History

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Jnanpith Award

Context: Eminent Hindi writer Vinod Kumar Shukla was bestowed the 59th Jnanpith Award for the year 2024. The 88-year-old short story writer, poet and essayist, is one of the greatest contemporary writers in Hindu language.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Jnanpith Award.

About Jnanpith Award

The Jnanpith Award is the oldest and the highest Indian literary award.
It is presented annually by the Bharatiya Jnanpith to an author for their outstanding contribution towards literature.
It is bestowed only on Indian writers writing in Indian languages included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India, and English.
Details of the Award: Citation plaque, a cash prize of ₹11 lakh, and a bronze replica of goddess Saraswati. There is no posthumous conferral of the award.

Eighth Schedule to Indian Constitution

The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of 22 languages: (1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Konkani, (8) Malayalam, (9) Manipuri, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit, (15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu (19) Bodo, (20) Santhali, (21) Maithili and (22) Dogri.
Of these languages, 14 were initially included in the Constitution. Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were the latest additions in 2004.

Navroz: Parsi New Year

Context: Navroz or Parsi New Year was celebrated on March 21 to mark the beginning of spring.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Navroz: Parsi New Year.

About Navroz

Navroz (Jamshed-i-Navroz) is the Parsi New Year which is believed to mark the beginning of spring.
The festival is named after the Persian king Jamshed, who is believed to have created the Persian calendar.
Indian Parsis celebrate the festival twice every year:
- the date of the festival as per the Iranian Fasli calendar (around March 21)
- the date according to the Shahenshahi (Zoroastrian) calendar, widely used by Indian Parsis (around July or August).
The day is celebrated by decorating homes, engaging in prayers and enjoying special dishes.
Navroz has been added to the UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions.
It is founded on the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster and the sacred text Avesta.
Originating in ancient Iran, it centers on the worship of Ahura Mazda, the uncreated and benevolent deity of wisdom.
The religion presents a dualistic view of the world, depicting an ongoing battle between good and evil, with the expectation that good will ultimately prevail.
Despite its decline after the Muslim conquest of Persia, it continues to be practiced today, primarily in India and Iran.

Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs

Context: Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs in Narayanpet district, Telangana have been added to India’s Tentative List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. If granted full UNESCO status, it would be Telangana’s second such site after the Ramappa Temple, which was inscribed in 2021.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Menhirs.

What are Menhirs?

A menhir is a large, upright standing stone, usually tapered at the top and manually placed by humans.
The term Menhir is derived from the Brittonic words "Maen" (stone), "Hîr" (long).
The Grand Menhir Brisé (Great Broken Menhir) in Brittany, France, is the largest Menhir, originally 20.6 m tall.
Pop Culture Reference: Featured in the Asterix comic series – Obelix is often seen carrying menhirs.

Age and Purpose of Menhirs:

1. European Menhirs:

Linked to the Beaker Culture (Late Neolithic – Early Bronze Age).
Oldest European menhirs date back 7,000 BP.

2. Indian Menhirs (Mudumal):

They are the oldest known menhirs in India, dating back to 3,500–4,000 BP (Before Present).
Spread across 80 acres, there are close to 80 towering menhirs, some reaching heights of 10 to 14 feet, along with nearly 3,000 smaller alignment stones.
They are believed to be part of a megalithic astronomical observatory.

Purpose of Menhirs :

Often part of megalithic complexes (large prehistoric stone structures).
Likely used for ceremonial, funerary, or astronomical purposes. Some functioned as grave markers, others aligned with celestial events.
Mudumal Menhirs align with the summer and winter solstices, suggesting their role as an ancient observatory. One particular menhir is worshipped as Goddess Yellamma by locals.

Why do Menhirs Deserve UNESCO Recognition?

The Mehirs showcase ancient ingenuity, prehistoric engineering, astronomy, and societal structures.
They help in reconstructing the belief systems, rituals, and societal structures of pre-historic humans.

Their UNESCO recognition will enhance global awareness and conservation efforts for India’s ancient heritage.

Aurangzeb Tomb

Context: The demand for the demolition of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb’s tomb has risen in Maharashtra.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Aurangzeb; Aurangzeb’s Tomb.

About Aurangzeb Tomb

Location: Khuldabad, near Ellora Caves, Maharashtra.
Architectural Style: Simple and unadorned, in line with Aurangzeb’s wish for a modest burial.

Historical Significance

Aurangzeb died in 1707 in Ahmednagar and was buried in Khuldabad, also known as the Valley of Saints.
The tomb follows the Chishti Sufi tradition, similar to Sheikh Salim Chishti’s tomb in Fatehpur Sikri.
It was later expanded by Lord Curzon (British Viceroy of India).

About Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb (Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir) was the sixth Mughal Emperor of India. Under his rule, the Mughal Empire reached its zenith and became the single largest empire in India.
Reign: 1658-1707 (Longest-reigning Mughal emperor)
Father: Shah Jahan; Mother: Mumtaz Mahal
Coronation: Took the throne after defeating Dara Shikoh in the Battle of Samugarh (1658).
Death: Died in 1707 in Ahmednagar, buried in Khuldabad, Maharashtra

Major Policies & Administration

Religious Policies:
- Reimposed Jizya tax (1679) on non-Muslims.
- Destroyed some Hindu temples but also gave land grants to certain Hindu temples.
Deccan Policy:
- Annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687), expanding Mughal rule in South India.
- Faced stiff resistance from the Marathas, especially from Shivaji and Sambhaji.
Rajput Policy:
- Conflicts with Rajputs, especially Mewar and Marwar, led to a decline in Mughal-Rajput relations
Sikh Policy:
- Executed Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675), leading to opposition from Sikhs.
- Faced resistance from Guru Gobind Singh and later Banda Singh Bahadur.

Aurangzeb’s reign marked the greatest territorial expansion of the Mughal Empire, but his religious orthodoxy, economic mismanagement, and prolonged Deccan campaigns weakened the empire. His policies contributed to the rise of regional powers like the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats, accelerating Mughal decline after his death in 1707.

Talkatora Stadium

Context: Talkatora Indoor Stadium, a prominent venue for sports and cultural events in Delhi, could soon undergo a name change. To celebrate the author of the Ramayana, the stadium may be renamed after Maharishi Valmiki.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Talkatora Stadium.

About Talkatora Stadium

Talkatora Stadium is Delhi’s oldest indoor sports facility, known for hosting some of the biggest sports, cultural, and political events.
The stadium is owned and managed by New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC).
Built in 1974, the stadium is named after a Mughal-era garden adjacent to it. During the medieval era, the site featured a reservoir (Talkatora) to collect the water pouring down from the streams of the South-Central Ridge Forest.
Garden Architecture: Built with Mughal design elements. Symmetrical layout with a four-tier stepwell, fountains, and waterways.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq likely built the embankment inside Talkatora Garden for water management in the 14th century. The garden was used by Tughlaq rulers for hunting.
The garden was a battlefield during multiple conflicts.
- In 1737-38, the Marathas advanced into Delhi and fought near the garden in their attempt to raid the Mughal capital.
- In 1803, British forces led by General Gerard Lake clashed with the Marathas in the same location, ultimately leading to British control over Delhi.
- It was also a site for resistance during the 1857 uprising against British rule.

No new Construction and Renovation works in Mehrauli Park: SC

Context: The Supreme Court stayed new construction and renovation of the centuries-old religious structures inside the Mehrauli Archaeological Park in New Delhi to avoid any planned demolition in the archaeologically sensitive area.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Mehrauli Archaeological Park; Various Structures in Mehrauli.

About Mehrauli Archaeological Park

Mehrauli is one of the seven medieval cities that make up the present union territory of Delhi, apart from Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Deenpanah and Shahjahanabad.
The Lal Kot fort was constructed by the Tomar chief Anangpal I around 731 AD and expanded by Anangpal II in the 11th century,who shifted his capital to Lal Kot from Kannauj.
The Chauhans defeated the Tomars in the 12th century.
Prithviraj Chauhan further expanded the fort, which is now Qila Rai Pithora. He was defeated and killed in 1192 by Mohammed Ghori, who put his general Qutb-ud-din Aybak in charge and returned to Afghanistan.
In 1206, after the death of Mohammed Ghori, Qutubuddin enthroned himself as the first Sultan of Delhi.
Thus, Delhi became the capital of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi (Slave dynasty), the first dynasty of Muslim sultans to rule over northern India.
Mehrauli remained the capital of the Mamluk dynasty which ruled until 1290.
During the Khilji dynasty, the capital shifted to Siri.
In 12th-century Jain scriptures, the location is also mentioned as Yogninipura, now noticeable by the presence of the ‘Yogmaya Temple’, near the Qutub Minar complex.
It was also the execution place of Banda Singh Bahadur after he sacked the regional Mughal capital of Samana.

Various Structures in Mehrauli

There are a number of tombs of prominent people from the Delhi Sultanate (1206 to 1526 AD) and Mughal (1526 to 1857 AD) era. These tombs are usually placed near the dargahs of saints. Tombs of the later Mughals are near the dargah of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Mehrauli or Humayun’s tomb near Nizamuddin Auliya’s dargah.

16th Century tomb of Adham Khan and his mother Maham Anaga:
- Reminder of Akbar’s wrath on Adham for murdering his general and prime minister Atgah Khan.
- Built in an octagonal shape with low towers at corners.
- Consists of Lodhi-style domed octagonal chambers with ‘Verandahs’ on each side.
Zafar Mahal or Lal Mahal built in red sandstone:
- Zafar Mahal was the summer palace of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
- The building has two components, namely, the Mahal, which was built first by Akbar Shah II in the 18th century, and the entrance gate that was reconstructed in the 19th century by the last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
- Bahadur Shah Zafar II wished to be buried in the precincts of the Zafar Mahal. However, after the first war of Independence (1857), he was deported by Major William Hudson in 1858 to Rangoon (Burma/Myanmar), where he died of old age.
- This palace is also known for the Phoolwalon Ki Sair pass. This festival was started in 1812 by Akbar Shah II’s wife Mumtaz Mahal, after her son Mirza Jahangir was exiled to Allahabad by the British Resident Sir Archibald Seton.
Jamali Kamali Tomb and Mosque:
- Contain the tombs of Sufi saint Jamali or Shaikh Fazlu’llah and his disciple.
- Jamali was a well-known court poet who enjoyed the patronage of the Lodhi dynasty and that of Babur and Humayun as well.
Tombs of Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87 AD) and his son, Shahid Khan:
- Shahid had died fighting against the Mongols near Multan during Balban’s reign.
- Balban of the Mamluk dynasty is remembered for taking strong steps to control dacoity and robbery on the Delhi roads in the 13th Century.
- Balban’s tomb is housed in the building Dar-ul Amaan (Haven of Safety) and as the name suggests, it served as a haven from debt collectors.
- It is the first site where the true arch and dome, a prominent feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, introduced by the Turks, made its appearance.
A baoli or stepwell known as Rajon Ki Baoli:
- It was constructed in 1506 AD during Sikandar Lodhi's reign.
- It was used to store water.
- It was commissioned by Daulat Khan in 1506 AD, an administrator of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
- The enclosure of Rajon Ki Baoli includes a mosque and a tomb.
- The name Rajon Ki Baoli is derived from the 'Rajbirs' or 'Mistris', the term used for masons.
- A courtyard surrounded by a verandah with many beautiful pillars and the arches in the verandah are made in the typical north Indian fashion of that time.
Qutb Complex, close to the North-West of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque:
- Tomb of Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 AD):
  - Built by Iltutmish himself in 1235 AD, a year before his death.
  - Made in white marble, surrounded by carved arched entrances on the three sides.

Sufi Music and Amir Khusrau

Context: Indian Prime Minister recently attended Sufi festival Jahan-e-Khusrau Festival and underscored the role of Sufi tradition in sustaining the country’s pluralistic culture.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Important facts about Sufi Music; Hindustani Classical Music; Amir Khusrau.

About Sufi Music (Sub-part of Hindustani Music)

Sufi Music is a devotional music of the Sufis, inspired by the works of Sufi poets like Rumi, Hafiz, Bulleh Shah, Amir Khusrau, and Khwaja Ghulam Farid.
Delhi Sultanate, 13th Century onwards, witnessed the rise of Sufi music, which later began to spread across the north Indian subcontinent.
The ancient spiritual practice of Sufism incorporates all kinds of activities to achieve a state in which the practitioner loses the ego and experiences God through singing, chanting, reciting, whirling and music.

Qawwali

Qawwali (way of rendering Sufi verses) is the best-known form of Sufi music and is most commonly found in the Sufi culture in South Asia. It was popularised by Amir Khusrau ( a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya). So, it is of Indian origin.
The term Qawawali comes from the Qawwal who is a singer singing the verses of a Sufi saint.
The singer is often accompanied by harmoniums, tabla, and dholak. The lyrics typically draw from Sufi poetry, expressing devotion, love for God, and spiritual yearning.
Tempo (pace of singing) is a bit faster in Qawwali and rhythmic clapping throughout the song is important.

Ghazal

It originated in the Arabic world and later came to India under Persian influence.
Ghazal may be a poetry (unsung) or a song.
It is a poetic form that consists of rhyming couplets (not more than 12) and a refrain, with each line sharing the same meter.
Most of the ghazals are now sung in styles that are not limited to khyal, thumri and other classical and light classical genres.
Each couplet can stand alone as a complete thought, but they are usually connected by a common emotional thread.
Some of the famous persons associated with Ghazal are Muhammad Iqbal, Mirza Ghalib, Rumi (13th century), Hafez (14th century), Kazi Nazrul Islam, etc.
The tempo of a Ghazal is slow.

About Hindustani Classical Music

Hindustani Classical Music draws inspiration from Rigveda, Yajurvedic chants and Natya Shastra (gives information on scales, melodic forms, tala and musical instruments).
Key texts in Hindustani Music:
- Brihaddesi by Matanga compiled between 8th-9th century AD.
- Sangeeta Ratankara written by Sarangadeva (13^th century AD)
Tala System: Tala is the cyclic arrangement of time units which is central to Hindustani Classical Music.
Two broad categories of Musical forms:
- Anibaddha Sangeet: Free-flowing music, not restricted by meaningful words and tala. Its finest form is the alap.
- Nibaddha Sangeet: Structured compositions with tala and lyrics, such as Dhrupad and Khayal. Prabhandha is a specific type of Nibaddha.
  - Of all known prabandhas, Jayadeva’s (12th century) compositions are best known. His significant work was Gita Govinda, and his songs are ashtapadis (each song has eight couplets).

Main styles of singing in Hindustani Music:

There are 10 main styles of singing in Hindustani music like the Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasagar, Tarana, Sargam and Thumri.

Dhrupad: Oldest surviving classical style of Hindustani vocal music. It refers to both the poetry's verse structure and the manner in which it is sung. In the mediaeval era, dhrupad rose to prominence as the primary singing style.
- Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas, and Tansen (who was regarded as one of the Navaratna or nine gems of the Mughal court) were supported by Akbar.
- Man Singh Tomar, the Maharaja of Gwalior was responsible for the enormous vogue of Dhrupad. Bean and Pakhwaj were associated with Dhrupad.
Khyal: It means the idea or imagination is a Persian term. As it allows for more improvisation, this style is well-liked by artists. It is built on a collection of brief songs with two to eight lines. Khyal composition is typically also referred to as a Bandish.
- The origin of this style was accredited to Amir Khusaru (13th century). It attained its maturity at the hands of Niyamat Khan Sadarang and Adarang of the 18th century.
  - Amir Khusrau is believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is said to have introduced new ragas.
  - There are Gharanas in Khayal which are schools of singing founded or developed by various individuals or patrons such as king or nobility.
  - Important gharanas are Gwalior gharana (oldest), Agra gharana (founded by Khuda Baksh) and Jaipur gharana (directly took off from Dhrupad), Rampur Saheswan gharana (Uttar Pradesh).
Thumri and Tappa: Thumri is a love song whereas Tappa consists of the song uttered in a fast note pattern.
Tarana Style: In this style, the rhythm plays a very crucial role and uses many words that are sung at a fast tempo. The origin of this style was also accredited to Amir Khusaru.

About Amir Khusrau

Early Life & Background

Born in 1253 CE in Patiyali (modern-day Uttar Pradesh, India) in a Turkish family.
His father, Amir Saifuddin Mahmud, was a Turkish officer in the army of Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish.
His mother was of Indian origin, which influenced his appreciation of Indian culture.
He was highly talented in literature and music from a young age.

Career & Association with Delhi Sultanate

Served in the royal courts of multiple Delhi Sultans, including:
- Balban (1266–1287)
- Khilji rulers: Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji & Alauddin Khilji (1296–1316)
- Tughlaq rulers: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq & Muhammad bin Tughlaq
He was a court poet, chronicler, and musician, composing many historical and literary works.
A disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, with whom he shared a deep spiritual bond.

Contributions to Literature

Wrote in Persian, Arabic, and Hindavi (early Hindi-Urdu dialects).
His poetry reflected themes of Sufism, love, devotion, and patriotism.
Famous works include:
- "Tuhfat-us-Sighr" (The Gift of Childhood) – his first collection of poems.
- "Qiran-us-Sa’dain" – a historical work describing the meeting of Sultan Kaiqubad and his father Nasiruddin Bughra Khan.
- "Khazain-ul-Futuh" (Treasure of Victories) – chronicling Alauddin Khilji's reign.
- "Nuh Sipihr" (Nine Skies) – describing India’s beauty and diversity.
- "Masnavi Duval Rani Khizr Khan" – a romantic poem.
- "Ghazals and Qasidas" – lyrical and devotional poetry, many of which are still recited.

Musical Contributions

Credited with the invention of Qawwali, a Sufi devotional music genre.
Contributed to the evolution of Hindustani classical music, particularly in Khyal and Tarana styles.
Often credited (though debated) with the invention of Sitar and introduction of Persian elements into Indian music.

Influence on Indian Culture

Often called "Tuti-e-Hind" (Parrot of India) for his eloquence in poetry.
Promoted Hindavi (early Hindi-Urdu) as a literary language.
His works laid the foundation for later Urdu poetry and Indo-Persian traditions.

Death & Legacy

He died in 1325 CE in Delhi, soon after his spiritual mentor Nizamuddin Auliya.
Buried near Nizamuddin Auliya's Dargah in Delhi.
His poetry, music, and literary style continue to inspire artists, poets, and musicians in India, Pakistan, and beyond.

Tea Horse Road

Context: China’s Ambassador to India posted about the historic Tea Horse Road which spanned more than 2,000 km, and connected China to India via Tibet.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Tea Horse Road.

Tea Horse Road/ Ancient Chama Road

Origin: It can be traced back to the 618-907 CE during the rule of Tang Dynasty.
Route: It was not a single road, but a network of paths that started from Southwest China and ended in the Indian Subcontinent.
- The main pathways passed through Chinese cities like Lijiang in Yunnan Province and Chengdu in Sichuan Province.
- Then it reached Lhasa in Tibet, from where it branched into India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
Though it is not known as the Silk Road (China- Europe), the Tea horse road was a crucial commercial trade route for centuries.

Significance of the route in Trade

As per the writings of Buddhist Monk and traveler I-Tsing/ Yijing (635-713 CE):

From China to India: Products like Sugar, Textiles and Rice Noodles were transported from Southwestern China to Tibet and India.
From India to China: Horses, leather, Tibetan Gold, Saffron and medicine herbs.
From the times of Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) trade mainly focused on Tea from China and Horses from India.
By 1912, the route gained significance as it became a tool for bringing new techniques and goods to the less developed mountainous regions of Yunnan (China) which helped in expanding the tea industry rapidly.
During World War II, Japan gained control over the entire Chinese coastline and airspace. The road became crucial for transporting supplies to the frontline battlefield in China.

Decline in significance: With establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the road witnessed decline in significance. This happened mainly because of Mao Zedong’s land reforms, after which porters mostly stopped the backbreaking work of carrying the loads.
Contemporary significance: China has promoted tourism along the historic path and Lijiang became a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1997.

Archaeologists find 1.4-metre-tall Buddha head in Odisha

Context: A group of archaeologists gathered at a mound in the southern part of the 18-acre Ratnagiri Buddhist heritage site in Odisha’s Jajpur district to unearth the artifacts from beneath the surface. The most significant discovery is the 1.4-metre-tall Buddha head.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Ratnagiri Buddhist site; Vajrayana Buddhism.

About the site

Ratnagiri, which means ‘hills of jewels’ in Odia, is located on a hillock in the Assia hill range in Jajpur and encircled by the rivers Brahmani, Kimiria, and Birupa and their tributaries. The village is situated around 100 km from Bhubaneswar and is part of the ‘Diamond Triangle’, a collection of three Buddhist sites — Ratnagiri, Udayagiri and Lalitgiri — located in a 10-km radius.
Based on the findings from sculptural and epigraphic remains, the earliest Buddhist settlement at Ratnagiri has been estimated to have begun in the 5th century AD. The site flourished until the 13th century.

Findings

A copper plate charter of Somavamsi King Karna, confirming the site was a centre for Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism).
Three sculpted heads of varying sizes.
A monolithic elephant sculpture.
Hundreds of votive stupas, ranging from simple to highly ornamented.
Brick and stone masonry structures have also been discovered during the excavation.
Stone tablets of different sizes, inscribed in Sanskrit using the Kutila script (Siddhamatrika).
Ceramic assemblage is dominated by fine grey ware in various shapes and sizes.
A lion pedestal (Buddha’s Simhasana) and votive sculptures of Buddhist deities, such as Amoghasiddhi, one of the five wisdom Buddhas of the Mahayana and Vajrayana tradition; Ratnasambhava, one of the five meditating Buddhas; Akshobhya, another wisdom Buddhas; Amitabha, one of the most widely worshipped Buddhist figures in Mahayana Buddhism.

Read More: Buddhist excavations in Ratnagiri

Vajrayana Buddhism

It is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Mantrayana Buddhism. It is a separate tradition in Buddhism that emphasises esoteric (secretive or occult elements) practices and rituals aimed at rapid spiritual awakening.
This sect of Buddhism started in the 5^th century AD, when the Gupta dynasty was ruling the major Northern plains.
It is widely practiced in Ladakh, Tibet, China, Nepal, Bhutan and Japan.
Central to Vajrayāna symbolism is the vajra, a ritual implement representing indestructibility and irresistible force, embodying the union of wisdom and compassion.
Goal of spiritual practice in the Mahayana and Vajrayāna traditions is to become a Sammāsambuddha (fully awakened Buddha); those on this path are termed Bodhisattvas.
Techniques include: The use of mantras (sacred sounds), dhāraṇīs (mnemonic codes), mudrās (symbolic hand gestures), mandalas (spiritual diagrams), and the visualisation of deities and Buddhas. All these practices help in achieving enlightenment.
Teachings of Vajrayana Buddhism pass from teacher to students through initiation ceremonies. Nalanda Mahavihara became a major centre of Vajrayana Buddhism.
It incorporates the concept of deity yoga, where practitioners visualize themselves as deities embodying enlightened qualities.
The tradition also acknowledges the role of feminine energy, venerating female Buddhas and ḍākiṇīs (spiritual beings) which was missing in Hinyana and Mahayana traditions.
Tibetan Buddhism, Japanese or Shingon Buddhism and Chinese Buddhism took a lot of influence from Vajrayana Buddhism.

Jhumoir Binandini

Context: Preparations are in full swing at Guwahati's Sarusajai Stadium for the 'Jhumoir Binandini' event which will be attended by the Prime Minister on 24 February, 2025. More than 8,000 artists from tea garden areas across Assam are set to perform the traditional Jhumoir dance.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Jhumoir dance.

About Jhumoir/Jhumar Dance

It is a traditional dance performed in Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Bihar and West Bengal.
In Jharkhand and surrounding areas, it is mostly performed by both the Indo-Aryan groups of Chotanagpur region and tribal groups during the harvest season.
Musical instruments used are Mandar, Dhol, Nagara, Bansuri (flute).
The dance style consists of performers standing in a row holding hands, singing couplets, swaying their bodies, clapping their hands and occasionally adding timed jumps.

Assam’s case

In Assam Tea tribes are the main performers of this dance form. Jhumoir Binandini or Jhumar Nandini is an event that will commemorate 200 years of the tea sector in Assam.
The dance is usually performed in groups, most of which are made up of women, who dance to the rhythms of traditional instruments like flute, cymbals and dhol.
The dancers move in circular patterns, with coordinated footwork and hand gestures that depict various aspects of daily life, nature and folklore.
Traditional attire includes bright red & white sarees and dhoti with jewellery for women and white kurta-dhoti for men.

Iron Age in Indian Subcontinent

Context: Releasing a report on the antiquity of iron, the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu M.K. Stalin proclaimed that the iron age began on “Tamil soil”, placing the date 5,300-odd years ago (4th millennium BCE). He asserted that the history of the Indian subcontinent could no longer overlook Tamil Nadu.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Iron Age.

About Iron Age

The iron age is the period of human history (pre-history) where iron became a regular metal to be used by the masses.

1. North India:

For North India, the early evidence suggests iron use around 1800 BCE. The Iron age likely began from the 1200 BCE i.e., after the Bronze Age. (Rakesh Tiwari, 2003)
- Iron artefacts, furnaces, and tuyeres, carbon-dated between 1800 BCE and 1000 BCE, were found during the excavations conducted at Raja Nala-ka-tila , Malhar, and Dadupur archaeological sites in Uttar Pradesh.
- In Malhar, especially, the presence of tuyeres, slags, and finished iron artefacts, hinted at a large-scale manufacturing of iron tools.
- Technical studies on materials found at several places suggested that iron smelting in India could have begun as early as the 16th century BCE.
Iron age in North India co-existed with Painted Grey Ware (1300-300 BCE) and Northern Black Polished Ware (700-200 BCE) civilisations. It also coincided with the Later Vedic Period and period of Mahajanapadas.

2. South India:

The recently released report by the Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department, ‘Antiquity of Iron: Recent radiometric dates from Tamil Nadu’, has placed the introduction of the iron age at 3,345 BCE to 2,953 BCE (fourth millennium BCE) in the State.
The report suggests that when cultural zones to the north of Vindhyas experienced the copper age, the south might have already entered into the iron age, owing to the limited availability of commercially exploitable copper ore.

Significance of the discovery of Iron:

The presence of Iron helped in the development and expansion of 2^nd phase of urbanisation in India (1^st phase was Indus Valley civilisation).
Iron helped in clearing forest and iron plough boosted agricultural productivity and surplus crops were produced.
Iron age is also characterised by social stratification, polity diversification, literary developments, Economic expansion and Trade and craft specialisation.

Parasnath’s Marang Buru

Context: There has been a controversy due to the development plan at Parasnath Hill leading to a tripartite dispute between the state government, Jain community and Santhal tribal group.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Parasnath’s Marang Buru; Jainism.

About Parasnath’s Marang Buru

Parasnath Hill is the highest peak in Jharkhand (1,365 meters). It is named after Lord Parshvanatha, the 23rd Jain Tirthankara.
It is located towards the eastern-end of Chota Nagpur Plateau.
It falls within the Parasnath Wildlife Sanctuary and is part of the Madhuban Forest Area.
Significance in Jainism:
- It is known as Sammed Shikharji, one of the most sacred pilgrimage sites for Jains.
- According to Jain beliefs, 20 out of 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers) attained Moksha (liberation) here.
Marang Baru:
- The Santhal tribe considers the hill as Marang Buru, their Supreme Deity and Chief God.
- The site is an important place of worship for tribals, where they perform traditional rituals and celebrations during the Sohrai festival.

Disputes regarding the location

Religious conflict between Jain community and Santhal tribals on developing location as pilgrimage site.
Opposition to Tourism and commercialisation of the location, as the Jain community consider it as sacred.
Declaration of eco-sensitive zones by the government neglects the traditional rights of the Santhal tribal communities.

About Jainism

Origin & Founders: Rishabhanatha (1st Tirthankara) and Mahavira (24th Tirthankara, 540-468 BCE).
Core Beliefs:
- Triratnas: Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct.
- Five Vows: Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha.
- Anekantavada: Multiple perspectives of truth.
Sects:
- Digambara: No clothes (skin clad).
- Shwetambara: Wear white clothes.
Jain Literature & Architecture:
- Texts: Kalpasutra, Tattvartha Sutra.
- Temples: Dilwara (Rajasthan), Gomateshwara (Karnataka).
Patronage: Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela, Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas