International Relations & Security

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US exits UN Climate Damage Fund

Context: The US President Donald Trump has withdrawn from the recently created United Nations Climate Damage Fund (Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage- FRLD) which is aimed at providing financial support to countries ravaged by climate change disasters.

It is noteworthy that the US has already pulled out of the Paris Agreement, stopped the participation of its scientists in a meeting of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and cancelled previously committed money for the Green Climate Fund.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about United Nations Climate Damage Fund.

About UN Climate Damage Fund (Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage- FRLD):

1. Background:

It was established under COP 27 (2022) in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt and further operationalised at COP 28 (2023) in Dubai, UAE.
It is created in response to long-standing demands from low income developing nations for climate justice and financial assistance.
It recognises the disproportionate impact of climate change on developing and vulnerable nations, particularly Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries (LDCs).
It forms part of the broader climate finance architecture under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement.

2. Objectives and Purpose:

The fund aims to:

Addressing Loss & Damage: Provide financial support to countries suffering from climate-induced disasters (E.g., cyclones, wildfires, droughts).
Support Recovery & Rehabilitation: Assist in rebuilding communities and infrastructure affected by climate change impacts.
Aid in Non-Economic Losses: Support responses to cultural, social, and environmental losses (E.g., displacement, biodiversity loss, damage to heritage sites).
Enhance Climate Resilience: Help vulnerable countries develop risk management strategies for climate adaptation.

3. Structure and Governance:

The Fund operates as an entity under the Financial Mechanism of the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement.
It is accountable to and functions under the guidance of both the Conference of the Parties (COP) and the CMA (Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement).
The fund is expected to work in coordination with other international climate finance mechanisms, including:
- Green Climate Fund (GCF)
- Adaptation Fund
- Global Environment Facility (GEF)

4. Funding Sources and Contributions:

Developed countries are expected to contribute to the fund as part of their commitments under the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement.
Multilateral and private-sector contributions may also be encouraged.
Innovative financing mechanisms (E.g., levies on fossil fuel companies, climate taxes) can also be explored in future.

5. Challenges:

Sufficient Funding: Developing countries which are affected the most argue that contributions should be grants-based rather than loans.
Who Pays? While developed nations acknowledge the need for funding, discussions continue on how much they should contribute.
Coordination with Existing Funds: Avoiding duplication with other climate finance mechanisms.
US Withdrawal: The US, which is historically the largest emitter, has withdrawn from the fund, raising doubts about the future of the fund.

Australia, the partner for India’s growth trajectory

Context: Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese has recently launched the New Roadmap for Australia’s Economic Engagement with India. The Roadmap sets out how Australia can contribute to, and benefit from, India’s phenomenal growth.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-Australian bilateral relations and trade partnership.

Introduction

India and Australia share a multifaceted relationship and partnership based on strategic alignment, trade, education, clean energy, defence, and diaspora engagement.
The diplomatic relations between the countries began during India's Pre-Independence period in 1941 with the establishment of a Trade Office in Sydney.
- India’s first High Commissioner arrived in Canberra in 1945.
- Early trade links included coal exports from Australia and Indian labor recruitment for Queensland's plantations.
These ties have evolved into broader economic and strategic cooperation over the time.

Australia’s Perspective on India	India’s Perspective on Australia
Australia believes in India’s economic potential and expects it to become the world’s third-largest economy by 2030.	India views Australia as a trusted partner in its Indo-Pacific strategy, ensuring regional stability and security.
Supports India’s claim for a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).	Recognises Australia’s role in providing critical minerals essential for India’s clean energy transition and manufacturing sector.
Sees India as a natural partner due to economic complementarities and geographical proximity.	Values Australia’s higher education institutions, fostering academic collaboration and skill development.
Views India as a key ally in Indo-Pacific region, fostering greater political and strategic cooperation.	Seeks deeper trade ties through agreements like ECTA and the upcoming CECA.
Appreciates Indian diaspora’s contributions in Australia, strengthening people-to-people connections.	Engages with Australia in Quad, defence dialogues, and maritime security cooperation.

The New Economic Roadmap

The Australian Prime Minister has recently launched the New Roadmap for Australia’s Economic Engagement with India.
The roadmap identified four superhighways of growth - clean energy, education and skills, agribusiness, and tourism. It sets out a pathway to boost two-way investment
The roadmap also identifies nearly 50 specific opportunities to focus and accelerate Australia's engagement with India in several areas such as defence industries, sports, culture, space, and technology.
Australia is investing USD 16 million for an Australia-India Trade and Investment Accelerator Fund, which will help Australian businesses unlock new commercial opportunities in India.

India-Australia Relations

1. Economic and Trade Relations:

Complementary Economies:
- India is Australia’s sixth-largest trading partner and fourth-largest export market.
- Bilateral trade between India and Australia was over $24 billion in 2024.
- Australia provides essential inputs for India’s manufacturing and clean energy goals.
- India and Australia have already signed the Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) to boost trade in 2022. Recent data shows that:
  - Export utilisation of Indo-Australian ECTA has reached 79%.
  - Import utilisation has reached 84%.
Key sectors of Cooperation include:
Clean Energy: Australia provides critical minerals (lithium, nickel, cobalt) to support India’s electric vehicle manufacturing and renewable energy goals.
- India and Australia formed the Critical Minerals Investment Partnership in 2023 to build new supply chains in Australia to supply India with the Critical minerals.
- An MoU between Khanij Bidesh India Ltd (India) and the Critical Minerals Facilitation (Australia) was signed in 2022.

Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA):

ECTA is a bilateral trade agreement to enhance economic ties between India and Australia. Signed in April 2022 and came into force in December 2022.
India will benefit from preferential market access provided by Australia on 100% of its tariff lines, including the labour-intensive sectors such as gems and jewellery, textiles, leather, footwear, furniture, food, and agricultural products, engineering products, medical devices and automobiles.
India will offer preferential access to Australia on over 70% of its tariff lines, including primarily raw materials and intermediaries such as coal, mineral ores and wines.

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2. Strategic Partnership and Defence Cooperation

India and Australia have a growing defence and security partnership focused on peaceful, stable and prosperous Indo-Pacific.
- Australia is a key participant in the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) alongside India, the US, and Japan.
- Collaborations on maritime security, intelligence sharing, and joint military exercises.
Collaboration also includes agreements on cyber security, maritime cooperation, and defence exchanges like the General Rawat Young Defence Officers’ Programme.

3. Education & Skills

India Australia Rapid Innovation and Startup Expansion (RISE) Accelerator has been instituted.
Australian Universities are establishing campuses in Gujarat (GIFT City) and Noida.
Australia-India Cyber and Critical Technology Partnership (AICCTP) was established in 2020 to support collaboration on cyber and critical technology issues.

4. Other Sectors

Health: Australia-India MoU on Cooperation in the Field of Health and Medicine signed in 2017.
Agri-business: Strengthening cooperation in food security and sustainable farming techniques.
Tourism: Enhancing people-to-people exchanges through increased travel and cultural understanding.

5. Role of Indian Diaspora

Indian Diaspora is a 10-lakh strong and the fastest-growing population group in Australia.
It acts as a ‘human bridge’ between the two nations, strengthening business and cultural ties.
The Centre for Australia-India Relations, supported with ₹132 crore, is led by prominent Indian-Australian leaders to boost people-to-people connections.
The Maitri Grants Program (funded with ₹22 crore) aims to enhance the people-to-people, business-to-business and cultural links between the two nations.

Challenges and Opportunities in the relationship

Challenges:
- India's business environment remains complex for foreign companies due to regulatory hurdles.
- Structural issues like job creation, inequality, and climate risks pose challenges to sustained growth.
Opportunities:
- India's projected growth trajectory (6–8% annually) makes it an attractive partner for Australian businesses.
- Critical mineral supplies from Australia can support India’s EV manufacturing ambitions (E.g., lithium for batteries).

Future Prospects

Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA):
- After ECTA, the negotiations for a Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) are underway.
- CECA is intended to cover 5 main tracks i.e. goods, services, digital trade, government procurement and Rules of Origin/Product Specific Rules Schedule.
With the Roadmap in place, the India-Australia relationship is set to become stronger and more consequential.

India and Australia’s relationship is evolving into a comprehensive and strategic partnership, driven by shared economic interests, geopolitical alignment, and cultural affinity.

US SEC and Hague Service Convention

Context: The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has sought assistance from the Union Law Ministry of India under the Hague Service Convention to serve summons to Gautam Adani and his associates in a securities fraud case.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about SEC; Hague Service Convention

About Hague Service Convention

The Hague Service Convention is formally known as the Convention on the Service Abroad of Judicial and Extrajudicial Documents in Civil or Commercial Matters (1965).
It is an international treaty that standardises the process of serving legal documents across borders.

Key features of the Hague Service Convention

Established in 1965 to standardise the service of judicial and extrajudicial documents across borders.
Purpose:
- To facilitate the service of judicial and extrajudicial documents in civil and commercial matters between signatory countries.
- To ensure timely and actual notice of legal proceedings for defendants in foreign jurisdictions.
Central Authority: Each member country designates a Central Authority to receive and process service requests.
- It has been signed by 84 states, including India and the U.S.
- It is applicable only when both the sending and receiving countries are signatories.
Modes of transmission vary by country but generally include:
- Primary method: Service through the designated Central Authority.
- Alternative channels: Diplomatic/consular service, postal service (if permitted), direct service by judicial officers, or direct contact between government authorities.

Service of Process in India

India acceded to the Convention on November 23, 2006, with expressly opposing all alternative service methods under Article 10.
India opposes all alternative service methods, including postal service, except for nationals of the requesting country.
Service must be done exclusively through the Ministry of Law and Justice (India’s Central Authority).
Requests must be in English or accompanied by an English translation.
India’s Central Authority can reject a service request under Article 13 if it compromises sovereignty or security but not based on exclusive jurisdiction claims.
The service process typically takes 6 to 8 months and is treated as an Indian court summons under Section 29(c) of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.

Judicial Precedents on Alternative Service Methods

Federal Trade Commission v. PCCare247 Inc. (2013) (U.S.):
- It allowed service in India via Facebook and email, arguing these methods were not explicitly objected to under Article 10.
Punjab National Bank (International) Ltd. v. Boris Shipping Ltd. & Ors. (2019) (UK):
- Rejected alternative service methods, ruling that service must comply with India’s designated procedure under the Convention.
Rockefeller Technology Investments v. Changzhou SinoType Technology Company (2020) (U.S.):
- Ruled that contractually agreed service methods can override a state’s objections under Article 10.

Default judgments under the Convention

A default judgment may be issued under the Convention if a foreign government refuses to cooperate in serving summons on a defendant residing within its jurisdiction.
Article 15 allows a default judgment if:
- The document was transmitted using a Convention-approved method.
- At least six months have passed without service confirmation.
- The court deems that all reasonable efforts were made to obtain proof of service.
India allows default judgments even without a service certificate, provided Article 15 conditions are met.
Duong v. DDG BIM Services LLC (2023) (U.S.): The U.S. court acknowledged Article 15 as a safety valve, allowing default judgment when India’s Central Authority fails to process service requests efficiently.

US-India Defence Ties

Context: The recent visit of our Prime Minister to the United States has given a push to the U.S.-India bilateral defence engagement.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-US relations: Defence cooperation

New Developments in US-India Defence Ties

New 10-Year Defence Framework Agreement: Extends the U.S.-India Major Defence Partnership. Focus on autonomous systems, including:
- Collaboration between Anduril Industries & Mahindra Group.
- Co-development of Active Towed Array Systems (ATAS) by L3Harris & Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).
- Launch of the Autonomous Systems Industry Alliance (ASIA) for advanced military technology cooperation.
Greater cooperation in Defence:
- Possible collaboration in undersea systems, fifth-generation fighter aircraft, space, air defence, and anti-tank missiles.
- Review of the arms transfer regulatory regime to streamline defence trade and align acquisition mechanisms.
Strengthening Defence acquisitions:
- India is to proceed with the purchase and co-production of ‘Javelin’ Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM) & ‘Stryker’ Infantry Combat Vehicles (ICVs).
- Boosts domestic manufacturing and integrates India into the supply chain.
- India to acquire six additional P-8I Maritime Patrol Aircraft to enhance its Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA).

Challenges in India-U.S. Defence Partnership

Delayed Technology Transfers and Engine Procurement Issues:
- No mention of General Electric (GE) Aerospace's F-404 GE-IN-20 engines for India-made Tejas Mark 1A fighter jets.
- No confirmation on the 80% Transfer of Technology (ToT) for GE’s F-414 engine, intended for Tejas Mark-II jets.
- India’s Air Force (IAF) faces fighter squadron depletion below the required strength (under 30 squadrons).
Challenges in Fighter Aircraft Procurement and Integration:
- Potential integration of the F-35 Lightning II fighter aircraft into the IAF presents a significant logistical and operational challenge.
- Indian Air Force already operates a highly diverse fleet, including Russian-origin Su-30MKIs, MiG-29s, French Rafales, British Jaguars, and the indigenous Tejas jets.
  - Adding the F-35 to this mix would require extensive adjustments in terms of training, maintenance, infrastructure, and weapons compatibility.
- IAF's Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft (MMRCA) project, which aimed to procure 114 multirole fighters, has faced repeated delays since its initiation in 2000.
Strategic Autonomy Concerns:
- While India has been expanding its partnerships with multiple nations, including Russia, France, Israel, and the U.S., its reliance on foreign defence imports raises concerns about strategic autonomy.
- Unlike France, which agreed to provide some level of technology transfer for the Rafale deal, the U.S. has historically been reluctant to share critical defence technology with India.
- The U.S. tends to impose End-User Monitoring (EUM) agreements, which require on-site inspections of military equipment even after sale. This could compromise India’s operational secrecy.
- Acquiring U.S. systems like the F-35 or advanced missile defence systems may limit India’s ability to maintain a truly non-aligned defence policy, as it would increase dependence on American military infrastructure and intelligence-sharing agreements.

Iran accelerates production of Near Weapons-grade Uranium: IAEA

Context: Recently released report by International Atomic Energy Agency shows that Iran's stock of uranium enriched to up to 60% purity has drastically increased.

The U.S. President has said it plans to pressure Iran over its nuclear programme, while IAEA has warned that time is running out for diplomacy to impose new restrictions on Iran's activities.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Uranium Enrichment; International Atomic Energy Agency; JCPOA.

Background:

Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA):
- 2015: Iran Nuclear Deal (JCPOA) was signed after prolonged negotiations between Iran and P5+1 (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States + Germany).
- Under the deal, Iran agreed to:
  - Significantly cut its stores of enriched uranium and heavy-water, the key components for nuclear weapons.
  - Implement a protocol that would allow inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to access its nuclear sites to ensure Iran would not be able to develop nuclear weapons in secret.
- In return, the West agreed to lift sanctions related to Iran’s Nuclear Proliferation.
2018: The US under the Trump Administration unilaterally abandoned the deal (claiming JCPOA failed to curtail Iran's missile program and regional influence) and reinstated banking and oil sanctions on Iran. Thereafter, Iran has ramped up (accelerated) its nuclear programme.

What is Uranium Enrichment?

Naturally-occurring Uranium is composed of three major isotopes:
- Uranium-238 (99.284% natural abundance)
- Uranium-235 (0.711%)
- Uranium-234 (0.005%)
The production of energy in nuclear reactors is from the ‘fission’ or splitting of the U-235 atoms, as it is the only nuclide existing in nature (in appreciable amount) that is fissile with thermal neutrons.
Since naturally-occurring Uranium does not have a high enough concentration of U-235, Uranium enrichment is necessary to create an effective nuclear fuel out of mined Uranium.
In Enriched Uranium, the percent composition of U- 235 has been increased through the process of isotope separation.

Uses of Enriched Uranium:

Enriched Uranium is a critical component for both civil nuclear power generation and military nuclear weapons.
- Typically, Uranium used for power generation is enriched to levels between 3% and 5% U-235.
- Weapon-grade uranium is considered to have been enriched above 90% U-235.

Key Facts:

U-238 remaining after enrichment is known as depleted Uranium (DU) and is considerably less radioactive than even natural Uranium. Despite being mildly radioactive, depleted Uranium is also an effective radiation shielding material and extremely hazardous.
The International Atomic Energy Agency attempts to monitor and control enriched Uranium supplies and processes in its efforts to ensure nuclear power generation safety and curb nuclear weapons proliferation.

International Atomic Energy Agency

IAEA is the key agency to promote cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
Established in 1957 as an autonomous international organisation within the United Nations system. Through its IAEA Statute, the IAEA reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council.
Members: 180 members.
- India is a founding member of the IAEA.
- Signature and ratification of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) are not preconditions for membership in the IAEA.
Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
2005: IAEA was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their work for a safer and more peaceful world.

IAEA’s Additional Protocol

Additional Protocol is a legal agreement between IAEA and a country that expands IAEA’s ability to verify a country’s nuclear abilities.
India has signed the Additional Protocol (AP) to the IAEA safeguards agreement in 2009, which entered into force in 2014.
- The Protocol covers only those facilities which are monitored by the IAEA, and does not cover non-safeguarded facilities which are used for building weapons.
- It enhances transparency of India’s nuclear infrastructure. It will ensure collection of data of India's nuclear exports to guarantee that the material is not diverted for unauthorised use.

US votes against UN Resolution on Ukraine War

Context: For the first time, after three years of supporting Ukraine, the United States made a sharp turn and voted against a United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolution condemning Russia for its invasion.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about the United Nations General Assembly.

Mains: Russia-Ukraine War: Key trends & developments.

Brief Background

The US has voted to block a UN General Assembly resolution (UNGA) brought in by Ukraine calling for the de-escalation, an early cessation of hostilities and a peaceful resolution of the war against Ukraine.
- The resolution, titled “Advancing a comprehensive, just and lasting peace in Ukraine”, was backed by Ukraine and European allies, calling for de-escalation and adherence to international law.
- The final vote saw 93 countries, including major European powers and the G7 (minus the US), voting in favour, while 18, including Russia, the US, and Israel, opposed it.
- India abstained from voting on this UN General Assembly (UNGA) resolution.
The US also filed its own resolution that did not explicitly blame Russia for the conflict and called for an end to the war on neutral terms.
Note: UN General Assembly resolutions/decisions are not binding for Member States. Rather they are viewed as expressions of the will of the international community on a given topic.

Previously passed UNGA resolutions on Ukraine-Russia War: (“Trivia: Just to know Background”)

March 3, 2022: 141 countries, including the US, voted in favour of a resolution condemning Russia’s declaration on February 24, 2022, of a “special military operation” and reaffirming that territorial acquisition by force is illegal. The resolution demanded that Russia cease its use of force against Ukraine and withdraw its troops from the territory. Five countries voted against it.
March 24, 2022: The US joined 139 countries and voted in favour of a resolution which reaffirmed its “commitment to the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of Ukraine”, calling on Russia to withdraw its troops.
April 2022: 93 countries, including the US, voted in favour of an UNGA resolution suspending Russia’s membership in the Human Rights Council.
October 2022: US supported an UNGA resolution that won with 143 condemning the Russian annexation of Ukrainian territory.
November 2022: US voted in favour of an UNGA resolution calling on Russia to pay reparations to Ukraine, while also calling on Russia to cease use of force and withdraw troops.
February 23, 2023: A resolution calling territorial acquisition by force illegal and asking Russia to withdraw its troops from Ukraine passed by 141-7. US voted in favour of this resolution.

India’s Position

India along with China have abstained from the voting which is seen as a strategic balancing act.

India along with 65 other nations, including China, Brazil, and South Africa abstained from voting.
The US has shifted its stance by abstaining on the final vote, marking a break from Europe’s position. India also abstained from the US-tabled rival resolution, which was ultimately adopted with amendments.

Geopolitical Analysis

Evolving Multipolar world: India’s abstention highlights the evolving multipolar world order, where regional powers seek to maintain independent foreign policies.
Emerging powers: The alignment of BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) in abstaining suggests a broader trend of emerging economies resisting Western-led narratives.
Regional stability: The abstention by Gulf nations, including Saudi Arabia and the UAE, signals their shifting geopolitical calculus, prioritizing regional stability over alignment with Western policies.

Interpretation of India’s Vote

Since the beginning of the Russia-Ukraine conflict in 2022, India has consistently maintained a neutral stance in international forums. This position stems from its strategic imperatives, where it seeks to balance its deep-rooted ties with Russia and its growing partnership with the West.
Abstention allows India to avoid antagonising any major power bloc while preserving its strategic autonomy.
It reflects a pragmatic approach to global diplomacy rather than a moral endorsement of either side. While India acknowledges Ukraine’s sovereignty, it also recognizes Russia’s critical role in its defense sector and energy security.
At the same time, India’s close economic and strategic ties with the US and Europe prevent it from outright opposing Western resolutions.
A key observation from this vote is India’s continued neutrality despite the US shifting its stance.
- The US's decision to abstain indicates a recalibration of its own foreign policy under Trump, acknowledging the limitations of direct confrontation with Russia.
- This also aligns with a broader global trend where middle powers are asserting greater autonomy in their diplomatic choices rather than being subsumed into traditional Western or Eastern alliances.

From India’s perspective, maintaining neutrality serves the following purposes

Strategic autonomy: India continues to reinforce its status as a key player that does not align blindly with any major power bloc.
Defense and energy interests: With Russia being a significant defense partner and oil supplier, India’s stance avoids jeopardising these crucial ties.
Engagement with the West: By abstaining rather than voting against, India ensures that its growing engagements with the US and Europe remain unaffected.
Positioning for peace mediation: As a country that has maintained communication with both Russia and Ukraine, India can position itself as a potential mediator should peace talks become a realistic possibility.

India's abstention underscores India’s effort to navigate the complex geopolitical landscape while upholding its foreign policy doctrine of non-alignment. India’s approach is likely to remain cautious, pragmatic, and centered on its national interests rather than any ideological alignments.

About United Nations General Assembly

The UN General Assembly (UNGA) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN).
It is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN.
It provides a unique forum for multilateral discussion on international issues covered by the Charter of the United Nations. Discussions on global issues like peace, security, human rights, and other international challenges.
It comprises all member states of the UN (193 members).
- UNGA is the only UN organ where all member states have equal representation (vote).
- UNGA can grant observer status to the non-member States.
Functions of UNGA:
- Responsible for the UN budget
- Appointing the non-permanent members to the UN Security Council
- Appointing the UN secretary-general
- Making recommendations through resolutions (non-binding).
Key Achievements:
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
- Millennium Development Goals (2000)
- Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030)
- Global Compacts on Refugees and Migration (2018)
- The presidency rotates annually among five geographic groups: African, Asian, Eastern European, Latin American and Caribbean, Western European and others.

Also Read: UNITED NATIONS

India Qatar elevate ties to Strategic Partnership

Context: The Amir of the State of Qatar, Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al-Thani, made a state visit to India in February, 2025. During this visit, India and Qatar elevated their bilateral relations to a strategic partnership to deepen cooperation in trade, energy, investment, security and international forums.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Bilateral Relations: India-Qatar.

Key Highlights of India-Qatar Strategic Partnership

Strategic Partnership Agreement:
- India and Qatar have elevated their bilateral relationship to a Strategic Partnership. This brings Qatar on par with the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Kuwait, all of which have strategic partnerships with India.

Economic Cooperation and Investment:
- Qatar has committed to invest USD 10 billion in India, with the Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) planning to open an office in India.
- India is Qatar’s second largest trading partner, with bilateral trade of about $14 billion in 2024. The two countries have set a target to double bilateral trade to $28 billion by 2030.
- The countries have agreed to explore an India-Qatar Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT).
- The countries have signed a revised Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement and five MoUs on economic collaboration, youth and sports, archives and investments.
- Both sides are exploring opportunities to increase investments in infrastructure, technology, manufacturing, food security, logistics, hospitality and other areas of mutual interest.

Energy Partnership:
- India and Qatar are deepening their energy partnership through trade and mutual investments. Qatar is the largest supplier of LNG to India, accounting for over 48% of India's global LNG imports.
- An agreement between Qatar Energy and Petronet LNG Limited ensures the supply of 7.5 million metric tonnes per annum of LNG to India for 20 years starting in 2028.

Bilateral Mechanisms:
- The establishment of two Joint Ministerial Commissions, at the level of Foreign Ministers and Ministers of Commerce and Industry, to strengthen cooperation has also taken place.

Other Key Outcomes

Extension of the Indian e-Visa facility for Qatari nationals.
India and Qatar have agreed to celebrate a Year of Culture, Friendship, and Sports in the near future.
Operationalisation of India's UPI at Qatar National Bank (QNB) Point of Sales in Qatar.
Expansion of Qatar National Bank's presence in India by setting up an office in the GIFT City.

Areas of Discussion

Middle East Peace Process: Discussions between the two leaders also included the Middle East peace process, with both sides appreciating each other's positions on the Israel-Hamas issue.
Terrorism: They also unequivocally condemned terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, agreeing to cooperate in combating this menace through bilateral and multilateral mechanisms.
UN reforms: Both leaders emphasised the importance of a reformed and effective multilateral system, centered on a UN reflective of contemporary realities, as a key factor in tackling global challenges.

Qatar is a key strategic partner for India due to its geopolitical location, economic potential, energy resources, and a large Indian diaspora.

Shift in US position on Ukraine & NATO

Context: On February 12, 2025, US President Donald Trump spoke with Russian President Vladimir Putin and dismissed the idea of Ukraine joining NATO as impractical. Trump’s statement marks a major shift in US foreign policy, moving away from previous administrations’ support for Ukraine’s NATO aspirations.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Expansion of NATO & brief background of the issue.

NATO expansion and Russia’s Security concerns

NATO is a 32-member military alliance based on collective defence. Under Article 5 of NATO, an attack on one member is considered an attack on all members and triggers a joint military response.
NATO’s expansion has steadily brought the alliance closer to Russia’s borders, aggravating the tensions between NATO and Russia.
- Russia has long opposed NATO’s expansion, viewing it as a direct security threat.
- Russia considers NATO a tool of Western dominance, designed to contain Russian influence in Eastern Europe.
The potential inclusion of Ukraine in NATO has been a major factor in Russia’s geopolitical strategy and military actions.

Historical Background of NATO

NATO was created by 12 countries from Europe and North America in 1949.
1990: US Secretary of State James Baker assured Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev that NATO would not expand eastward beyond its then-existing boundaries.
- Despite these assurances, NATO has continued to expand, incorporating former Soviet allies and republics.
- This perceived betrayal has fueled Russian distrust toward the West and contributed to ongoing geopolitical friction.

1999: NATO admitted three former Warsaw Pact countries—Czechia, Hungary, and Poland.
2004: NATO expanded to include Bulgaria, Slovakia, Romania, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Slovenia.
2009-2020: NATO further expanded with Albania (2009), Croatia (2009), Montenegro (2017), and North Macedonia (2020), significantly increasing NATO’s presence in Eastern Europe.
2023: Finland joined NATO.
2024: Sweden became the 32nd member to join NATO.

With each expansion, NATO has moved closer to Russia’s borders, increasing Russia’s security concerns.

Russia’s Perspective on NATO expansion

Russia views NATO’s growth as a violation of past agreements and a direct challenge to its national security.
The principle of collective defence under Article 5 of NATO’s charter means that any attack on a NATO member could trigger a military response from the entire alliance, including the US.
Prominent political scientist John J. Mearsheimer has compared Russia’s stance on NATO expansion to the US Monroe Doctrine, which asserts American dominance in the Western Hemisphere and opposes foreign interference.
Russia’s firm opposition to Ukraine’s NATO membership has been a major driver of its foreign policy and military actions.

The 2022 Russian Invasion and Ukraine

In 2008, President George W. Bush advocated for Ukraine’s NATO membership, but opposition from France and Germany prevented immediate action.
The Bucharest Summit (2008) produced a compromise—offering Ukraine a vague promise of future membership without a clear timeline.
Russia perceived this as a significant threat, which contributed to its annexation of Crimea in 2014.
In 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, citing NATO expansion as a key justification.
In July 2024 (Biden Administration), NATO reaffirmed Ukraine’s long-term membership aspirations, further heightening tensions with Russia.

Trump’s disruptive role in NATO

Trump’s rejection of Ukraine’s NATO membership signals a possible realignment in US foreign policy.
On one hand, his stance may weaken NATO’s unity and on the other hand it might embolden Russia’s strategic ambitions in Eastern Europe.
Vice President Vance also avoided discussing Ukraine at the Munich Security Conference (2025), indicating a shift in US priorities.

Implications for Global Politics

Trump’s policy shift could alter the trajectory of the ongoing Russia-Ukraine war, which has been ongoing for nearly three years.
The US Vice President has also criticised Europe’s reliance on the US military support, which might make Europe nervous.
If the US reduces its support for Ukraine, European NATO members may need to increase their defence spending and strategic autonomy.
The broader implications of this policy shift may redefine transatlantic relations and global security structures in the coming years.

What is happening in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)?

Context: M23 Militia group has captured the city of Goma which lies at the east of Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location-based question.

About the Issue

The M23 militia (primarily composed of ethnic Tutsis) backed by Rwanda, has captured the mineral-rich city of Goma (a city in DRC), near the Rwanda-DRC border.
The conflict which began in January 2025 has resulted in over 2,900 deaths, displacement of nearly 700,000 people and intensifying tensions between DRC and Rwanda.
Moreover, clashes are spreading southwards toward Bukavu, another resource-rich region in the South Kivu province (a province in DRC).

Motivation behind the Action:

Traditional ethnic conflict rooted in Hutu-Tutsi tensions.
- Hutu & Tutsi are two ethnic groups primarily found in Rwanda, Burundi and Eastern DRC.
Resource control: Eastern DRC is rich in gold, coltan (a dull black metallic ore from which the elements niobium and tantalum are extracted) and rare minerals, crucial for electronics.
Goma’s strategic importance: Goma is a vital trading hub, capturing which strengthens M23’s hold over trade routes and mineral supply chains.

Historical background of the Crisis:

Colonial Rule: Belgium and Germany ruled Rwanda through a Tutsi monarchy, granting privileges to the Tutsi minority over the Hutu majority.
Hutu-Tutsi Conflicts led to the 1959 Hutu revolution, overthrowing the monarchy and resulting in Tutsi persecution.
Rwandan Independence (1962): Hutus gained political control, escalating ethnic divides.

Rwandan Genocide (1994)

It was sparked by the assassination of President Juvénal Habyarimana (a Hutu), leading to mass killings. 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were massacred within 100 days.
The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), led by Paul Kagame, ended the genocide and took control of Rwanda.
Hutu Militants in DRC: Two million Hutus, including genocide perpetrators, fled to eastern DRC.

Aftermath of genocide and spillover into the DRC:

First Congo war (1996-97): Rwanda and Uganda invaded DRC, overthrowing Mobutu Sese Seko.
Second Congo war (1998-2003): It involved nine countries and multiple armed groups, leading to five million deaths.
The Eastern DRC region remains unstable, with over 120 armed groups involved in ongoing violence.

About M23 Rebels:

It is a group formed in 2012, named after the failed March 23, 2009, peace agreement between the DRC government and former rebels.
It claims to defend the interests of Tutsis in the region, but is also accused of war crimes.
First captured Goma in 2012, later defeated, resurfaced in 2022 due to the DRC government's failure to meet its promises.
It is currently led by Sultani Makenga, operating in North Kivu province of DRC.

Consequences of capturing Goma:

Escalation could lead to broader/full-scale regional war in DRC, Rwanda and Uganda.
Could lead to increased Western scrutiny on Rwanda’s alleged support for M23.
Ongoing humanitarian crisis due to mass displacement and violence.

India- U.S. Joint Statement during Indian PM’s visit to US

Context: Recently, the Indian Prime Minister and the US President held a bilateral meeting at the White House, US, during the visit by the Indian PM. Here are the key highlights from the joint statement issued after their meeting.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Evolving India-US relations.

Background of India-US relations in the past few years:

1. Trump 1.0 tenure:

India and US shared a fair relation, enhancing the engagement with new geopolitical developments like:
- Indo-Pacific: The first tenure of Donald Trump promoted the new term Indo-Pacific emphasising India's importance in the region. Also, the evolution of the term challenges the China and Russia Asia-Pacific dominance.
- QUAD: Quad, a group of India, US, Japan and Australia witnessed the revival during Trump's first tenure.
- COMCASA: India-US signed COMCASA (Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement) in 2018 to enhance the intelligence and communication channel sharing fostering deeper military engagement.
- BECA: India signed the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA) with the US in 2020 to deepen Indo-US military cooperation.
- Chabahar Port waiver: India enjoyed a concession with respect to the engagement with Iran's Chabahar Port development.
- Vaccine IPR waiver: India was able to gain the IPR waiver on CoVID-19 vaccine during the tenure of Donald Trump.

2. Biden’s Tenure:

India and the US relations developed with the:
- US joining the International Solar Alliance
- India joining Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF)
- Deepening India-NASA human space flight Gaganyan engagement
However, the relations were restrained due to following:
- Deepening engagement with Pakistan: The regime change in the Pakistan and US engagement with the new Shahbaz Sharif’s government by reviving the USAID hampered the trust between US and India.
- Threatening sanctions: The US under Biden threatened India with the sanctions to restrain the India-Russia trade in the backdrop of Russia-Ukraine conflict.
  - In January 2025, the US imposed sanctions on Indian firms that were directly or indirectly involved with the trade with Russia.
- Reducing emphasis on QUAD: The Biden administration kept the QUAD and associated developments in the cold box.
  - In 2023, Australia cancelled the QUAD meeting after Biden cancelled his visit for the meeting.

Read More: Contemporary Relations INDIA - USA

Dynamics in Trump 2.0 tenure

India and the US may expect challenges in domains like immigration and deportation; trade and tariffs; climate change; de-dollarisation; and relations with external functionaries.

India-US TRUST Initiative

Context: India and the United States have launched a Transforming Relationship Utilizing Strategic Technology (TRUST) initiative during the recent visit of the Indian Prime Minister to the US.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about TRUST initiative.

About TRUST initiative

U.S.-India TRUST (Transforming the Relationship Utilizing Strategic Technology) initiative will catalyse government-to-government, academia and private sector collaboration to promote application of critical and emerging technologies in areas like:
- Artificial intelligence
- Semiconductors
- Quantum
- Biotechnology
- Energy
- Space and
- Defence

Key Features of TRUST Initiative

1. Cooperation in critical minerals sector:

Create robust supply chains for semiconductors, critical minerals and advanced materials.
Launch of the Strategic Mineral Recovery initiative, a new U.S.-India program to recover and process critical minerals (including lithium, cobalt, and rare earth elements) from heavy industries like aluminum, coal mining and oil and gas.
Accelerate R&D and promote investment across the entire critical mineral value chain, as well as through the Mineral Security Partnership (MSP).
- TRUST initiative follows India’s induction into the US-led Minerals Security Finance Network in September 2024 and the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) in 2023.

2. Cooperation in Pharmaceutical sector:

Encourage public and private investments to expand Indian manufacturing capacity, including in the U.S., for active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) for critical medicines.
Create robust supply chains for pharma with focus on APIs, which often depend on critical minerals like lithium, magnesium, zinc, and selenium.
- India is the world’s second largest manufacturer of APIs after China.
- Pharma products made up the largest share (21.9%) of the $20 billion worth of final consumer goods that India exported to the US in 2023.

3. Cooperation in Artificial Intelligence:

The U.S. and India will work together to enable:
- industry partnerships and investments in next generation data centers
- cooperation on development and access to processors for AI
- innovations in AI models and building AI applications for solving societal challenges.
U.S. and Indian private industry to put forward a U.S.-India Roadmap on Accelerating AI Infrastructure by the end of 2025.

Significance of TRUST Initiative

Enhance bilateral trade: Reduce barriers to technology transfer, address export controls, and enhance high tech commerce between India & the US in the critical minerals sector.
Boost innovation: Catalyse collaboration among governments, academia and private sector to drive innovation in defence, artificial intelligence, semiconductors, quantum computing, biotechnology, energy and space.
Diversify supply-chains: Investments in the pharma sector (API) will create jobs, diversify vital supply chains, and reduce the risk of life-saving drug shortages in both the US and India.
Counter-China: Position India and the US to counter China’s dominance in critical minerals supply chains.

While the TRUST initiative falls short of giving Indian companies tax benefits from the US Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) for battery components and critical raw materials – a privilege that is extended to Japanese companies – it still broadens the scope for collaboration significantly.

India-US Collaboration in Critical and Emerging Technology sectors:

1. initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET):

In 2022, India and the US had announced the initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET)
Aim: To deepen technology cooperation, specifically on semiconductors, wireless communication, quantum computing artificial intelligence (AI), with a focus on defence and security-related applications.

2. Minerals Security Partnership (MSP):

The MSP is a US-led collaboration of 14 countries that aims to catalyse public and private investment in critical minerals supply chains.
In addition to the US, it includes India, Australia, Canada, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Sweden, the UK, and the European Union (represented by the European Commission).

3. CHIPS Act Collaboration:

International Technology Security and Innovation (ITSI) Fund:
- Created under the US CHIPS Act (2022).
- Supports India's efforts to enhance its semiconductor ecosystem by funding critical infrastructure and R&D.
- Facilitates cross-border investments and diversification of global supply chains.

4. INDUS-X Initiative:

Collaboration between: India's iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence) and the US Defense Innovation Unit (DIU).
Purpose: To promote innovation in defense technologies, including semiconductors for military applications.
Focus: Security-focused chip designs; applications in green energy and telecommunications.

Significance of Critical minerals in strategic sectors:

Critical minerals and REEs are essential for strategic industries, including defence, semiconductors, quantum computing, energy, and space. Examples:
- Neodymium, praseodymium, and samarium: High-performance magnets used in missiles, fighter jets, and radars.
- Lithium, cobalt, and nickel: Advanced batteries for energy storage and electric vehicles.
- Gallium and indium: Semiconductors and AI hardware.
- Ultra-pure silicon: Quantum computing.
- Scandium: Space technology.
- REEs (Europium and terbium): Biotech imaging and medical diagnostics.

Present status in Critical Minerals

China controls nearly 70% of global REE production and much of the processing infrastructure, securing diversified supply chains is critical for technological sovereignty and national security.
India is a net importer of most critical minerals on account of their nil or limited reserve/production in the country.
- The net import bill for critical minerals (excluding lithium) for FY24, was approximately ₹30,000 crore, with net phosphorous imports being the highest at ₹12,648 crore.
- Rare earth elements were the only segment in which India was a net exporter.
In January 2025, India approved the National Critical Minerals Mission with a budgetary outlay of Rs 16,300 crore over seven years.
- Rs 7,000 crore is allocated for exploration of critical minerals.
- Rs 1,500 crore for an incentive scheme to support the recycling of critical minerals.

Read More: National Critical Mineral Mission

How will the freeze on USAID affect the World?

Context: Recently, U.S. President Donald Trump imposed a 90-day freeze on foreign assistance to assess its alignment with the U.S. foreign policy. This halted the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) from disbursing aid, placing most of its 10,000 personnel on administrative leave, except for a few mission-critical staff.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about the United States Agency for International Development.

About United States Agency for International Development:

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is an independent agency of the U.S. government.
It is responsible for administering civilian foreign aid and development assistance.
USAID is a key component of U.S. foreign policy and operates under the guidance of the President, Secretary of State, and the National Security Council.

Establishment and Purpose:

USAID was established in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy to unite existing foreign assistance organizations under one agency.
It was created to administer humanitarian aid programs and counter Soviet influence during the Cold War. Its primary focus is long-term socioeconomic development.
It is one of the largest official aid agencies in the world with a budget exceeding $50 billion.

Functions:

USAID provides assistance to over 100 strategically important countries across Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe.
It leads U.S. efforts to alleviate poverty, disease, and humanitarian needs. It provides food to starving populations and operates a global system for detecting famine.
It manages relief efforts after wars and natural disasters through its Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance.
The agency supports developing countries' economic growth, also assisting U.S. commercial interests.
The agency provides financial assistance to developing country organisations and NGOs through non-reimbursable grants.
It delivers both technical and financial assistance, including technical advice, training, scholarships, construction, and commodities.

Global Impact of the USAID Freeze

The 90-day freeze on USAID funding will have significant global consequences, particularly for developing nations, humanitarian aid programs, and geopolitical stability.

Humanitarian and developmental crisis:

Food security: Programs like Feed the Future that combat hunger and malnutrition will stall, increasing food insecurity in Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. ($500 million in food is at risk of spoilage)
Healthcare disruptions: Efforts to control HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, maternal and child health, and vaccinations may be suspended, endangering millions of lives.
Infrastructure and economic growth: Many nations depend on USAID-backed economic development projects (small business support, education, and employment programs), leading to job losses and economic slowdowns.
Climate change and Environmental protection: Countries benefiting from USAID’s climate initiatives may struggle to sustain clean energy, water conservation, and disaster preparedness programs.

Geopolitical consequences:

Increased influence of China and Russia: With the U.S. stepping back, countries reliant on American aid—Ukraine, Ethiopia, and Afghanistan—may turn to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) or Russian support, shifting current global alliances.
Political instability: Aid-dependent nations like Yemen, South Sudan, and Somalia may face crisis of governance, increasing conflict, terrorism, and refugee influx.
Strained U.S. alliances: Traditional U.S. allies relying on aid (Jordan, Ukraine, and Nigeria) may reconsider their diplomatic and security partnerships.

Economic and institutional Consequences:

UN and NGOs Under Pressure: USAID contributes 42% of UN-tracked humanitarian aid. The UN, Red Cross, and WHO may struggle to maintain operations without U.S. funding.
Job losses: Over 10,000 USAID employees and thousands of partner organizations worldwide could see operations suspended, leading to economic ripple effects.
Foreign policy challenges: The freeze signals U.S. unpredictability, making nations wary of relying on long-term American support.

Effect on India

India’s reliance on USAID has diminished, receiving $1.5 billion in the last decade (0.2%-0.4% of USAID’s global budget).
Health remains the primary sector for aid, with $79.3 million allocated in 2024 for HIV/AIDS, TB, maternal and child health, and immunization programs.
While India may not be severely affected, the fate of ongoing health and environmental projects now depends on government intervention.