partnership between academia, industry and government. Eg; Apprenticeship of AI students with Industry and government. 

About Large Language Models (LLM)

  • LLMs are a subset of AI models designed to understand and generate human-like text by learning patterns from vast datasets. Examples: Open AI, chatGPT, Gemini. 
  • Other Notable AI Models:
    • Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): Primarily used in image recognition tasks, such as facial recognition and medical image analysis. Eg; DeepMInd’s AlphaFold
    • Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): Suited for sequential data processing, like time-series analysis and language modeling. Eg; Google Translate
    • Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): Generate new data samples similar to the training data, used in image and video generation. Eg; DALL-E

IndiaAI Mission seeks to position India at the forefront of the global AI landscape, leveraging technology to address societal challenges and enhance the nation's economic development.

Targeted Approach for Leprosy Containment 

Context: The Union Ministry of Health targets leprosy containment in India by introducing a new treatment regimen to achieve zero transmission by 2027.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Leprosy; Government Initiatives. 

What is Leprosy?

  • Leprosy (aka Hansen’s disease) is a chronic infectious disease caused by a bacteria called Mycobacterium leprae.
  • Threats: 
    • It primarily affects the skin (causes severe, disfiguring skin sores) and peripheral nerves (damage in the arms, legs). 
    • Loss of sensation occurs on the affected area of skin with muscle weakness. Left untreated, it may cause progressive and permanent disabilities.
    • The incubation period is 3 to 5 years / till 20 years. Children are more likely to get leprosy than adults. 
    • Leprosy can be contagious, if one comes into close and repeated contact with nose and mouth droplets from someone with untreated leprosy.
  • Treatment: 
    • Leprosy is curable with a multi-drug therapy (MDT), recommended by WHO. MDT is a combination of three drugs: dapsone, rifampicin, and clofazimine. 
    • The duration of treatment is six months for Paucibacillary (mild form of leprosy) and 12 months for Multibacillary (severe case of leprosy) cases. MDT kills the pathogen and cures the patient.
  • Leprosy is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) that still occurs in more than 120 countries, with around 200,000 new cases reported every year. 
Leprosy

Government Initiatives

1. National Leprosy Eradication Programme (NLEP)

  • Centrally sponsored Scheme under National Health Mission, launched in 1983. 
  • Target: Detect cases of leprosy at an early stage and provide complete treatment, free of cost to prevent occurrence of Grade II Disability (G2D) in affected persons.
  • Achievements:
    • In 2005, India achieved the ‘elimination of leprosy as a public health problem’ as per the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) criteria of less than 1 case per 10,000 population at the national level. However, there are few districts within States where leprosy is still endemic. 
    • The number of new leprosy cases detected has come down to 75,394 in 2021-22 from 125,785 in 2014-15. 
  • Targeted approach: The government is taking a targeted approach to tackle the disease in 5 states and 124 districts in India. The five states in India with the highest prevalence of leprosy include Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and Odisha.

2. National Strategic Plan (NSP) and Roadmap for Leprosy (2023-27)

  •  The Ministry of Health has launched the National Strategic Plan and Roadmap for Leprosy (2023-27) in January 2023, under NLEP. 
  • Aim: To achieve zero transmission of leprosy by 2027, i.e., three years ahead of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG). 
  • The strategy and roadmap focuses on:
    • awareness for zero stigma and discrimination
    • promotion of early case detection
    • prevention of disease transmission by prophylaxis (leprosy post exposure prophylaxis)
    • web-based information portal (Nikusth 2.0) for reporting leprosy cases, facilitating seamless data recording, analysis, and reporting of key indicators. 

3. New treatment regimen for Leprosy

  • To contain leprosy and stop its transmission by 2027, the Central Government has approved a new treatment regimen for leprosy (i.e., introduction of MDT as recommended by WHO). 
  • It introduced a three-drug regimen for Pauci-Bacillary cases (a mild, less severe form of leprosy) in place of a two-drug regimen for six months. WHO has agreed to supply the revised drug regimen from April 1, 2025. 

Life's Basic Building Blocks found in Asteroid Bennu

Context: As per a recent study, the samples of the asteroid Bennu transported to Earth contain the basic building blocks for life and the salty remains of an ancient water world.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Asteroid Bennu; NASA's OSIRIS-REx spacecraft. 

Major Highlights:

  • Scientists studied the material collected from asteroid Bennu by NASA's OSIRIS-REx spacecraft in 2020.
  • Initial analysis of the sample had already revealed evidence of high-carbon content and water.
  • The latest research has found that evaporated water on Bennu's parent asteroid left behind a "briny broth" of salts and minerals. This indicates that Bennu's parent asteroid once had pockets of liquid water. 
  • The samples contain sodium-rich minerals and confirm the presence of amino acids, nitrogen in the form of ammonia and traces of real extraterrestrial organic material formed in space (and not a result of contamination from Earth).
  • More testing is needed to better understand the Bennu samples, as well as more asteroid and comet sample returns. 
  • Significance: The analysis of the sample suggests a non-terrestrial origin and provides the strongest evidence yet that asteroids may have planted the seeds of life on Earth. 

About Asteroid Bennu

About Asteroid Bennu
  • Bennu is a carbon-rich near-Earth small asteroid. It is just little less than 500 metres in depth. 
  • It is expected to have formed around 65 million years ago, from the debris of a parent asteroid dating back some 4.5 billion years.
  • It is classified as a near-Earth object because it passes relatively close to planet Earth, every six years.
    • The closest asteroids which travel within 1.3 AU (Astronomical Unit) of the sun are called near-Earth objects.
    • 1 AU is approximately equal to 93 million miles - the distance between the Sun and the Earth. 
  • The samples from Bennu (around 122 grams of dust and pebbles) were brought to Earth in a capsule by the OSIRIS-REx mission in 2023.

About OSIRIS-REx Mission

image 3
  • Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resources Identification and Security-Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS REx) is an asteroid study and sample return mission by NASA. 
  • The spacecraft set out in 2016 to study asteroid Bennu, and returned to Earth with a sample for detailed analysis in 2023. 
  • OSIRIS-APophis EXplorer (OSIRIS-APEX): After successfully completing its mission to gather a sample of asteroid Bennu in September 2023, OSIRIS-REx was renamed OSIRIS-APEX. NASA has redirected OSIRIS-REx to track asteroid Apophis. 

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