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Copper Demand will see double digit demand

Context: Analysts predict copper prices will drop due to rising inventories, increased copper production, and a slow property market in China.

Key Highlights of the news

The possible increase in growth of copper demand emanates from infrastructure, EVs and clean tech apart from consumer durables.
Copper demand in the country has witnessed significant growth, jumping from 13.1 lakh tonnes (lt) in FY22 to 15.2 lt in FY23. This surge mirrors the country’s economic expansion, particularly in gross fixed capital formation and private consumption.
However, per capita copper usage in India remains low at 1 kg, compared to the global average of 3.2 kg. Industry estimates suggest there will be substantial growth in usage, potentially reaching the global average by 2047.

Challenges of Copper Sector in India

Over 50 per cent of India’s smelting capacity has shut down, leading to a transition from being a net exporter until 2018 to a reliance on imports in recent years.
Closure of the Sterlite copper smelter in Tuticorin significantly impacted this shift.
Indian companies are looking to acquire exploration and mining rights overseas, but nothing concrete has materialised.

Copper

Copper is the second largest non-ferrous metal by usage, with global demand of refined copper being about 25.04 million tonnes in 2020.
Copper is a malleable and ductile metallic element that is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity as well as being corrosion resistant and antimicrobial.
Brownish in colour
Found solely in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Usually found in metal state and hence one of the earliest metals which was exploited by humans.
Though copper is very soft, mixing with Tin makes bronze which is harder and tougher and useful for making weapons and tools. Hence Bronze age.
Present day industrial significance began with electricity where copper wires are very efficient in electricity transmission.

ORES of Copper

Copper occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust in a variety of forms.
It can be found in sulphide deposits (as chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, covellite),
In carbonate deposits (as azurite and malachite),
In silicate deposits (as chrysycolla and dioptase) and as pure "native" copper.
Copper is the second largest non-ferrous metal by usage, with global demand of refined copper was about 25.04 million tonnes in 2020.

INTERNATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF COPPER

Which countries produce the most copper? | World Economic Forum

Chile accounted for almost a third of copper mine production (largest deposit in Chuquicamata district)
Peru accounted for 10 % of world mine production in 2020 (Cerro De Pasco region).
In 2020, China accounted for almost 50% of world smelter production of copper, followed by Japan (8%), Chile (6%) & Russian federation (5%).
China accounted for 41 % of world refined copper production, followed by Chile (10%), Japan (6%) and Congo (5%) in 2020.

Indian distribution of copper in India

Largest reserves/resources of copper ore to the tune of 813 million tonnes (53.81%) are in the State of Rajasthan followed by Jharkhand with 295 million tonnes (19.54%) and Madhya Pradesh with 283 million tonnes (18.75%).

Major Copper Belts:

Khetri Copper Belt (Rajasthan): Located in Rajasthan, this belt is one of the significant copper-producing regions in India.
Singhbhum Copper Belt (Jharkhand): Another important copper belt, it is situated in Jharkhand.
Malanjkhand Copper Belt (Madhya Pradesh): This belt, located in Madhya Pradesh, is mined by Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL).
Indian Copper Complex (integral part of Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL).: The Singhbhum belt is also mined by M/s Indian Copper Complex

Why are Indians falling ill so frequently?

Context: There is a growing concern over the escalation of respiratory diseases, particularly Influenza A (H1N1), in India.

The most recent data from the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) suggests a resurgence of Influenza A (H1N1) cases in Kerala, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Chattisgarh, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal, with a few states also reporting deaths related to influenza.
In response to a rise in influenza infections in the country, the NCDC has recommended the prudent use of the Southern Hemisphere’s 2024 quadrivalent influenza vaccine.

Seasonal influenza:

Seasonal influenza (the flu) is an acute respiratory infection caused by influenza viruses.
It is highly contagious, affects the respiratory system, including the nose, throat and lungs, and is common in all parts of the world.
Seasonal influenza is characterised by a sudden onset of fever, cough (usually dry), headache, muscle and joint pain, severe malaise (feeling unwell), sore throat and a runny nose.
Most people recover from fever and other symptoms within a week without requiring medical attention. But influenza can cause severe illness or deaths, especially in people at high risk. (Young children and people with co-morbidities like asthma, diabetes, heart disease, weakened immune systems and neurological or neurodevelopmental conditions are at a higher risk).

Influenza viruses are constantly evolving:

In India, the most prevalent subtypes are influenza A (H1N1), (H3N2), and influenza B viruses. Every year, there are outbreaks of influenza in India, particularly during winter.
Influenza viruses are constantly evolving, and the factors include:
- High population density, poor hygiene practices, weather conducive to the survival and spread of the virus increase the risk of flu transmission.
- Indiscriminate antimicrobial use: The absence of definitive diagnosis and influenza symptoms coinciding with other acute respiratory infections, makes the clinical differentiation of influenza from other pathogens difficult, leading to indiscriminate outpatient antibiotic prescription.
- Low Vaccination rates: Due to lack of data on morbidity and mortality caused by influenza in India, strategies for influenza prevention and control have not been prioritised by the Indian Medical Association, and influenza vaccine is not included into the government’s Universal Immunisation Programme.
- Climate change:
  - Due to climate change, seasonal epidemics of influenza may shift spatially and temporally, with rising temperatures and abnormal rainfall patterns being contributing factors.
  - Extreme weather events have the potential to exacerbate risks of influenza and transmission of other respiratory viruses.

Way Forward:

Implementation of COVID-19 vaccine programme was the beginning of an adult immunisation programme in India which must be leveraged for making other adult vaccines available in the country.
The expansion of the Universal Immunisation Programme to include influenza vaccines needs to be considered as this will not only benefit those vaccinated, it will also reduce community transmission, unnecessary antimicrobial prescriptions and superimposed bacterial infections that can complicate influenza and require antibiotics.

Human rating of ISRO’s cryogenic engine

Context: In a major milestone for India’s space sector, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has accomplished the human rating of its cryogenic engine (CE-20), which powers the cryogenic stage of the human-rated LVM3 launcher for India’s first human space flight mission Gaganyaan.

Human-rating refers to rating a system that is capable of safely transporting humans.

Major Highlights:

The ground qualification tests for the human rating of the CE-20 engine involved life demonstration tests, endurance tests and performance assessment under nominal operating conditions as well as off-nominal conditions with respect to thrust, mixture ratio and propellant tank pressure.
ISRO has also successfully completed the acceptance tests of the flight engine identified for Gaganyaan mission, tentatively scheduled for the second quarter of 2024. The engine will power the upper stage of the human-rated LVM3 vehicle and has a thrust capability of 19 to 22 tonnes with a specific impulse of 442.5 seconds.

Gaganyaan Mission:

The Gaganyaan project envisages demonstration of human spaceflight capability by launching a crew of three members to an orbit of 400 km for a three-day mission, and bring them back safely to the Earth, by landing in the sea.
Launcher: Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3/ GSLV Mk III).

Launch Vehicle Mark-3:

Launch Vehicle Mark-3 or LVM3 (previously referred as the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III or GSLV Mk III) is a three-stage medium-lift launch vehicle developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
Stages: GSLV Mk III is a three-staged launch vehicle.
- First stage- Solid fuel S200 stage. Two rocket boosters use 200 tonnes of solid fuel to lift off the rocket.
- Second stage- Liquid fuel L110 stage.
- Third stage- Cryogenic fuel C25 stage uses 25 tonnes of a mixture of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.
  - This upper stage, developed entirely in India, uses the CE-20 cryogenic engine.
  - This high-thrust engine burns liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen at very low temperatures for exceptional efficiency and payload capacity.
Primarily designed to launch communication satellites into geostationary orbit. It is also due to launch crewed missions under the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (Gaganyaan Mision).
The LVM3 is one of the most powerful rockets in ISRO's fleet, and it is capable of launching heavier payloads than its predecessors (GSLV-MKII).
- Payload capacity:
  - 4,000 kilograms to geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO).
  - 10,000 kilograms to low Earth orbit (LEO).

Indigenous cryogenic engine technology in India:

India has managed to develop its own cryogenic engine, a result of decades of research and development. This engine has an entirely Indian design, developed within ISRO, and uses a different process to burn the fuel.
This indigenously developed cryogenic engine is deployed in LVM3, ISRO’s most powerful rocket so far, which carried the Chandrayaan-2 and Chandrayaan-3 missions, among others. LVM3 has had seven flights till now, without any trouble.

Some important reasons why cryogenic engines are used in rockets:

High specific impulse: Cryogenic engines use liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as propellants. These propellants are stored at extremely low temperatures (around -253°C for hydrogen and -183°C for oxygen), which gives them a high energy density, i.e, they pack a lot of energy in a small amount of mass.
- When these propellants burn, they release a lot of energy compared to their mass, or have high specific impulse.
- High specific impulse means more thrust per kilogram of propellant (High thrust to weight ratio). This allows rockets to carry less fuel, reducing their overall weight and allowing them to carry heavier payloads or travel further. Higher thrust is beneficial for:
  - Overcoming Earth's gravity: Launching a rocket out of Earth's gravity well requires immense thrust. Cryogenic engines provide the necessary power to achieve this initial escape velocity.
  - Manoeuvring in space: Once in space, cryogenic engines allow for precise manoeuvring and course corrections due to their high thrust and controllability.
Throttling Capability: Cryogenic engines are designed to be throttleable, i.e., they have the ability to vary or adjust their thrust levels during flight. This capability is essential for precise control during ascent, orbit insertion, manoeuvring, controlled reentry and other critical phases of a rocket’s journey.
Greater fuel efficiency: The combustion process in cryogenic engines is cleaner and more complete, releasing more energy and generating more thrust. Rockets with cryogenic engines need less fuel to achieve the same results, making them more cost-effective.

Challenges:

Complexity: They require complex and expensive infrastructure to store and handle extremely cold propellants.
Cost: The initial development process of cryogenic engines is generally more expensive than other types.

Astronomers find small hot Helium stars

Context: Astronomers have finally found a unique class of stars (Helium stars) they had been looking for, for a decade.

How do stars sustain?

Stars are giant balls of hot gas – mostly hydrogen, with some helium and small amounts of other elements. Every star has its own life cycle, ranging from a few million to trillions of years, and its properties change as it ages.
Newton’s law of gravity says all objects with mass attract each other. This should mean the Sun’s outer and inner layers should be attracted to each other, so the star should continuously fall inwards, and eventually simply collapse. However, the sun does not collapse as the nuclear fusion prevents the Sun from shrinking.
- In the heart of the star, two hydrogen nuclei (protons) ultimately combine to form one helium nucleus, releasing enormous amounts of heat and energy in the form of gamma rays and neutrinos.
- This energy endows all particles in the star with random motion, or pressure, which then fights against the pull of gravity and maintains the star in a state of equilibrium.
The fusion energy pushes the star out while gravity pulls it in, and they hold the balance for billions of years. Such stars are said to be in the main sequence.

Hydrogen devoid stars (Helium stars):

When a star no longer fuses material and allows gravity to gain the upper hand, it blows up in an explosion called a supernova when it is massive enough.
- The light from supernovae contains signatures of the various elements it has passed through near the dying star’s surface.
- Scientists have observed that some supernovae have shown no signs of hydrogen. (Hydrogen, the lightest of elements, makes up the outer layers of main-sequence stars). The only explanation is that the outer layers of some stars are stripped away before the supernova explosion.
An interesting mechanism happens if the star is part of a binary system — i.e. as one of two stars that are orbiting each other. (Most stars heavier than the Sun are in such binaries). Many binary systems start out with two main sequence stars. The gravitational attraction of one star can peel away the hydrogen layer off the other, resulting in one helium star and one main sequence companion.
Helium stars are Hydrogen depleted stars. They have a core of helium and their outer layers are stripped of Hydrogen. They are roughly 8-20 times the mass of our Sun and their surface gravity is about 1,000-times that of the earth. Helium stars are expected to be so hot that they emit more of their energy as ultraviolet radiation, which lies beyond the visible range.
- These Helium stars will end their lives as hydrogen-poor supernovae that leave behind ultra-dense balls called neutron stars.
- And these neutron stars may ultimately smash into each other in powerful kilonova explosions, releasing gravitational waves.

Cabinet Committee on Security approves mega Navy deal for Brahmos Missiles

Context: Cabinet Committee on Security has approved the acquisition of over 200 BrahMos extended range supersonic cruise missiles for deployment on warships of Indian Navy. The deal is expected to cost Rs 19,000 crore for the exchequer.

About Brahmos Supersonic Cruise Missiles

Brahmos is a medium range ramjet supersonic cruise missile.
Brahmos is a two stage missile:
- First stage: Powered by solid propellant booster engine as its first stage with brings it to supersonic speed.
- Second stage: Powered by Liquid ramjet engine that takes the missile closer to 3 Mach speed in cruise phase.
Flight range: Brahmos has a flight range of up to 290 km with supersonic speed all through the flight, leading to shorter flight time, consequently ensuring lower dispersion of targets, quicker engagement time and non-interception by any known weapon system in the world.
Altitude: Cruising altitude of Brahmos is up to 15 km and terminal altitude is as low as 10 metres.
Warhead capacity: It can carry a conventional warhead weighing 200-300 kgs.
Launch capability: Brahmos has capability to be launched from land, sea, air and submarines. Brahmos has identical configuration for all the platforms and uses a Transport Launch Canister for transportation, storage and launch.
Fire and forget principle: Brahmos operates on the principle of Fire and Forget which means that the missile system adopts varieties of flights on its way to the target.
Range of Brahmos was kept at 290 km as India was earlier not a signatory of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). MTCR prohibits member countries to transfer technologies for missiles with range up to 300 km. Since, Russia is a party to the MTCR it did complied with the regulations of MTCR.

Ship based Brahmos: This version has been designed for launch in either vertical or inclined mode from a moving or static maritime platform against sea or land targets. It has been deployed on Indian Navy's frontline surface combat platforms as the prime strike weapon. This version also has 'salvo' launch capability, where multiple missiles can be fired in different trajectories to hit a single or group of targets. It is primarily used as Anti-Ship Missile.

Air-launched Brahmos: Brahmos Air Launched Cruise Missile (ACLM) with precision attack capability against sea and land targets is the designed as the heaviest and most powerful weapon to arm Indian Air Force's Su-30 strike fighter.

Submarine launched Brahmos: Brahmos missile is capable of bring launched from submarine from a depth of 40-50 metres. The missile is launched in the same configuration similar to the ship launched system.

Brahmos-NG & Brahmos-II (Future versions of Brahmos)

Brahmos-NG: Brahmos NG stands for Brahmos Next Generation. It is envisioned as a smaller and lighter but smarter weapon having high versatility, lethality and flexibility along with ultra-precision for deployment onboard a wide range of military platforms. Key features:
1. Reduced dimension & weight for widespread range
2. Advanced next generation stealth
3. Greater effectiveness against ECCM
4. Higher versatility in underwater combat applications
5. Launch readiness from Torpedo tube and vertical orientation
Brahmos II: It is a planned hypersonic cruise missile currently under joint development by Brahmos Aerospace. It is expected to have a range of 1,500 km and a speed of Mach 8. Since, India is now a signatory of the MTCR, Russia can transfer technologies for longer ranges.

About Brahmos Aerospace

Brahmos Missile is manufactured by Brahmos Aerospace which is a joint venture of DRDO (India) and NPO Mashinostroyenia (Russia). The company was established in India through an Inter-Governmental Agreement between India and Russia in 1998.
India has 50.5% ownership while Russia has 49.5% ownership in Brahmos Aerospace.
The name 'Brahmos' is combination of Brahmaputra (India) and Moskva (Russia) rivers.
Brahmos Aerospace is responsible for designing, developing, producing and marketing the Brahmos Supersonic cruise missiles with active participation of a consortium of Indian and Russian industries.
Indigenization of Brahmos: In 1998, indigenous contribution in the Brahmos system was around 30% only. However, now about 75% indigenous capacity has been achieved in the Brahmos missile project.
Exports: Brahmos missiles will be exported to the Philippines, which will its first global customer. Many countries from the Southeast Asian region have also shown interest in buying the system. Brahmos Aerospace aims to export $5 billion worth of missiles by 2025. Exports of Brahmos missiles to other countries would also allow sale and exports of other systems such as Akash, ATAGS Howitzers and other equipment from the Indian defence industry.

Deputy PM & Deputy CM

Context: The Supreme Court dismissed a PIL challenging the appointment of Deputy Chief Ministers in various states as being violative of Article 14. The Court opined that the Deputy Chief Minister was firstly a minister within the state government and the position was merely a label and nothing more.

Composition of Council of Minister:

Appointment of Deputy Prime Minister and Deputy Chief Minister:

Article 74- There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President.
Article 75- The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Article 163- There shall be a council of ministers with chief minister at the head to aid and advise the Governor.
Article 164- The Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor and the other ministers shall be appointed by the Governor on the advice of the chief minister.
Deputy Prime Minister is appointed Under Article 75 of the Indian Constitution whereas Deputy chief minister is appointed under article 164 of the constitution.
Supreme Court in K.M. Sharma vs Devi Lal & Ors (1990) opined that the terminology “deputy” is only descriptive and does not confer on deputy PM any power of Prime Minister. He is like other cabinet minister.
Similarly, in the recent PIL case, Supreme Court opined that even a deputy Chief minister, was a minister first and that the post of a 'Deputy Chief Minister' was “only a label”.
Appointment of a deputy Chief Minister has no bearing in the constitutional sense, the label does not provide any extra perks such as a higher salary.
The oath to deputy PM to deputy CM is administered as per the third schedule.
In the official table of precedence, the deputy PM is ranked above the union cabinet ministers and deputy CM is the ranked above the state cabinet ministers.

NOTE: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was the first deputy prime minister of India and first Deputy CM in India was Anugrah Narayan Sinha of Bihar.

Maharashtra Assembly passes bill for providing 10% reservation for Maratha Community

Constitutional background of Reservation in India

Article 15(4) and Article 15(5) provide for reservation to Socially and Educationally Backward classes and SC/STs in admission to educationally institutions.
Article 15(6) provides for reservation to economically weaker sections of society in admission to educational institutions, added through 103rd constitutional amendment.
Article 16(4) provides for reservation to backward classes and SC/STs in public employment.
Article 16(6) provides for reservation to economically weaker sections in public employment.
Article 335 provides for enabling provision of reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts under the union and the state. However, the efficiency of administration should be maintained.
The 77th amendment in 1995 provided for reservation in promotion of any services under the state for SC/STs.

Judicial take on OBC Reservations

V.P. Singh government in 1990, declared reservations of 27% government jobs for the OBCs. In the Mandal case or Indra Sawhney case, the Supreme Court upheld the OBC reservation, but imposed certain conditions like ceiling limit of 50% on reservation quota, no reservation in promotion, etc. The court accepted that the Caste continues to be marker for identifying socially and educational backwardness.
Similarly, in Janhit Abhiyan Case, Supreme Court upheld the EWS reservation granted through the 103rd constitutional amendment.

Maratha Reservation issue

1997: First major Maratha agitation for reservation in government jobs and educational institutions was organised by the Maratha Mahasangh and the Maratha Seva Sangh.
2014: Maharashtra government brought 16% reservation for Marathas in government jobs and education. However, the High court put a stay on it and this stay was subsequently upheld by the Supreme Court.
2017: The Maharashtra government then set up Gaikwad Commission to study the social, financial and educational status of Maratha community. Based on commission's recommendation, Socially and Educationally Backward Class Act, 2018 was enacted to provide 16% reservation to Marathas in education and government jobs.
2021:Supreme Court holds Maratha Reservation unconstitutional and strikes down the law. The court opined that the government failed to provide sufficient data to justify exceeding the 50% quota ceiling. But the Supreme Court allowed the State Government to collect empirical data for showing the backwardness of the community.
- Exceeds the 50% ceiling limit imposed on reservations by Indra Sawhney judgement.
- Gaekwad Commission report lacks reliable, scientific and adequate data to justify the backwardness of Marathas.
- The Act created a special class of reservation for Marathas outside the OBC class and violates Article 14, 16 and 19 of the Constitution by bestowing them with special benefits.
- The Act was passed without complying with procedural requirements mandated by 102^nd Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2018.
2023: The State government set up Justice Shukre panel to conduct large scale survey of the community.
Salient Features of Shukre Panel's report:
- Marathas accounted for 28% of the population of the State, of which 84% of them are backward. So, such a large scale of backward community needs to be provided with separate reservation bracket.
- It gave reasons like decline in agricultural income, partitions in land holdings, extreme poverty as reasons for Maratha's backwardness.
- 94% of farmers who died by suicide in the state belonged to Maratha community.
- Inadequate representation of the community in all the sectors of public service, which has kept them excluded from the mainstream.

Issues/Concerns with providing reservations to Marathas

Providing community specific reservations will flare similar demands in other provinces.
Reservations in Maharashtra will overshoot the 50% limit, hence compromise the principle of superiority of merit.
Discriminates other communities by giving Marathas a special privilege.
Reinforces the grip of caste-based politics and mobilisation.
Against the constitutional structure of providing reservations for SCs, STs, OBC and EBC.
Demand for reservations among agrarian communities is due to following reasons:
- Low income in agricultural households
- Feeling of relative deprivation
- Feeling of losing of dominance in rural areas as communities lower in social hierarchy such as SCs have gained economically and politically from the reservations.
- Low participation in modern economy sectors like IT, Finance, Banking etc.

Thus, the government should be focusing on modernizing agriculture, education and opportunities for these communities.

Conclusion:

So, this time the State government has backed up its Maratha reservation law with broader set of empirical data. But it is now for the Judiciary to decide whether the law stands the test of Constitutionality.

RBI streamlines process of onboarding AePS Service Providers

Context: Amid increasing instances of fraud related to the Aadhaar-enabled payment system (AePS), the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has proposed to streamline the process of onboarding AePS service providers.

The central bank is also planning to introduce additional fraud risk management measures for AePS.

Aadhar-enabled Payment System (AePS)

AePS, or Aadhaar enabled Payment System, is a payment system that enables customers to carry out financial transactions through Aadhaar-based authentication at Point of Sale (PoS) devices and micro ATMs.
Aadhaar is a unique identification number containing demographic and biometric data issued to Indian residents.
National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) introduced AePS system to promote financial inclusion and make banking services accessible to all, particularly those living in remote and rural areas.
Maximum limit of Rs. 10,000 on a single transaction. But, the overall limit is set by respective banks.
Monthly transaction limit of Rs 50,000 on a 30 day rolling basis.

Banking Services Offered by AePS

Cash Deposit
Cash Withdrawal
Balance Enquiry
Mini Statement
Aadhaar to Aadhaar Fund Transfer
Authentication
BHIM Aadhaar Pay

Benefits of AePS:

Financial inclusion: AePS enables individuals who do not have access to traditional banking services to carry out financial transactions. This promotes financial inclusion and ensures that everyone has access to basic banking services.
Streamlining Government Entitlements: Aadhaar enabled Payment System facilitate disbursements of Government entitlements like NREGA, Social Security pension, Handicapped Old Age Pension etc. of any Central or State Government bodies using Aadhaar authentication.
Convenience: AePS allows users to carry out financial transactions using their Aadhaar number and biometric authentication. It eliminates the need for carrying cash or a physical debit card, making transactions more convenient and hassle-free.
Security: Since transactions on AePS are authenticated using biometric authentication, it is more secure than traditional banking services that rely on passwords and PINs. It ensures that transactions are safe and secure.
Low-cost transactions: AePS transactions are low-cost, making it an affordable option for individuals who want to carry out financial transactions.
Easy to use: AePS is easy to use and does not require any special training or knowledge. Users can carry out transactions using their Aadhaar number and biometric authentication, which is a simple and straightforward process.
Inter-operability: Aadhaar enabled Payment System facilitates inter-operability across banks in a safe and secured manner.
Reaching the unreached: The model enable banks to extend financial services to the unreached clients beyond their branch network as beneficiaries of the Business Correspondents (BCs) are mostly located at unbanked and underbanked areas.

Chhau Dance

Context: Tarapada Rajak and team performed Purulia Chhau at an event in Kolkata.

About Chhau dance form:

Introduction:

It is a semi-classical Indian dance form that intricately weaves together martial and folk traditions.
Some narrations also use natural themes such as Sarpa Nritya (serpent dance) or Mayur Nritya (peacock dance)
Chhau encompasses elements from martial arts, folk themes and religious motifs inspired by Shaivism, Shaktism, and Vaishnavism.
In 2010, UNESCO inscribed Chhau in the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Traditionally performed by all-male troupes, Chhau holds regional significance in the East Indian region and is believed to have its origins traced to various linguistic roots.
- Some propose a connection to the Sanskrit term Chaya, signifying shadow, image, or mask, while others associate it with the Sanskrit root Chadma, implying disguise.
- An alternative research, adds that it is derived from the Odia language, pointing to the term Chhauni, encompassing meanings related to military camp, armour, and stealth.

Characteristics:

In Chhau dance, costumes inspired by Shaktism themes, such as the depiction of Durga with a lion, are prominently featured, particularly in the Purulia style.
This vibrant dance form is primarily showcased during festivals, with a notable emphasis on community participation, especially during the spring festival of Chaitra Parva.
Masks hold a significant role in the Purulia (West Bengal) and Seraikella styles (Jharkhand), contributing to the unique visual appeal of the dance.
Chhau dance in northern Odisha (Mayurbhanj) incorporates masks only during the initial stage when the artists make their introductory appearance to the audience.
The transmission of knowledge related to dance, music, and mask-making is often passed down orally.
The masked styles of Chhau dance seamlessly blend elements of dance and martial practices, incorporating mock combat techniques (khel), stylized walk of birds and animals (Chalis and Topkas), and movements inspired by the daily chores of village housewives (Uflis).
Executed exclusively by male dancers, Chhau performances take place at night in open spaces referred to as Akhada or asar.
- However, several all-women troupes are also participating now.
- Mousumi Chowdhury, from Purulia’s, is credited with starting the trend.
- In 2010, Mousumi set up the first all-women Chhau troupe of Purulia known as Mitali Chhau Maldi.

The featured instruments are: reed pipes (Mohuri), shehnai, a variety of drums such as cylindrical dhol, the large kettle drum Dhumsa, and the Kharkai or chad-chadi.
The roots of Chhau dance, particularly in the Purulia style, can be traced back not only to Paika and Natua but also to the significant influence of Nachni dance.
- Nachni dance contributed female walks and movements to Chhau, introducing elements of Lasya Bhava from the Natya Shastra, characterized by elegance, sensuality, and beauty.
- Conversely, the male dance movements in Chhau are attributed to Shiva's Tandava style, adding a dynamic dimension to the dance form.

Three Varieties of Chhau:

There are three main styles of Chhau dance:
- Saraikela Chhau in Jharkhand;
- Mayurbhanj Chhau in Odisha;
- Purulia Chhau in West Bengal;

Mayurbhanj Chhau artists don’t wear masks.
The distinctiveness of the three primary styles of Chhau, lies in their regional origins and distinctive characteristics.

(Seraikela)

Seraikela Chhau:

It evolved in the region of Seraikela, during the era of Kalinga's Gajapati rule (1434 to 1541 CE), in Jharkhand.
The Seraikella Chhau's techniques are shaped by the erstwhile nobility of the region, who not only performed but also choreographed the dance.
In the contemporary era, individuals from diverse backgrounds engage in the performance of Seraikella Chhau.
This style employs symbolic masks, with the acting itself establishing the role played by each performer.
Notably, these masks are skillfully crafted by potters who specialize in creating clay images of Hindu deities.

(Mayurbhanj)

Mayurbhanj Chhau:

Odisha’s Mayurbhanj district, bordering Bengal and Jharkhand and known for the Similipal biosphere, was ruled by the Bhanja dynasty from 7th century AD.
The rulers were great patrons of the arts.
Chhau, which is believed to have derived its name from the Chhauni or military camp, evolved from the mock fights and drills that used to be held to keep the soldiers battle-ready.
Mayurbhanj Chhau opts for a mask-free approach, yet shares technical similarities with Seraikella Chhau in its execution.
Mayurbhanj Chhau is the most vigorous of the three styles of Chhau.
The technique and choreography are directly drawn from war practices of Odia soldiers, who were popularly known as Paikas.
The Government of Odisha took significant steps to promote Chhau dance by establishing the Mayurbhanj Chhau Nritya Pratisthan in Baripada in 1960.

(Purulia)

Purulia Chhau:

The Chhau dance that originated from Purulia finds its inspiration from martial arts and combative training.
The dancers perform a repertoire that explores a variety of subjects like mythological episodes from Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas, local legends and folklores and abstract themes.
The traditional dance is performed at open spaces at the rhythm of various kinds of drums and other musical instruments.
- Indigenous drums like Dhol, Dhumsa and Kharkai are used along with the melody of Mohuri and Shehnai.
Over the centuries, this dance form was patronized by the royal families, rich landlords as well as by a few British Governors of the region.
It is believed that the Raja (king) of Baghmundi in Purulia was the main patron of these dances.
The Chhau mask from Purulia has been officially recognized under Geographical Indications, emphasizing its unique and traditional nature
The masks for Purulia Chhau are crafted by artists from the Sutradhar community.

Read about folk dances in India:

Folk Dances in India

Bubonic Plague

Context: The health officials in Oregon, US confirmed the first case of bubonic plague in the state since 2005.

About Bubonic Plague

Plague is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, a zoonotic bacteria, i.e. bacteria that can spread between animals and people.
Y pestis is usually found in small animals and their fleas.
It is one of three types of plague, also known as Black Death, gets its name from the swollen lymph nodes (buboes) caused by the disease.
Between 1346 and 1353, the bubonic plague killed as many as 50 million in Europe.
During the 14th century, the epidemic was commonly known as the 'great pestilence' or 'great death' due to the demographic havoc that it caused.
It is usually resulting from the bite of an infected flea

Other types of plague:

Septicemic plague happens if the bacteria enters the bloodstream, means when the infection goes all through the body.
- This often follows untreated bubonic plague, and causes additional, more serious symptoms. These include abdominal pain, shock, bleeding into the skin, and blackening of appendages, most often fingers, toes or the nose.
Pneumonic plague is the most dangerous, and according to the WHO, “almost always fatal” if untreated.
- It happens when the bacteria enters the lungs, and adds rapidly developing pneumonia to the list of symptoms.
- It is the only form of plague that can be spread from person to person by inhaling infectious droplets also making it the most contagious.

Transmission of Plague

According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), it is transmitted between animals and humans by the bite of infected vector fleas, direct contact with infected tissues, and inhalation of infected respiratory droplets/small particles.

Symptoms of Plague:

It can cause fever, headache, weakness and painful, swollen lymph nodes, and usually happens from the bite of an infected flea.

Treatment of Plague:

All forms of plague are treatable with common antibiotics.
It can be fatal if it’s not treated.

Sustainable Carbon Nanotube

Context: A novel method for synthesizing carbon nanotubes directly on glass substrates at 750^oC has been developed by the researchers at the Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology (IASST).

It has wide-ranging implications in the fields of energy research, biomedicine and optoelectronics.

More about the news:

Applications of Carbon nanotubes (CNTs): rechargeable batteries, flexible electronics, aerospace, transparent electrodes, touchscreens, supercapacitors etc.
Conventional methods of synthesising CNT:
- It requires high temperatures of 1,000^o C and metal catalysts such as iron, cobalt and nickel, which pose biocompatibility concerns for biomedical applications.
- Without these catalysts it’s costlier to produce CNTs, so there is a need to develop a cleaner, more sustainable manufacturing process.
The new research:
- The newly developed method involves using a plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition technique (PECVD), where plasma is generated using a specially designed spiral fused hollow cathode source.
- This process excludes the need for elevated temperatures and transition metal catalysts.
- Also, this synthesis is executed under atmospheric pressure, making it more cost-effective compared to other available methods.
- Factors influencing the CNT growth: plasma characteristics, substrate’s composition, temperature, and plasma pre-treatment.
  - Pre-plasma treatment of the glass substrate at an elevated temperature optimally enhances the surface area, exposing significantly more of its constituent elements directly to the surface.
- Sodium among all the elements within the glass, emerges as the primary catalyst for initiating CNT growth.
- Sodium present in the CNTs can be easily removed by washing with deionized water.

Thus, the research findings are significant towards addressing challenges in CNT synthesis and advancing its application in various fields.

About Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs):

A carbon nanotube (CNT) is a tube made of carbon with a diameter in the nano-meter range (nanoscale). They are one of the allotropes of carbon.
The structure of an ideal (infinitely long) single-walled carbon nanotube is that of a regular hexagonal lattice drawn on an infinite cylindrical surface, whose vertices are the positions of the carbon atoms.
Since the length of the carbon-carbon bonds is fairly fixed, there are constraints on the diameter of the cylinder and the arrangement of the atoms on it.
Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs):
- Have diameters around 0.5–2.0 nanometers
- About 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair.
Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs):
- Consist of nested single-wall carbon nanotubes in a nested, tube-in-tube structure.
- Double- and triple-walled carbon nanotubes are special cases of MWCNT.

Properties of Carbon Nanotubes:

High strength with low-weight: Single-walled CNTs are 100 times stronger and 1/6th its weight. Thus, it can be used to make light-but-strong materials.
Drug delivery: Hollow, tubular structure make it ideal as a storage box. Gas, lithium, even drugs may be stored.
Very good conductors of heat and electricity.
Can exist as both as semiconductors and metals. In addition, we can manipulate CNTs to change from being a semiconductor to a metal and vice versa.
Large length-to-width ratio
Self-assembling properties: scientists have harnessed the ability of self-assembly of bio molecules for various applications.
CNTs are attached to DNA and proteins to make novel materials that have unique properties.
CNTs are mixed with other materials to make composites like conductive plastics or steel-like plastics.
CNTs can be used to store hydrogen.
About 2/3rd of CNTs is semiconducting and 1/3rd metallic. Separation is a problem hindering mass production.
CNTs are insoluble in water. This can be solved by attaching it with organic matter like starch.

Fiscal Devolution challenge before Finance Commission

Context: Recently, Tamil Nadu has hosted the Sixteenth Finance Commission to hold discussion with various stakeholders in the state on the issues concerning fiscal devolution. In this context, let us assess the critical fiscal challenges facing India and suggestions to address the skewness in the relationship between the States and the Union.

Relevance of the topic:

Mains: Challenges pertaining to federal structure; devolution of power and finances.

Financial relations between Union and States:

Articles 268 to Article 293 in Part XII of the Indian Constitution deal with Centre-state financial relations.
Article 268: Taxes levied by Centre but collected and appropriated by States. E.g., Stamp duties
The 101st Constitution amendment provides for GST taxation law, establishing the GST Council under Article 279A of the Indian Constitution.
Grants-in-aid to States: Statutory grant under Article 275 and discretionary grant under Article 282 of Indian Constitution.

Present formula for Fiscal Devolution:

As per the 15th Finance Commission (2021-25), the states should be given 41% of the divisible tax pool. (Vertical devolution).
Within that 41%, the Finance Commission uses a horizontal criteria that determines the amount of funds going to different States. The formula is based on income, population, the area, forests and ecology, demographic performance, etc.

Issues with the Finance Commission's Revenue Sharing Model:

1. Weightage of Population and Area combined has increased:

Weight for population in the devolution formula was 10% under the 11th Finance Commission (2000-05). It has increased to 15% under the 15th Finance Commission based on 2011 census.
The weight given to the area has also doubled from 7.5% under the 11th Finance Commission to 15% under the 14th Finance Commission.
This tilts the scales in favour of states with large areas and large populations. Southern states have opposed this move as they argue that they are being penalised for controlling their fertility rates.

2. Income Distance:

Income distance is calculated by deducting the GSDP per capita of a state from the GSDP per capita of the state which scores the highest on this metric.
It has the highest weightage under the horizontal devolution formula. This is based on the principle of federalism which requires the wealthier states to share their excess revenue with not so wealthier states for overall development of the nation.
This has benefitted the North Indian states disproportionately.

3. Demographic Performance:

This criterion was introduced by 15^th Finance Commission to cater to the demands of the South Indian states who have performed well to control population explosion in their states.
However, the formula for calculating the weight for demographic performance inverses the TFR and multiplies it by the population in 1971. This results in higher weight once again going to more populous states.

4. Tax and Fiscal Efforts:

The Fifteenth Finance Commission introduced a 2.5% weight for States which improve their tax and fiscal performance. But the weight for fiscal discipline was much higher at 17.5% under the Thirteenth Finance Commission.

5. Shrinking Devolution:

Though the Finance Commission enhanced states’ share in the divisible pool of taxes, it did not result in concomitant increase in the actual devolution.
This is because, over the last few years, Central government has reduced the tax rates and increased the cess and surcharges which are not mandated to be shared with the states.
- Cess and surcharges are part of central taxes but not part of the divisible tax pool and do not have to be shared with States.
- E.g.,: Share of cess and surcharge as a percentage of Gross Tax revenue of Center has increased sharply from 2.3% in 1980-81 to 15% in 2019-20.

6. Gaps between Declared Objectives and Outcomes:

While the Fifteenth Finance Commission awarded the vertical share of the divisible pool to the States as 41%, the effective devolution to States in the first four years of the award period amounted to only 33.16% of the Union’s gross tax revenue.

7. Ceiling on the States’ Borrowing:

The Union Budget has kept 3.5% of GSDP as their borrowing limit for FY24 and it restricted borrowing power of the states. (As per article 293, states cannot raise loans without the consent of the union if there is any outstanding loan made by the state government with a guarantee given by the Centre.)

8. Restrictions on Off-budget Borrowings:

The Union Government had noticed in FY22 that such off-budget borrowings would be considered as borrowings made by the state. This reduced the capacity of states to increase their borrowings without violating fiscal deficit targets.

9. Loss of Taxation Rights under GST Mechanism:

With the advent of GST, the states lost their rights to increase tax revenues by changing the tax rates on sale of many goods and services. (GST rates and slabs are decided by the GST Council with 3/4^th majority vote).

Way Forward:

Giving taxation autonomy to states with sound fiscal performance or states which are more disaster prone like Kerala.
50% devolution of the gross central taxes, allowing States greater fiscal autonomy in funding and implementing locally relevant schemes. (Demand of Tamil Nadu)
Including states in deciding the terms of consideration of the Finance Commission, similar to the GST council, a more formal arrangement for the participation of States in the constitution and the working of the FC should be considered.
Weightage of demographic performance can be raised to 15 to 20 per cent.
Weightage given to income distance must be reduced, as that may help southern states with a higher per capita income.
Weightage for efficiency criteria in the horizontal devolution should be increased.
Rationalising the share of cess and surcharges in the gross tax revenue of Centre.

Copper

Major Copper Belts:

Seasonal influenza:

Influenza viruses are constantly evolving:

Way Forward:

Gaganyaan Mission:

Launch Vehicle Mark-3:

Indigenous cryogenic engine technology in India:

Challenges:

How do stars sustain?

Hydrogen devoid stars (Helium stars):

About Brahmos Supersonic Cruise Missiles

Brahmos-NG & Brahmos-II (Future versions of Brahmos)

About Brahmos Aerospace

Composition of Council of Minister:

Constitutional background of Reservation in India

Judicial take on OBC Reservations

Maratha Reservation issue

Issues/Concerns with providing reservations to Marathas

Conclusion:

Aadhar-enabled Payment System (AePS)

Banking Services Offered by AePS

Benefits of AePS:

About Chhau dance form:

About Bubonic Plague

Transmission of Plague

More about the news:

About Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs):

Properties of Carbon Nanotubes:

Present formula for Fiscal Devolution:

Way Forward:

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