International Relations & Security

All (4265)Current Affairs (4243)Mains Practice (77)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

India must act as a unifier in the Indian Ocean Region

Context: India’s geographical location and historical ties with the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) makes it a key stakeholder in regional security and stability. However, IOR lacks a cohesive security framework due to its diversity and self-interest-driven politics. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India’s Maritime Security and Strategic Interests in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

Current challenges in the IOR: 

  • Lack of robust regional institutions: IOR lacks effective regional institutions to facilitate dialogue or cooperation, largely due to national self-interests and diversity among states. 
  • Fragmentation of regional initiatives: Various attempts to create a regional identity resulted in multiple organisations like IORA, SAARC, BIMSTEC, IPOI, CSC, and IONS. Most of these initiatives lack momentum, except for the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS).
  • Shiting focus towards Indo-Pacific region: The Indo-Pacific paradigm, promoted by the US, has diverted attention from IOR-centric frameworks. 

Maritime security threats: Ongoing conflicts in the Middle East and assertive actions in the South China Sea pose challenges to maritime security and international shipping.

image 82

India's Maritime Diplomacy: 

  • India's maritime policy centers on promoting regional cooperation by initiatives such as SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region). 
  • Indian Navy (IN) is a central component of this policy.
    • Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR): Most notably exemplified by the 2004 tsunami, where India gave immediate aid to neighboring countries that were hit.
    • Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA): India provides real-time maritime traffic data to neighboring countries to counter illegal activity and promote security.
    • Naval Cooperation: Mechanisms such as the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) foster cooperation between IOR navies to meet shared security issues.

Way Forward: 

To realise its true potential as a “preferred security partner” and “first responder” in the IOR, India needs:

  • Capability development: Develop a fully funded programme for security and HADR assistance, including amphibious heavy-lift capability and hospital ships. 
  • Improve Coordination: Enhance cooperation between the Ministry of Defence and Ministry of External Affairs to enhance efficiency in reacting to crises.
  • Multilateral Engagements: Engage actively in regional fora to create an integrated security structure that tackles collective issues. 

In the changing world order, maritime diplomacy will become ever more important. India needs to engage its maritime diplomacy, humanitarian operations, and strategic prowess to come together and shape the Indian Ocean Region. As K.M. Panikkar correctly pointed out, the Indian Ocean is not another sea area to India—it holds the very pivot of its national interests. 

India’s Recalibration with Taliban

Context: India's evolving engagement with the Taliban-led Afghanistan marks a significant shift in its foreign policy. 

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: India-Afghanistan bilateral relations. 

Major Highlights:

  • Traditionally, India has maintained a policy of non-engagement with the Taliban due to its links with terrorism and its oppressive policies, particularly regarding human rights.
  • Since the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan in August 2021, India has cautiously re-engaged with the regime, however, this shift comes with significant risks. 

India’s Diplomatic Engagement with the Taliban

  • Reopening of Embassy: In June 2022, India re-established a diplomatic presence in Kabul by sending a technical team to oversee humanitarian assistance and monitor ground conditions.
  • High-Level Meetings: In January 2025, Indian Foreign Secretary met with the Taliban’s acting Foreign Minister in Dubai to discuss strengthening bilateral ties, economic cooperation, and humanitarian aid.
  • Possible Taliban Representation in India: Reports suggest that India may allow the Taliban to appoint a new envoy for its embassy in New Delhi, which would mark a significant step towards official recognition of the regime.
image 68

Strategic Motivations behind India’s Engagement

  • Countering China’s Influence: China has moved quickly to engage with the Taliban, accepting Taliban-appointed envoys and considering Afghanistan’s inclusion in the Belt and Road Initiative. India does not want to cede strategic influence in the region. 
  • Pakistan’s diminished role: Pakistan, once a key ally of the Taliban, now has strained relations with the group. Taliban has allowed Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) to operate within its borders, leading to terrorist attacks inside Pakistan. This presents India with an opportunity to expand its influence in Afghanistan.
  • Economic and connectivity interests: India has interests in regional trade routes, including the Chabahar Port in Iran, which can serve as a gateway to Afghanistan and Central Asia. Engaging with the Taliban could help secure India’s trade and connectivity projects. 

Challenges and Risks of Engagement

  • Terrorism and Security Concerns: Afghanistan has become a breeding ground for terrorist organisations including Islamic State (IS). India has already faced threats from IS, including an attack on its consulate in Jalalabad, Afghanistan in December 2024. Taliban’s links to groups like TTP raise concerns about potential spillover effects into India’s security landscape. 
  • Human Rights and Ethical Concerns: Taliban has imposed severe restrictions on women, including banning them from education, jobs, and public spaces. The UN has described this situation as "gender apartheid," making any engagement with the Taliban controversial on moral and diplomatic grounds. 
  • Diplomatic Risks: Officially accepting a Taliban envoy could be seen as de facto recognition of the regime, contradicting India's past stance of supporting a democratic Afghanistan. Western allies, including the U.S. and the EU, have not recognised the Taliban, and India’s move may impact its global diplomatic standing.

Way Forward

India’s engagement with the Taliban is a double-edged sword. While strategic interests and regional stability demand dialogue, it poses a risk of legitimising a repressive regime. 

A cautious and multi-pronged approach is necessary, focusing on : 

  • Maintaining strategic autonomy: India should continue engaging with all Afghan stakeholders, including opposition groups and civil society, while avoiding full diplomatic recognition of the Taliban. 
  • Conditional engagement: Any diplomatic or economic engagement should be tied to specific conditions, such as improving human rights and countering terrorism. 
  • Regional Coordination: Strengthening cooperation with Central Asian nations, Iran, and Russia to maintain stability in Afghanistan. 

India must balance its strategic goals with ethical considerations to ensure that its engagement in Afghanistan serves long-term security and geopolitical interests. 

Raisina Dialogue 2025

Context: The Prime Minister of New Zealand, foreign ministers from at least 18 nations, senior executives from major multinational businesses, and foreign policy experts will take part in the Raisina Dialogue, which will take place in New Delhi from March 17-19, 2025. At the sidelines, the directors of intelligence agencies of Five Eyes Alliance countries are also set to meet.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about Raisina Dialogue; Five Eyes Alliance. 

About Raisina Dialogue

  • Raisina Dialogue is a multilateral conference held annually in New Delhi, India. 
  • It is India’s premier conference on geopolitics and geo-economics committed to addressing the most challenging issues facing the global community. 
  • The leaders from politics, business, media, and civil society converge to discuss the state of the world and explore opportunities for cooperation on a wide range of contemporary matters. 
  • Hosted by: Observer Research Foundation in partnership with the Ministry of External Affairs.

Raisina Dialogue 2025

  • Theme 2025: "Kalachakra" (Wheel of Time), symbolising global political cycles and change.

Key Issues expected to dominate:

image 64

Significance for India’s Foreign Policy: 

  • Balancing global power dynamics: Managing ties with the U.S., Russia, China & EU.
  • Enhancing regional leadership: Strengthening South Asia & Indo-Pacific ties.
  • Positioning India as a mediator in global issues, E.g., Ukraine, Indo-Pacific, and trade disputes.
  • Expanding influence in Global South – economic & strategic engagement.

About Five Eyes Alliance: 

  • The Five Eyes (FVEY) Alliance is an intelligence-sharing network consisting of five English-speaking countries: 
  1. United States (US)
  2. United Kingdom (UK)
  3. Canada
  4. Australia
  5. New Zealand
  • Purpose: Enhancing global security & intelligence cooperation to monitor threats related to terrorism, cyber warfare, and geopolitical conflicts. 
  • Origins: Evolved from World War II-era intelligence cooperation, particularly the UK-USA Agreement (1946).
image 65

Key Areas of cooperation:

  • Counterterrorism & Security
    • Preventing terrorist attacks by sharing intelligence.
    • Example: Coordination after 9/11 attacks (2001) to track terrorist networks like Al-Qaeda.
  • Cybersecurity & Cyber Warfare
    • Tracking cyber threats from China, Russia, North Korea, and Iran.
    • Countering state-sponsored hacking, cyber espionage, and ransomware attacks.
  • Geopolitical Intelligence & Surveillance
    • Monitoring Chinese expansion in the Indo-Pacific.
    • Tracking Russia’s activities in Ukraine & NATO regions.
  • Espionage Prevention
    • Identifying foreign spies & intelligence networks operating in allied countries.
    • Example: Banning Chinese telecom giant Huawei from 5G networks in most Five Eyes countries.

India’s Aluminium Exports to the US: Impact of New Tariffs

Context: The US under the Trump Administration has increased tariffs on Aluminium imports from 10% to 25% (effective March 12, 2025). 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends in India-US trade relations; Protectionist policies. 

Overview of India’s Aluminium Exports to the US: 

  • India is the world's second largest aluminium producer after China. 
  • The US has become India’s largest market for aluminium exports, particularly for aluminium conductors used in power transmission. 
  • Key Indian Aluminium Products Exported to the US:
    • Aluminium Conductors used in high- and medium-voltage cables for power transmission- 38% of US imports (by weight) in 2024, valued at $130 million. 
    • Unwrought aluminium – $185 million
    • Nails and fasteners – $107 million
    • Aluminium wire – $98 million
    • Aluminium tube and pipe fittings – $16 million (26% of US imports in this category)
  • India’s aluminium exports to the US have grown significantly :
    • 2016-17: $350 million
    • 2022-23 & 2021-22: Over $1 billion each year
    • 2023-24: $946 million
    • Despite this growth, India accounts for only 3% of total US aluminium imports. 

US Tariff Policies : Then and Now

  • 2018 Tariffs (Trump’s First Term): 
    • Imposed 25% tariffs on steel and 10% on aluminium. 
    • Some countries (E.g., Canada, Japan, EU, Mexico) were exempted, but India was not.
    • Despite tariffs, India’s aluminium conductor exports to the US increased. 
  • 2024 Tariffs (Trump’s Second Term): 
    • New tariffs of 25% on aluminium imports, effective March 12, 2025.
    • Broader coverage – includes semi-finished and finished aluminium products.
    • Justification: Prevent tariff evasion and strengthen the US aluminium industry. 

Impact on India’s Aluminium Industry: 

  • India exports 40% of its aluminium production, with 6-8% of total exports going to the US. Tariffs may reduce export volumes and revenues for Indian aluminium manufacturers.
  • Downstream aluminium industry (E.g., machinery components, fasteners, wires) will also face challenges. 

Comparison with the Steel Industry

  • India’s steel exports to the US are lower (4% of total exports in 2024). Direct impact on steel sales is limited, but there could be an indirect effect due to China’s excess steel entering India. 
  • The new US tariffs also extend to steel products, affecting multiple sectors. 

The new 25% tariffs will impact export revenues, but aluminium exports form a small share of overall business for most Indian companies. Diversification of export markets and domestic demand growth could help offset losses from the US market. 

Armenia-Azerbaijan Peace Agreement

Context: Armenia and Azerbaijan officials have agreed on the text of a peace agreement to end nearly four decades of conflict between the South Caucasus countries. Armenia has agreed to surrender its claim over the primarily Armenian-populated Nagorno-Karabakh region.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Nagorno-Karabakh region. 

About Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict

  • It is a long-standing territorial and ethnic dispute between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the Nagorno-Karabakh region, a landlocked mountainous area in the South Caucasus.
  • The region is internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan, but has a majority ethnic Armenian population that has sought self-rule. The conflict has led to multiple wars, ceasefires, and international interventions. 
image 61

Historical Background: 

Soviet Era (1920s-1988)

  • 1921: Soviet leader Joseph Stalin placed Nagorno-Karabakh under Azerbaijani control, despite its Armenian majority, as part of the divide-and-rule strategy.
  • Soviet Rule: Ethnic tensions remained dormant under Soviet control, but grievances persisted.

First Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988-1994): 

  • 1988: As the Soviet Union weakened, ethnic Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh demanded unification with Armenia.
  • 1991: Following the collapse of the USSR, full-scale war erupted between Armenia and Azerbaijan.
  • 1994: The war ended with a ceasefire, brokered by Russia, known as the Bishkek Protocol.
  • Outcome: Armenia took control of Nagorno-Karabakh and seven surrounding Azerbaijani districts. Over 30,000 people died, and nearly 1 million people were displaced (mostly Azerbaijanis).

Period of Ceasefire (1994-2020)

  • Despite the 1994 ceasefire, frequent border skirmishes occurred. Diplomatic efforts by the OSCE Minsk Group (Russia, U.S., France) failed to achieve a permanent solution.

Second Nagorno-Karabakh War (2020)

  • September 2020: Azerbaijan launched a major military offensive to reclaim lost territories. Turkey provided military support to Azerbaijan, supplying drones and military advisors.
  • November 2020: After six weeks of fighting, Azerbaijan regained much of its lost territory, including the strategic city of Shusha. 
  • Russia brokered a ceasefire, deploying 1,960 Russian peacekeepers in Nagorno-Karabakh.
  • Outcome of the 2020 War: Azerbaijan reclaimed seven surrounding districts and parts of Nagorno-Karabakh. Armenia suffered a political crisis, with protests against the government’s handling of the war

2023 Azerbaijani Offensive & Armenian Withdrawal: 

  • September 2023: Azerbaijan launched a final military operation, fully capturing Nagorno-Karabakh. 
  • Over 100,000 Armenians fled, effectively ending Armenian claims over the region. The self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh’s Armenian administration) dissolved itself. 

Armenia-Azerbaijan Peace Agreement (2025)

  • March 2025: Both nations signed a peace treaty, recognising each other’s sovereignty.
  • Armenia has accepted Azerbaijan’s control over Nagorno-Karabakh.
  • Both nations agreed to establish diplomatic relations and restore trade routes. The border demarcation process has been initiated. 

The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has shaped the geopolitics of the South Caucasus for decades. The 2025 peace agreement provides a framework for long-term stability in the region. India has always encouraged the parties to move forward on ensuring long-term peace and security through dialogue and diplomacy.

India-Sri Lanka Fishing Dispute

Context: There is recent debate around the issue of illegal fishing by Indian fishermen in Sri Lankan waters.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Location- Palk Bay; Katchatheevu

Mains: Issues impacting India-Sri Lanka bilateral relations. 

Background of the dispute

image 56
  • The dispute primarily concerns fishing rights in the Palk Bay region between India and Sri Lanka, where both Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen depend on marine resources for their livelihood.
  • Indian fishermen, particularly from Tamil Nadu and Puducherry, often cross the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL) into Sri Lankan waters in search of better fishing grounds.
  • The issue has intensified after India ceded Katchatheevu Island to Sri Lanka under the 1974 Indo-Lanka Maritime Agreement, which led to the restriction of traditional fishing rights for Indian fishermen.

Key Issues in the dispute

1. Illegal fishing and Bottom Trawling:

  • Indian fishermen have been accused of bottom trawling in Sri Lankan waters.
    • It is a fishing method that is considered highly destructive as it damages the seabed and depletes fish stocks and marine biodiversity.
  • Sri Lankan Navy has taken strict measures, including patrolling, arresting 146 Indian fishermen, and seizing 18 boats in 2024 alone, to prevent illegal fishing activities.
  • Indian fishermen argue that limited fishing zones in India’s coastal waters due to coral reefs and rocks force them to venture into Sri Lankan waters.
image 57

2. Livelihood Concerns:

  • Economic disparity: Indian fishermen, who are relatively wealthier, use mechanised boats, while Sri Lankan Tamil fishermen, still recovering from the civil war, depend on traditional fishing methods.
  • Indian fishermen face legal restrictions: The Tamil Nadu Marine Fishing Regulation Act, 1983, restricts fishing activities along the Tamil Nadu coastline, which makes deep-sea fishing the only alternative.
  • Joint deep-sea fishing schemes initiated in 2017 by the Indian government have not been widely adopted due to high investment costs and the reluctance of fishermen to shift from their traditional practices.

3. Diplomatic issues: Sri Lanka’s legal claims under international law: 

  • The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) supports Sri Lanka’s right to regulate its waters.
    • Article 19 of UNCLOS considers unauthorised fishing in another country’s territorial waters a security threat.
    • Article 21 of UNCLOS allows Sri Lanka to implement laws to prevent violations of its fisheries regulations.
  • The lack of direct involvement of the Tamil Nadu government in diplomatic talks has weakened India's negotiation position and led to concerns over the federal structure being overlooked.

Implications of Indo-Sri Lanka Fishing Conflict

  • Humanitarian concerns: Frequent arrests of Indian fishermen lead to prolonged detentions, legal complications, and financial hardship for affected families. Psychological impact on fishing communities due to persistent fear of arrests and violence.
  • Security implications: Increased coast guard deployments and surveillance in the Palk Bay region divert resources from other emerging maritime security threats. Concerns over piracy and drug trafficking, with reports of narcotics being transported through the Palk Strait.
  • Political tensions: Allegations against the Sri Lanka Navy’s actions in the Palk Bay have fueled diplomatic tensions between the two nations. Political tensions have influenced India’s support for UN resolutions on Sri Lanka’s human rights record.
  • Environmental degradation: Bottom trawling harms fish breeding grounds, depletes the stock, and damages the seafloor for a foreseeable future. Coral reef destruction disrupts marine ecosystems, impacting fish breeding and coastal protection.
  • Economic Consequences: Overfishing has reduced fishery resources and fishers' income. Sri Lanka alleges that it loses around USD 730 million annually due to Indian poaching while Indian fishermen face declining incomes due to resource depletion and frequent arrests.

Way Forward

  • Diplomatic Measures: 
    • Resume fishermen-level talks, which were last held in 2016, to build consensus and address concerns from both sides.
    • Ensure Tamil Nadu’s participation in bilateral discussions to reflect the concerns of affected fishing communities.
    • Utilise Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s upcoming visit to Sri Lanka (April 2025) as an opportunity for high-level discussions on fisheries cooperation.
  • Enforcing Maritime Regulations: 
    • Enhanced patrolling and surveillance of IMBL can help prevent illegal fishing activities.
    • A dedicated Joint Working Group (JWG) should be established to ensure continuous dialogue and problem-solving mechanisms.
  • Sustainable Fisheries Management: 
    • Enforce a ban on bottom trawling and promote eco-friendly fishing techniques to protect marine ecosystems.
    • Provide financial support and training for deep-sea fishing to enable fishermen to transition to sustainable methods.
    • Sustainable fishing like catch limits and quotas can ensure fish populations recover quickly and release fish fingerlings to compensate for depleting resources.
    • Joint Marine Resource Management: A regional fisheries management authority should be established to regulate fishing activities and prevent overexploitation of marine ecosystems.
  • Alternative Livelihood Programs: 
    • Tamil Nadu should offer alternative livelihoods and skill development in areas of marine tourism, seaweed farming, and inland aquaculture for fishers facing restrictions.
  • Technology and Governance: 
    • Implement real-time satellite monitoring to track fishing activities and prevent violations of the IMBL.
    • Enhance coast guard coordination and create a structured dispute resolution framework to address conflicts effectively.
    • Promote regional cooperation through SAARC and BIMSTEC to develop a joint framework for sustainable marine resource management.

The countries need to focus on long-term resolution of the disputes to secure the livelihood security of both Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen, while maintaining maritime peace, ecological balance, and economic cooperation.

Baloch insurgents behind Pakistan Train Hijacking

Context: Insurgents of the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) stopped a long-distance train in Quetta region and took passengers hostage on March 11, 2025. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location: Balochistan; Balochistan Liberation Army (Key Facts)

About Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA):

image 53
  • Who is the BLA?
    • It is a Baloch ethnonationalist group advocating for an independent Balochistan.
    • It has been banned in Pakistan (2006) and designated as a global terrorist organization by the U.S. (2019).
  • BLA’s role in the attack:
    • The attack was led by BLA’s Majeed Brigade, a suicide squad (Fidayeen unit) active since 2011.
    • Other specialised BLA units (STOS, Fatah Squad, and Zirab Units) were also involved.
    • Earlier, it has carried out attacks on Pakistani establishments and projects, especially in Baluchistan region.
      • March 2024: Attack on a security complex near Gwadar port.
      • October 2024: Suicide bombing killed two Chinese nationals working on CPEC projects.
Balochistan

Brief background of the Baloch Insurgency

  • Economic and Political Issues:
    • Balochistan is Pakistan’s largest but least developed province, rich in oil, gas, gold, and copper.
    • Ethnic Baloch leaders accuse the Federal government (dominated by Punjab) of economic exploitation.
  • Historical Background:
    • Post-Partition (1947-48):
      • Balochistan remained independent until March 1948 under a friendship treaty with Pakistan.
      • The Khan of Kalat initially resisted joining Pakistan but was pressured into signing the accession.
      • Many Baloch continued to support independence, leading to decades of insurgency.
  • Insurgency and its Impact:
    • Tens of thousands have been killed in Baloch insurgencies over the years.
    • Pakistan often accuses India of supporting Baloch insurgents, an allegation which India denies.
    • Insurgents frequently target Chinese personnel & CPEC projects, fearing they would not benefit. 

Former Philippine President arrested on ICC warrant

Context: Police arrested former Philippines President Rodrigo Duterte at Manila's international airport following directives from the International Criminal Court (ICC) regarding a case of crime against humanity. 

Relevance of the topic: Prelims: International Criminal Court; Crimes against Humanity. 

Major Highlights: 

  • Duterte faces a charge of “the crime against humanity of murder” committed during his “war on drugs”.
    • He ran a brutal anti-drugs drive during his time in office from 2016 to 2022. 
    • Drug suspects were deprived of “due process under the law” and the crackdown allegedly killed around 30,000 people, including children.  
  • The Philippines had quit the ICC in 2019, but the ICC maintains that it had jurisdiction over killings before the country’s pullout from ICC. 

International Criminal Court

  • ICC is an international tribunal to address impunity for the gravest crimes threatening the global community. 
  • It was established under the Rome Statute, a multilateral treaty adopted in 1998. Rome Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 after ratification by 60 countries.
  • ICC is an independent international organisation and is not part of the United Nations. 
  • ICC has 18 judges who are elected by the Assembly of State Parties and have non-renewable 9-year terms.
  • The seat of ICC is in The Hague, Netherlands.

Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court:

  • ICC investigates and prosecutes individuals accused of the gravest crimes of international concern, as defined under the Rome Statute:
    1. Genocide
    2. War Crimes
    3. Crimes against Humanity
    4. Crime of Aggression

What are Crimes Against Humanity?

  • The Rome Statute of the ICC includes the most extensive list of crimes against humanity. These can include:
    • Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation or forcible transfer of population, imprisonment, torture, rape, sexual slavery.
    • Persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender or other grounds.
    • Enforced disappearance of persons, apartheid, other inhumane acts involving serious harm to physical or mental health.

Conditions for Exercising Jurisdiction: 

The ICC can exercise jurisdiction only under specific conditions:

  1. Territorial or National Jurisdiction:
    • If the alleged crime occurred on the territory of a State Party.
    • If the alleged crime was committed by a national of a State Party.
  2. UN Security Council (UNSC) Referral:
    • The UNSC can refer cases to the ICC, even if the crime occurred in a non-State Party.
  3. Declaration of Acceptance:
    • A non-State Party can accept the ICC's jurisdiction by making a formal declaration.

Principle of Complementarity: 

  • The ICC operates under the principle of complementarity, i.e., it acts as a court of last resort (seeks to complement, not replace, national courts). 
  • The ICC can intervene only if the national judicial systems are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute crimes.
image 50

Parties to International Criminal Court: 

  • As of March 2025, ICC has 125 member states. 
  • However, countries such as India, China, USA, Russia etc. have not ratified the Rome Statute and are not members of ICC. Reasons for non-membership include concerns about sovereignty, potential misuse of the court, and conflicts with domestic laws. 

India is the second largest arms importer after Ukraine: SIPRI

Context: Ukraine, involved in a war with Russia for the past 4 years, has surpassed India to become the world’s largest arms importer as per Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Report: Key Trends.

About SIPRI

  • Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) is an independent international institute dedicated to research on conflict, armaments, arms control, and disarmament established in 1966.
  • It publishes reports on global arms transfers, tracking trends in arms imports and exports.
  • It aims to provide data-driven insights for policy-making in global security and military affairs.
image 48

Major Highlights of the SIPRI Report (2025):

  • Ukraine became the largest importer of major arms in 2020-24, with a nearly 100-fold increase compared to 2015-19, due to the ongoing war with Russia.
  • India ranked as the second-largest importer of major arms, accounting for 8.3% of global imports. Indian arms imports declined by 9.3% from 2015-19 to 2020-24, primarily due to increasing domestic production.
  • Russia’s arms exports fell by 64%, reducing its share to 7.8%, making it the third-largest exporter after the US (43%) and France (9.6%).
  • Four Asian countries—India, Pakistan, Japan, and Australia—ranked among the top 10 importers of arms globally.
  • The US and French arms exports increased, while Russia, China, and Germany’s exports declined.
  • China dropped out of the top 10 arms importers for the first time since 1990-94, showcasing its growing domestic industrial base.

India’s position in global Arms Trade:

  • India was the top destination for arms exports from both Russia and France.
  • The largest share of Indian arms imports (36%) came from Russia. The share of Russian arms imports in India has declined significantly:
    • 2010-14: 72%
    • 2015-19: 55%
    • 2020-24: 36%
  • India’s shift in suppliers is evident with increasing arms procurements from France, Israel, and the US.
  • Major defence deals with France:
    • 36 Rafale jets (delivered)
    • 6 Scorpene-class conventional submarines (P-75; all six submarines launched)
    • 26 Rafale-M jets and 3 submarines (pending finalisation)
image 5

India’s Self-Reliance (Aatmanirbharta) in defence:

  • India’s defence production reached a record ₹1.27 trillion in 2023-24, marking a 17.25% growth—a seven-year high.
  • Since 2020-21, a large share of the capital acquisition budget has been allocated to domestic procurement.
  • 2025-26 budget: ₹1.115 trillion (75% of total ₹1.49 trillion) earmarked for domestic acquisitions.
  • Increasing ability to design and produce indigenous weapons reduces reliance on imports.

The SIPRI report points to India reducing dependency on Russian arms, and France gaining prominence as India’s key supplier. Simultaneously, the rise of indigenous defence production in India aligns with the government’s push for self-reliance.

India, Mauritius and a visit to deepen long-standing Ties

Context: The Prime Minister of India will embark on a state visit to Mauritius from 11-12 March 2025, and will be the guest of honour in the Mauritius Independence Day celebrations. 

Relevance of the Topic:  Mains: India-Mauritius bilateral relations and partnership.

Introduction:

  • India and Mauritius share a long-standing and multifaceted relationship, deeply rooted in history, culture, economic ties, and strategic interests. 
  • The new government in Mauritius is led by Navinchandra Ramgoolam of the Labour Party. The visit of the Indian PM provides an opportunity to reaffirm India’s commitment to the security and prosperity of the island nation. 
image 38
Importance of Mauritius for IndiaImportance of India for Mauritius

1. Strategic Location in the Indian Ocean:

- Mauritius' strategic location in the Indian Ocean, makes it a vital partner for India's maritime strategy and Vision SAGAR. 

- The island nation plays a crucial role in India's Ocean Diplomacy, enhancing its influence in the Indian Ocean.

2. Cultural and Historical Ties:

- Over 68% of Mauritius' population is of Indian origin fostering strong cultural affinities and historical ties.

- These ties facilitate cooperation in various sectors, including education, culture, and community development projects.

3. Economic Benefits:

- Mauritius is an important trading partner for India.

- Comprehensive Economic Cooperation and Partnership Agreement (CECPA) enhances trade relations and provides preferential market access for both countries.

4. Security Cooperation:

- Mauritius supports India's stance against terrorism and piracy, contributing to regional security in the Indian Ocean.

- India has historically played a role in Mauritius' security, including military interventions like Operation Lal Dora in 1983.
1. Economic Support and Investment:

- India is one of Mauritius' largest trading partners and a significant source of foreign investment. 

- India's development assistance, including funding for community projects, supports Mauritius' infrastructure and social development. 

2. Strategic Partnerships:

- India's strategic assistance enhances Mauritius' maritime security, defence capabilities and  reinforces its sovereignty claims.

- India supports Mauritius' claims over the Chagos Archipelago, aligning with its stance on decolonisation and regional stability.

AD 4nXfsldsxnDmNTgi4sd4imybgmF0HnRtb8ULoryqtDS7t gLzilJNEUgLO5Ii9lNt5pAO8WZX3aWzB3PM0WYQGhDu6GJQYyis7CxiBYxWElPchiqU5Dcf4QtBGrU8D Y1BqX6MCFl TjSelHmlclhlnA?key=ECV3XSpG7KzKh s6wdJB1GsW

Historical and Cultural Ties

  • Mauritius has a significant Indian-origin population, with nearly 70% tracing their ancestry to India, particularly from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. These historical ties date back to the colonial period when Indian indentured labourers were brought to work on sugar plantations.
  • Sir Seewosagur Ramgoolam, the father of the current Prime Minister, played a pivotal role in the country’s independence movement and shared a historical connection with India. He worked closely with Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose in Britain (1919-21) and assisted in the publication of Bose’s book, The Indian Struggle.
  • India has played a significant role in preserving and promoting the cultural and linguistic heritage of the Indian-origin population in Mauritius.
    • Institutions like the Mahatma Gandhi Institute and the Indian Cultural Centre have been instrumental in promoting Indian languages and traditions. 
    • Additionally, Mauritius is home to the World Hindi Secretariat, supported by India.

Economic and Trade Relations:

  • Bilateral trade between India and Mauritius has seen steady growth, reaching $554 million in 2022-23.
  • Mauritius serves as a crucial gateway for India’s economic engagement with Africa due to its membership in the African Union and preferential trade agreements with African nations. 
  • Mauritius is also an important financial partner for India, largely due to the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA).
    • The DTAA has made Mauritius a major channel for foreign investments into India, positioning it as a successful international financial centre. 
    • This financial partnership has been mutually beneficial, fostering investment and economic collaboration.

Strategic and Maritime Security Cooperation: 

  • Mauritius plays a pivotal role in India’s maritime security strategy, particularly in the western Indian Ocean. 
  • As a key member of the Colombo Security Conclave, alongside India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Bangladesh, Mauritius contributes to regional maritime security.
  • India has significantly strengthened Mauritius’ maritime capabilities by:
    • Establishing a chain of coastal radar stations.
    • Redeveloping the Mauritian island of Agaléga as a joint surveillance facility.
    • Granting Mauritius access to India’s Information Fusion Centre for the Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram.
    • Conducting oceanographic surveys through Indian naval assets such as INS Sarvekshak.
  • With China’s growing presence in the Indian Ocean, India’s strategic partnership with Mauritius has assumed even greater importance.
    • Both China and India are competing for influence in Mauritius. While India provides security support, China offers economic and investment opportunities.

Regardless of the political leadership in either country, India-Mauritius relations have remained stable and positive. With the recent election of Prime Minister Navinchandra Ramgoolam, India has an opportunity to reinforce its strategic and diplomatic ties. As India seeks to expand its influence in the Indian Ocean and Africa, Mauritius remains a key ally.  

Vanuatu

Context: Indian Premier League (IPL) founder Lalit Modi, who is facing charges of money laundering and tax evasion, has filed an application with the Indian High Commission in London to surrender his Indian passport. He is known to have acquired citizenship of Vanuatu. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Vanuatu. 

About Vanuatu

  • Vanuatu is an archipelagic nation made up of roughly 80 islands. 
  • Location: Oceania, South Pacific Ocean.
  • Capital: Port Vila 
  • Located in the Pacific-Ring of Fire, making it prone to Earthquakes, Tsunamis and Vulcanic Eruptions. 
  • Vanuatu is mountainous and covered with tropical rainforests.
  • Most of the islands are inhabited; the population is roughly 3 lakhs. 
  • Vanuatu was once an Anglo-French condominium. It became an independent country in 1980. 
  • Political system: Parliamentary Democracy. 
Vanuatu

Why is Vanuatu so lucrative?

  • Golden passport program: 
    • Vanuatu has a golden passport program through which wealthy individuals can purchase its citizenship and obtain a passport by just paying USD 150,000 (Rs 1.3 crore). 
    • The process takes just one month and one can get a passport remotely. 
  • Tax Haven: 
    • Vanuatu does not impose any personal tax on its citizens. Any income earned (stocks, real estate, other), locally or internationally, is entirely tax free. The country neither has inheritance tax nor corporate tax.
  • Henley Passport Index ranks the Vanuatu passport as the 51st strongest in the world (out of 199 countries). 
  • As per the 2024 Happy Planet Index, Vanuantu claimed the top spot as the happiest country out of 150 nations.

India-US Extradition Treaty

Context: The United States Supreme Court has rejected the plea of the 2008 Mumbai Terror Attack accused Tahawwur Hussain Rana against his extradition to India. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Extradition; India-US Extradition Treaty.

Background: 

  • Rana had filed an “Emergency Application For Stay” after the US President approved his extradition following his meeting with the Indian Prime Minister.
  • Rana was arrested in Chicago, US in October 2009 for his involvement in the 26/11 attacks.
  • Rana will be extradited on the basis of the India-US Extradition Treaty signed by the two countries in 1997.

What is Extradition?

  • Extradition is the official transfer of a person from one country to another, so that the formal authority over the person shifts to the country where the person is transferred. 
  • The person who is transferred is either someone who is accused of a crime or a convicted criminal in the country to which he is being delivered. 
  • The crime for which the person is being transferred should also be a crime under the law of the country which is transferring the person.
  • The Extradition Act, 1962 regulates the law relating to India’s extradition of fugitive criminals. 
  • India has entered into extradition treaties with certain countries like the UK, US, Bangladesh, etc. 

India-US Extradition Treaty: 

  • India-US Extradition Treaty signed by the two countries in 1997. The treaty established a legal framework for the extradition of individuals charged with or convicted of serious offences in either country. 
  • Extraditable Offences: 
    • Crimes carrying a minimum punishment of one year imprisonment, including financial crimes.
    • Offences must fulfill the principle of dual criminality (punishable in both countries).
    • Extradition shall be granted regardless of where the act constituting the offence was committed. 
  • Exceptions:
    • Political offences are not extraditable under the treaty. However, certain actions like wilful crime against the head of government, aircraft hijacking offences, crimes against internationally protected persons, hostage-taking remain outside the ambit of political crimes.
    • Extradition is barred when the person sought has been convicted or acquitted in the Requested State for the same offence.

Extraditions from the US: 

  • According to data provided by the Ministry of External Affairs to Parliament, the treaty facilitated the extradition of 11 Indian fugitives between 2002 and 2018.

Also Read: Sheikh Hasina Extradition: India’s Options 

Trending now

Captagon
B’nei Menashe: Identity, Migration, and the “Lost Tribes” Debate
Bauxite Mining Conflict in Odisha
Impact of Rising Energy Costs on Migrant Labourers