Geography & Environment & Disaster management

All (4049)Current Affairs (4038)Mains Practice (126)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal

Context: Majority of the efforts to fight climate change have been land-biased. The countries have invested heavily on land but underutilised the potential of oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers for carbon dioxide removal.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal, Ocean alkalinity enhancement, Ocean fertilization, Deep ocean biomass sinking.

What is Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal?

Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal (mCDR) is any ocean-based process or technique designed to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it for long periods of time in the ocean.
Marine carbon capture strategies fall into two categories.
1. Biotic approaches: Taking advantage of living systems like mangroves and macro-algae of our rivers to carefully calibrate biomass burial at sea.
2. Abiotic approaches: Manipulating physical or chemical properties, such as through ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE), which are relatively more complicated.
Other examples: Adding alkaline materials to the ocean to increase the amount of carbon stored in ocean waters; adding iron or other nutrients to ocean waters to increase phytoplankton growth and export of carbon to the deep ocean; and sinking organic materials, such as kelp or crop residue, into the deep ocean.

Why should oceans be focussed?

Land saturation: Soils and rocks are so severely damaged that they no longer support efficient carbon capture. Land resources are also under severe pressure to support a huge population, agriculture, infrastructure etc.
Huge potential of Oceans: Sea and oceans have large surface areas (cover over 70% of the Earth's surface), thus better suited for CO2 absorption and removal.

What is ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE)?

Ocean alkalinization is an approach to carbon removal that involves adding alkaline substances to seawater to enhance the ocean's natural carbon sink.
How is it done?
- Adding alkaline and/or basic solutions directly into seawater – using electrochemical methods to split ocean water into its acidic and basic components and then returning the basic components again to the ocean.
- Adding certain types of mined alkaline minerals, such as olivine, to coastal and ocean waters.
Mechanism:
- Adding alkalinity to seawater (or removing acid from seawater) would lead to a temporary elevation in seawater pH.
- This then results in a series of chemical reactions that convert dissolved carbon dioxide (already present in the seawater) into dissolved inorganic carbon, primarily in the form of bicarbonate (relatively stable form of carbon).
- The seawater (now depleted in dissolved carbon dioxide) then takes up additional carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at the ocean surface.
Merits of OAE:
- Long-term storage of carbon in the form of stable bicarbonate ions.
- Provides the co-benefit of locally mitigating ocean acidification.
- Potential to enhance fisheries production.

What is ocean fertilization?

Ocean fertilization is a form of geoengineering that involves adding nutrients to the upper (sunlit) layers of the ocean to stimulate phytoplankton activity (photosynthesis) in an attempt to draw down atmospheric CO2 levels.
- The transfer of carbon from the surface ocean to the deep ocean must result in a subsequent transfer of carbon from the atmosphere into the surface ocean.
This could be accomplished by adding nutrients, such as iron, to the open oceans or nutrients may be moved from the deep ocean to the surface ocean through a process called "artificial upwelling.”
Ocean fertilization does not include conventional aquaculture, mariculture or the creation of artificial reefs.

What is deep ocean biomass sinking?

Deep ocean biomass sinking is the process of extracting carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through sinking carbon-rich biomass into the deep oceans.
- Plants on land and in the ocean pull in carbon dioxide from their environment during photosynthesis.
- The carbon contained in terrestrial or marine biomass, such as crops or macroalgae, could potentially be sequestered from the atmosphere for long periods of time by sinking it in the deep ocean.

First Offshore Mineral Auction

Context: The Central government has recently launched India’s first-ever tranche of e-auction for mineral blocks in the offshore areas of India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- Facts about Critical Minerals, Offshore Mining Initiative, MMDR Act.

Major Highlights of Offshore Mining Initiative:

First Tranche of E-Auction: Includes 13 mineral blocks in the Arabian Sea and Andaman Sea, comprising of construction sand, lime-mud and polymetallic nodules and crusts.
Offshore Mining Areas include: Territorial waters, continental shelf, exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and other maritime zones under India's jurisdiction.
Objectives:
- Reduce import dependence of critical minerals.
- Increase the availability of mineral resources through offshore explorations.
- Enhance the domestic capability to adopt sustainable mining practices.
The development and regulation of offshore mineral resources in India is governed by the Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and Regulation) Act, 2002.
Challenges in Offshore Mining:
- Higher operational costs and technical challenges.
- Environmental risks
  - Marine habitat destruction
  - Disruption in ocean carbon cycling and storage.

What are Critical Minerals?

Critical mineral are metallic or non-metallic elements that are:
- Essential for modern technologies, economy and national security, such as electronics, renewable energy, and defense.
- Subject to distrution of supply chain, often due to limited reserves, geopolitical issues, or complex processing.

Utility of Critical Minerals:

Renewable Energy sector: Graphite, Lithium, Cobalt, and Nickel are key components of batteries for electric vehicles (EVs).
Defense and Aerospace: Tungsten, molybdenum, and REEs are used in advanced weaponry, satellites, and aircraft.
High-Tech Manufacturing: REEs, Indium, and Gallium are used in electronics, semiconductors, and renewable technologies.
Agriculture: Fertiliser minerals like potash and phosphate.

Critical Minerals in India:

Different countries create their own lists of critical minerals based on their individual needs and strategic considerations. In 2023, the Ministry of Mines classified 30 minerals as critical minerals.
- The list comprises 30 minerals including 17 rare earth elements (REEs) and six platinum-group elements (PGE).
- Ten minerals on the list are 100% import-dependent, including- Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, Vanadium, Niobium, Germanium, Rhenium, Beryllium, Tantalum, and Strontium.
India relies heavily on imports (mostly from China) for critical minerals. The demand for these minerals may more than double by 2030.

Global Distribution:

China is the world’s largest producer of 16 critical minerals. China is responsible for 60% of global production of rare earth elements.

Steps taken by the Government of India:

1. MMDR Amendment Act, 2023:

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act) is the primary legislation governing the mining sector in India.
The MMDR Amendment Act, 2023:
- Empowers Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite licence for 24 critical and strategic minerals (listed in the Part-D of the First Schedule to MMDR Act).
- Opened mining of critical minerals to private players which was previously limited to public sector undertakings.
- To boost exploration, Exploration Licence for reconnaissance and prospecting operations has been introduced for 29 deep-seated minerals.

2. Establishment of KABIL:

A Joint Venture Company among NALCO, HCL and MECL named Khanij Bidesh India Limited (KABIL) was formed in August 2019.
KABIL's mandate is to ensure India's supply of critical and strategic minerals:
- Identifying, exploring, acquiring, developing, mining, and processing strategic minerals.
- Focus on procuring battery minerals like Lithium and Cobalt.

3. Global Partnerships:

India has joined the Mineral Security Partnership with 13 countries, including the U.S., Australia, and Japan aimed to catalyse public and private investment in critical mineral supply-chains globally.
India has signed an agreement with Argentina for lithium exploration through KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Limited).
India-Australia has signed the Critical Mineral Investment Partnership for investment in critical mineral projects and for developing supply chains between these two nations.

4. Offshore Mining Initiatives:

Offshore Areas Mineral (Amendment) Act, 2023 introduced transparent and non-discretionary auction process to allocate operating rights in the offshore areas.
Deep Ocean Mission to explore the deep ocean to extract polymetallic nodules.
National Geoscience Data Repository (NGDR) hosts all exploration related geoscientific data to facilitate the exploration.

Smog Pollution in North India

Context: The Indian subcontinent, particularly New Delhi, is gripped with high levels of air pollution (smog). The air quality levels in the region have exceeded World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines by over 50 times posing severe environmental and health risks.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Photochemical Smog, Sources of Smog, Health impacts of Air Pollution.

Mains: Why does the Indian subcontinent experience one of the highest levels of air pollution?

What is smog?

Smog is type of air pollution that reduces visibility. The term "smog" was first used in the early 1900s to describe a mix of smoke and fog.
Today, most of the smog is predominantly photochemical smog. It is produced when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere.

Sources of Smog:

Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Emitted from vehicular exhaust, coal power plants, and industrial emissions.
VOCs: Released from gasoline, paints, and cleaning solvents.
Process: Sunlight triggers chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to produce ground-level ozone and particulate matter — or smog.

Why does the Indian subcontinent experience one of the highest levels of air pollution?

According to the World Air Quality report, India’s air had 54.4 micrograms of PM2.5 particles per cubic metre on average. The poor air quality persists in Pakistan as well as Bangladesh.

Natural factors responsible:

Himalayas trap the pollutants over the subcontinent and do not allow them to disperse.
Low lying topography of Gangetic plains stabilises the air mass over it, further accumulating the air pollutants.
Continental type of climatic conditions promote extreme winters in northern Plains spanning across India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The winter inversions promote atmospheric stability, further contributing to air pollution.
The presence of the Thar desert also leads to the spread of dust particles in the entire region.

Anthropogenic factors responsible:

Emissions from coal-fired power plants, steel mills, and other industrial facilities release large amounts of pollutants, including sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM).
Traditional brick kilns (prevalent in many parts of South Asia) are significant sources of air pollution due to their inefficient combustion processes.
High levels of vehicular traffic, often with poorly maintained vehicles, lead to the release of pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), NOx, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and PM.
Farmers often burn crop residues (stubble burning) to clear fields, releasing large amounts of smoke, PM, and greenhouse gases.
Decomposing organic waste in landfills emits methane (CH4) and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
The use of biomass (wood, dung, crop residues) and coal for cooking and heating in rural and low-income urban households produces significant indoor and outdoor air pollution.

What steps India has taken in this regard?

National Clean Air Program to reduce the levels of air pollution at both regional and urban scale.
- Target: Reduction of PM 2.5 and PM 10 levels by 20-30% by 2024.
- Measures: Stringent implementation of mitigation measures, strengthening air quality monitoring and augmenting public awareness.
Clean Air India Initiative to curb air pollution in Indian cities by promoting partnerships between Indian start-ups and entrepreneurs to develop innovative solutions for cleaner air.
- E.g., Under it, an ‘INDUS impact’ project aims to reduce stubble burning by promoting businesses to make construction and packaging materials using paddy biomass.
Notification of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), National Air Quality Index, Sector-specific emissions and effluent standards for industries to reduce emission of PM 10, SO2 and Nitrogen Oxides.
Promotion of fuel standards: Leapfrogging from BS-IV to BS-VI fuel; ban on pet coke and furnace oil.
LPG subsidy under Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) to curb indoor pollution.

More steps:https://compass.rauias.com/environment-biodiversity/impacts-air-pollution/

What are the major health impacts of air pollution?

Way Forward:

For Individuals: Staying indoors, keeping oneself hydrated, using public transport, and avoiding construction sites.
Govt. agencies:
- Strict implementation of the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) to tackle pollution during severe conditions.
- Temporary stay on new construction projects.
- Expand infrastructure for producing biomass from stubble waste.
- Retiring old thermal power plants, exploring use of Carbon Capture technologies in heavy industries.
- Strict fines for violation of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and other environmental laws.
- Promotion of public transport and network of metro, e-rickshaws, promotion of car-pooling etc.
- Increase green cover in urban areas to act as pollution sinks.

Gelephu: The World’s First Mindfulness City

Context: Bhutan is working on a mega project which is envisaged to be the World's first 'Mindfulness City' at Gelephu.

Relevance of the topic: Prelims- Location of Gelephu Mindfulness City

About Gelephu Mindfulness City (GMC)

Location:
- GMC is a planned special administrative region and economic hub in Gelephu town, southern Bhutan (spanning an area of 2500 square kilometers).
- It lies strategically at the crossroads of India’s “Act East policy”, serving as a gateway for enhanced connectivity to Myanmar and Southeast Asia.
Concept: To create an urban environment that integrates economic development with the principles of mindfulness, sustainability, and innovation.

Key Features of Gelephu Mindfulness City:

1. Focus Areas:

Tourism and Wellness: Positioning GMC as a global destination for healthcare, spiritual and wellness tourism.
Education and Research: Establishing educational institutions and research centers to foster innovation and knowledge.
Sustainable Industries: Promoting agri-tech, non-polluting industries (IT, education, hotel, hospital sectors) and forest-based industries.

2. Environmental Stewardship:

Zero Carbon City: GMC is envisioned as a zero-carbon city with a focus on green architecture, mainly solar and hydropower.
Biodiversity Protection: The project incorporates protected areas, including a National Park, Wildlife Sanctuary, and river ecosystems.

3. Economic Hub:

Regional Economic Center: GMC seeks to become a major economic hub for South Asia, driving regional trade and investments.
Employment Generation: GMC aims to provide employment to Bhutanese youth and prevent their outmigration.

India’s Role:

Bhutan has sought investment and collaborations from the Indian private sector in infrastructure development, bringing projects in areas such as hotels and hospitality, educational institutions, IT and wellness centres.

Global Plastic Treaty

Context: More than 170 countries have converged in Busan, Republic of Korea, to negotiate a new legally binding global treaty to end plastic pollution, including marine pollution. This is the fifth (and final) round of talks since 2022, when the UN Environmental Assembly (UNEA) agreed to develop such a by the end of 2024. The UNEP’s (United Nations Environment Programme) intergovernmental negotiation committee (INC) is leading the negotiations.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Facts about Plastic pollution, Key provisions of Global Plastic Treaty (once it is finalised)

Mains: Impacts of Plastic pollution/ Need for a Global Plastic Treaty

Need for a Global Plastic Treaty:

A global treaty to end plastic pollution is crucial to address the growing crisis of plastic pollution, which impacts the environment, human health, and contributes to climate change.

1. Rapidly Increasing Plastic Production and Waste:

Production surge: Annual global production of plastic has doubled from 234 million tonnes (mt) in 2000 to 460 mt in 2019, and is expected to reach 700 mt by 2040.
- Nearly half of this was produced in Asia, followed by North America (19%) and Europe (15%).
- India contributes to a fifth of global plastic pollution. It accounts for 20% of the world’s global plastic pollution with emissions of 9.3 mt
Challenge of Waste management: About 400 mt of plastic waste is generated annually, a figure expected to jump by 62% between 2024 and 2050. However, only about 9% of plastic waste has been recycled globally.
- Plastic takes anywhere from 20 to 500 years to decompose.

2. Environmental and Health Impact:

Microplastics pollution: Plastic waste often leaks into the environment, especially into rivers and oceans, where it breaks down into smaller particles (microplastic or nanoplastic), harming ecosystems and food chains.
Health risks: Exposure to chemicals in plastics can cause endocrine disruption and a range of human diseases including cancer, diabetes, reproductive disorders, and neurodevelopmental impairment.
Ecosystem damage: Marine, freshwater, and terrestrial species are severely affected by plastic pollution.

3. Contribution to Climate Change:

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: In 2020, plastic production accounted for 3.6% of global emissions, with most emissions arising from fossil-fuel-based plastic production. If trends continue, emissions from production could increase by 20% by 2050.

4. Need for global coordination and standards:

Transnational nature of pollution: Plastic pollution does not respect borders; coordinated international action is essential.
Comprehensive life-cycle approach: Negotiations aim to establish rules covering the entire plastic lifecycle, from production and usage to disposal and recycling.

Key Negotiation Points:

Production caps vs. Waste management:
- Conflict: Oil and gas-rich countries resist production limits, favoring downstream measures (e.g., improved waste management).
- Advocates for limits: Rwanda, Peru, and the EU propose ambitious reduction targets, such as Rwanda's call for a 40% reduction by 2040.
Harmful Chemicals:
- Scientific basis needed: Countries like India stress domestic regulation and scientific validation before excluding specific chemicals.
Financial and technical support:
- Developing nations emphasize the need for financial resources, technology transfer, and technical assistance to manage plastic waste effectively.
- Private funding: UNEP suggests increasing private sector investment aligned with treaty goals.
Just transition: Ensuring livelihoods of workers in plastic-related industries are protected during the transition away from plastics.

India’s Position: India has taken the following position:

Against production limits: India opposes restrictions on polymer production, emphasising innovative waste management. According to India, any restrictions are beyond the mandate of the UNEA’s resolution adopted at Nairobi in 2022.
Context-sensitive regulation: India advocates for nationally driven, pragmatic decisions reflecting domestic circumstances.
- On the exclusion of harmful chemicals used for plastic production, India has said that any decision should be based on scientific studies, and the regulation of such chemicals should be regulated domestically.
- India banned the use of single-use plastics covering 19 categories in 2022. However, the decision on the issue of including certain plastic items for phase-out in the final treaty should be pragmatic.
Focus on financial support: India has stressed on including financial and technical assistance, and technology transfer in the substantive provisions of any final treaty for equitable implementation.

Conclusion and the way forward:

A global plastic treaty aims to create legally binding frameworks to curb plastic pollution at its source, establish recycling standards, and ensure environmental and social equity. Harmonising international efforts is crucial for meaningful, long-term solutions to the global plastic crisis.

Cyclone Dana

Context: The severe cyclonic storm Dana started landfall close to Bhitarkanika and Dhamara along the Odisha coast, the India Meteorological Department said.

Key facts about Cyclone Dana

Six hours prior to the landfall, the outer layer of the cyclonic storm surrounded Odisha’s coastal region, causing widespread rain and wind.
The Bay of Bengal had become turbulent with waves violently crashing on to the shore.
Trees were uprooted and power infrastructure was hit at isolated places in Bhadrak and Kendrapara districts, while disaster response forces cautiously moved to remove obstructions on roads.
As a precautionary measure, the Odisha government had evacuated 5.84 lakh people to different cyclone shelters where food and other facilities were made available.

Tropical cyclone

A tropical cyclone is a type of low-pressure weather system that forms over tropical or subtropical waters. They are characterized by strong winds, heavy rainfall, and a low-pressure centre. Different names know tropical cyclones depending on their location, such as hurricanes in the Atlantic and north-eastern Pacific, Willy-willy in North West Australia, typhoons in the northwest Pacific, and cyclones in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean.

Factors which facilitate their formation:

Warm water: Tropical cyclones form over warm tropical or subtropical waters with a surface temperature of at least 26.5°C. The warmth of water provides the energy needed to fuel the storm.

Moist air: Tropical cyclones require moist air to form. Moisture provides fuel for thunderstorms that make up the storm.

Low wind shear: Wind shear is the change in wind speed or direction with height. Low wind shear is essential for the development of a tropical cyclone because it allows the storm to maintain its organization and strength. (High wind shear removes the heat and moisture they need from the area near their center. Shear also distorts the shape of a hurricane by shearing it (blowing the top away from the lower portion), so that the vortex is tilted. A tilted vortex is usually a less efficient heat engine--the delicate balance of inflowing low-level winds and outflowing upper-level winds that ventilate the storm gets disrupted.)

A pre-existing weather disturbance: Tropical cyclones typically form from pre-existing weather disturbances, such as a tropical wave or an area of low pressure. These disturbances provide the initial rotation and organization needed for a tropical cyclone to form.

Converging winds: Tropical cyclones form in areas where winds are converging and rising, which allows for the development of thunderstorms and the low-pressure area of the tropical cyclone.

Coriolis force: It helps the wind to rotate. This is the reason that cyclones are not formed at the Equator.

It's worth noting that all these conditions have to be met and in the right balance; otherwise, the tropical cyclone would dissipate or fail to form. Also, the storm needs to be in an environment where it can maintain its strength and not be disrupted by other weather systems or wind shear.

Major tracks and frequency of Hurricanes and typhoons

IMD uses a color-coded warning system to classify the severity of tropical cyclones. The system uses four colors: Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red.

Green: This color is used for cyclones that are not expected to cause significant damage. The IMD issues a "Green" warning for cyclones that are likely to cause light to moderate rainfall and winds of up to 40 km/h.
Yellow: This color is used for cyclones that are expected to cause moderate damage. The IMD issues a "Yellow" warning for cyclones that are likely to cause heavy rainfall and winds of 40-60 km/h.
Orange: This color is used for cyclones that are expected to cause substantial damage. The IMD issues an "Orange" warning for cyclones that are likely to cause very heavy to extremely heavy rainfall and winds of 60-100 km/h.
Red: This color is used for cyclones that are expected to cause severe damage. The IMD issues a "Red" warning for cyclones that are likely to cause extremely heavy rainfall and winds of more than 100 km/h.
The warning system is designed to help people prepare for a cyclone, and to take appropriate action to protect themselves, their families, and their property. The color code is based on the forecasted wind speed, rainfall, and surge height. The IMD also issues forecasts and updates on the progress of the storm and provides advice on what actions to take in response to the storm.

Nature conservation Index

It is first-ever Nature Conservation Index (NCI)
It evaluates conservation efforts using four markers — land management, threats to biodiversity, capacity and governance, and future trends.
The NCI is developed by Goldman Sonnenfeldt School of Sustainability and Climate Change at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev and BioDB.com, a non-profit website dedicated to maintaining biodiversity data.

The NCI is a data-driven analysis assessing each country's progress in balancing conservation and development, aimed at helping governments, researchers, and organisations identify concerns and enhance conservation policies for long-term biodiversity protection.
India with an abysmal score of 45.5 (out of 100) has been ranked 176th in the Global Nature Conservation Index, 2024. The country ranks as one of the five worst performers.
It’s noteworthy to mention that Bhutan, a global biodiversity hotspot, is the only country in Asia that has performed remarkably, ranking 15th globally with a score of 63.1.
Luxembourg, a small European country situated between Belgium, France, and Germany, with its rich biodiversity, is leading the way forward in the rankings with a score of 70.8 out of 100.
It’s also notable to mention that Europe is dominating, with seven of its countries ranking among the top performers.

Power from Sri Lanka outprices offshore wind

Context: The recently released National Electricity Plan document of the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) notes that India and Sri Lanka have agreed on the detailed project report (DPR) for building a transmission line between the two countries. This marks a significant milestone in a journey that traces back to 2002.

Key Facts

The project seeks to build a transmission link between New Habarana in Sri Lanka and New Madurai in India, crossing a 120 km stretch of sea.
A detailed project report (DPR) has been agreed upon for the India-Sri Lanka grid interconnection. This will involve a 1000 MW VSC HVDC bipole line connecting New Madurai in India to Mannar in Sri Lanka, built in two phases of 500 MW each, with HVDC terminals at both ends.
Wind industry sources believe the island nation has potential of 65 GW onshore — most of it can be transmitted to India, as Sri Lanka needs very little. This, sources said, is cheaper than offshore wind in India.

National Electricity Plan (Transmission) Highlights

Aim for renewable energy:
- Aim for 500 GW of installed renewable energy capacity by 2030.
- Target over 600 GW by 2032.
Launched by
- Union Minister Shri Manohar Lal on October 14-15, 2024, during a CEA conclave in New Delhi.
Planned Storage Systems:
- Plan includes development of:
  - 47 GW of Battery Energy Storage Systems.
  - 31 GW of Pumped Storage Plants.
Green Hydrogen/Ammonia:
- Transmission system designed to support power delivery to manufacturing hubs at coastal locations (e.g., Mundra, Kandla, Gopalpur).
Planned Transmission
- Over 1,91,000 ckm of transmission lines to be added from 2022-23 to 2031-32 (220 kV and above).
- 1270 GVA of transformation capacity planned.
- 33 GW of HVDC bipole links proposed.
- Inter-regional transmission capacity to increase from 119 GW to:
  - 143 GW by 2027.
  - 168 GW by 2032.
International Interconnections:
- Plans include interconnections with Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and potential links with Saudi Arabia and UAE.
Technology Innovations:
- Emphasis on new technology options such as:
  - Hybrid Substations.
  - Monopole Structures.
  - Insulated Cross Arms.
  - Dynamic Line Rating.
  - High-Performance Conductors.
  - Upgrading operating voltage to 1200 kV AC.
- Focus on skill development in the transmission sector.
Investment Opportunities:
- The plan outlines investment opportunities exceeding INR 9,15,000 Crores in the transmission sector by 2032.
- Several transmission schemes are under construction, bidding, or in the pipeline.

Ethanol blending needs policy push

Context: It has been a spectacular growth story for the Indian sugar industry over the last decade. In 2012, the industry was semi-decontrolled. The Rangarajan Committee set up by the then government to look at the long-term sustainability of the sector made several key recommendations.

Key recommendation of Rangarajan committee and challenges thereof

1. Cane reservation area and bonding- Every designated mill is obligated to purchase from cane farmers within the cane reservation area, and conversely, farmers are bound to sell to the mill. This ensures a minimum supply of cane to a mill, while committing the mill to procure at a minimum price.

This arrangement reduces the bargaining power of the farmer. He is forced to sell to a mill even if there are cane arrears (occurs when sugar mill owners delay payment to farmers for the sugarcane supplied).
Mills, on their part, lose flexibility in augmenting cane supplies, especially when there is a shortfall in sugarcane production in the cane reservation area.
Mills are also restricted to the quality of cane that is supplied by farmers in the area.
The Committee recommended that over a period of time, states should encourage development of market based long-term contractual arrangements and phase out cane reservation area and bonding. Such individual contracts with farmers would give them the flexibility to decide which mill they want to sell their produce to.

2. Minimum distance criterion- Under the Sugarcane Control Order, the central government has prescribed a minimum radial distance of 15 km between any two sugar mills. This regulation is expected to ensure a minimum availability of cane for all mills.

However, this criterion often causes distortion in the market. The virtual monopoly over a large area can give the mills power over farmers, especially where landholdings are smaller.
In addition to restricting competition, the regulation inhibits entry and further investment by entrepreneurs.
In order to increase competition and ensure a better price for farmers, the Committee recommended that the distance norm be reviewed. Removing the regulation will ensure better prices for farmers and force existing mills to pay them the cane price on time.

3. Price of sugarcane- The central government fixes a minimum price, the Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) that is paid by mills to farmers. States can also intervene in sugarcane pricing with a State Advised Price (SAP) to strengthen farmer‟s interests. Typically, SAP is higher than FRP. There have been divergent views on which is a fair price to both farmers and millers.

The Committee recommended that states should not declare an SAP. It suggested determining cane prices according to scientifically sound and economically fair principles.

4. Levy sugar obligation- Every sugar mill mandatorily surrenders 10% of its production to the central government at a price lower than the market price – this is known as levy sugar.

This enables the central government to get access to low cost sugar stocks for distribution through PDS. At present prices, the centre saves about Rs 3,000 crore on account of this policy, the burden of which is borne by the sugar sector.
The policy of levy sugar puts the burden of a government social welfare programme (PDS) on the industry. A price lower than the open market price implies lower returns for mills, which eventually impacts cane payments to farmers.
The Committee recommended dispensing with levy sugar and doing away with a centralized arrangement for PDS sugar. States that want to provide sugar under PDS may henceforth procure it directly from the market.

5. Regulated release of non-levy sugar-The central government allows the release of non-levy sugar into the market on a periodic basis. Currently, release orders are on a quarterly basis. Thus, sugar produced over the four-to-six-month sugar season is sold throughout the year by distributing the release of stock evenly across the year.

The mechanism of regulated release imposes costs directly on mills (and hence indirectly on farmers). Mills can neither take advantage of high prices to sell the maximum possible stock, nor dispose of their stock to raise cash for meeting various obligations.
This adversely impacts the ability of mills to pay sugarcane farmers in time.
The Committee recommended removing the regulations on release of non-levy sugar. Removal of these controls will improve the financial health of the sugar mills. This, in turn, will lead to timely payments to farmers and a reduction in cane arrears.

6. Trade policy for sugar- The government has set controls on both exports and imports. These controls are imposed after taking into account the domestic availability, demand and price of sugarcane. A number of cascading import controls and export permits are used to achieve this.

As a result, India‟s trade in the world trade of sugar is small. Even though India contributes 17% to global sugar production (second largest producer in the world), its share in exports is only 4%.
The committee recommended all existing quantitative restrictions on trade in sugar should be removed and converted into tariffs.
Appropriate tariff in the form of a moderate duty on imports and exports, not exceeding 5-10%, should be applied.

7. Regulations relating to by-products- Certain restrictions have been placed on by-products of sugarcane such as molasses and bagasse.

State governments fix quotas for different end uses of molasses and restrict their movement, particularly across state boundaries. Some states have also imposed restrictions on the mills that can sell power generated from bagasse to users other than the local power utility.
Mills are also restricted from selling power generated from bagasse to other states.
Such restrictions impede the revenue realization from cogeneration and reduce economic efficiency.
The committee recommended that there should be no restrictions on sale of by-products and prices should be market determined. States should also undertake policy reform to allow mills to harness power generated from bagasse.

8. Other issues: The Jute Packaging Materials (Compulsory use in Packing Commodities) Act, 1987 (JPMA) mandates that sugar be packed only in jute bags. The sugar industry estimates that this leads to an increase in cost by about 40 paise per kg of sugar besides adversely impacting quality.

The committee recommended removing the sugar industry from the purview of the JPMA.

Recent developments - ethanol blending push in India

Through the efforts of sugarcane farmers and the sugar mills, the country witnessed surplus sugar production from the 2010-11 sugar season, with seasons 2017-18, 2018-19 and 2020-21 seeing bumper sugar production.

The annual sugar production of the country outpaced the total annual sugar consumption requirement, leading to over-availability of sugar
. Excess sugar supply led to reduced prices, straining revenues while costs related to sugarcane payments soared, causing financial constraints to the industry.
The government announced the ethanol blending programme, marking a significant shift in the industry.
The programme faced issues related to pricing and infrastructure.
The Government has taken measures in 2018 that helped accelerate the programme and boost local ethanol production.
The goal is to achieve 20% ethanol blending within the next two years

Recent Challenges to ethanol blending program

The need to balance food security with ethanol production has influenced government policy.
Unpredictable monsoon rains affected sugar production estimates, leading to:
Lowered sugar production projections.
Imposition of curbs on ethanol production from sugarcane juice and B-heavy molasses.
A complete ban on sugar exports.

Key suggestion/measures for boosting ethanol blending

Ensuring a steady supply of raw materials and feedstocks for the ethanol programme is critical.
The industry needs to work to increase sugarcane acreage to secure crop availability.
A stable ethanol pricing policy is essential to cover production costs and meet the 20% blending target.

Mangroves: Significance & Protection

Context - Residents and activists are protesting against infrastructure projects in Mumbai and its surrounding areas citing disregard for environmental regulations and lack of inclusive planning. Depletion of mangroves and dwindling fishing spots have sparked concerns among fisherfolk, who fear displacement and feel their livelihoods are being threatened.

Mangroves are salt-tolerant plant communities found in the intertidal zones in tropical and subtropical zones of the world.

Ecological adaptations of Mangroves

Pneumatophores are lateral roots that grow upward out of the mud and water to function as the site of oxygen intake for the submerged primary root system.
Buttress roots also known as plank roots/ stilt roots are large, wide roots on all sides of a shallowly rooted tree. Typically, they are found in nutrient-poor tropical forest soils that may not be very deep. They prevent the tree from falling over (hence the name buttress) while also gathering more nutrients.
Adaptations to low oxygen: By propping themselves above the water level with stilt roots and can then absorb air through pores in their bark (lenticels).
Nutrient uptake: Pneumatophores (aerial roots) allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere.
Limiting salt intake: Mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots.
Limiting water loss: They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapor during photosynthesis).
Increasing survival of offspring: Mangrove seeds are buoyant and are therefore suited to water dispersal.

Global distribution of Mangroves

According to Global Forest Resource Assessment, 113 countries have Mangrove forests covering estimated 14.79 million hectares.
The largest Mangrove area is in Asia (5.55 million hectares), followed by Africa (3.24 million hectares), North and Central America (2.57 million hectares) and South America (2.13 million hectares) and Oceania (1.30 million hectares).
Country wise: About 40% of global mangrove cover is in just four countries: Indonesia > Brazil > Nigeria > Mexico.

Distribution of Mangroves in India

According to India State of Forest Report, Mangrove cover in India is 4,992 sq. km constituting 0.15% of total area of India.
State-wise Mangrove Cover: West Bengal > Gujarat > Andaman & Nicobar Islands > Andhra Pradesh > Maharashtra > Odisha > Tamil Nadu > Goa > Karnataka > Kerala > Daman & Diu & Dadra & Nagar Haveli > Puducherry.

About Sundarbans

Located within the largest mangrove forest in the world. Located in the delta of Rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra on the Bay of Bengal in India & Bangladesh.
Sundarbans Tiger Reserve is situated within the Site and part of it has been declared a “critical tiger habitat” under national law and also a “Tiger Conservation Landscape” of global importance.
The Site is also home to a large number of rare and globally threatened species such as the critically endangered northern river terrapin (Batagurbaska), the endangered Irrawaddy dolphin, and the vulnerable fishing cat .
It is listed as World Heritage Site and also in UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.

Importance of Mangroves

Important refuges of coastal biodiversity: Mangroves provide breeding grounds for marine biodiversity.
- Under water the root system provides nesting and feeding grounds for juvenile fish, oysters, mussels, and sharks. Above ground mangroves provide homes for cranes, eagles and monkeys.
- Broad and towering canopies provide nesting and resting ground for migratory and sea birds and other wildlife.
- Stable and resilient mangrove ecosystems support the associated ecosystems such as seagrass beds and coral reefs thus maintaining their health, functioning and integrity.
Act as bio-shields: Mangroves acts as natural barriers against rising tides and storm-surges. Mangrove ecosystems prevent property damages and reduce flood risk in coastal areas. The dense root systems help stabilize shorelines by trapping sediments and reducing the impact of waves and tides. They are an effective check against Cyclones and Tsunamis in the coastal regions.

Mangrove wood is a source of a wide variety of biomass and forest products. Communities along the coast depend on it for fuel, construction, fish traps, boat building and non-wood products such as traditional medicine.
Acts carbon sinks: Mangroves capture carbon from atmosphere for growth. Part of this carbon is stored in living biomass and part is sequestered in the soil. Dead mangrove material decomposes very slowly due to waterlogging of the soils with tides. It is believed that mangroves hold up to four times the amount of carbon as compared to forested ecosystems like temperate and boreal forests.

Improve water quality: Mangroves act as natural water filters, trapping sediments and pollutants from runoff before they reach the open sea, thus improving water quality.
Tourism and recreation: Mangroves have high aesthetic value and are important sites for ecotourism, bird-watching and other recreation activities.

Challenges to Mangroves

Increasing human population in coastal areas and rising demand for land, timber, fodder, fuel-wood and other non-wood forest products.
Growing land reclamation for agriculture and industrialization
Discharge of untreated domestic sewage and industrial effluents
Damming of rivers, which curbs the flow of sediments to coastal areas. The silt flow is essential for the regeneration and growth of mangroves.

Initiatives for promoting Mangrove.

Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC)
- This initiative, launched by the UAE in partnership with Indonesia, promotes Mangroves as a nature-based solution to climate change.
- It was launched during COP 27 of UNFCCC.
- Membership has 17 member countries. India is also a member.

Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes (MISHTI)
- Envisages to comprehensively explore the possible area for development of Mangroves covering approximately 540 Sq. Kms. spreading across 11 States and 2 Union Territories during five years commencing FY 2023-24 onwards.
- The sharing of best practices on plantation techniques, conservation measures, management practices and resources mobilization through Public Private Partnership are objectives of the MISHTI scheme.

Planting of over 5 crore Mangroves under MGNREGA by West Bengal Government.
Mangroves for Future Initiative (MFF)

Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is a unique partner-led initiative to promote investment in coastal ecosystem conservation for sustainable development. Co-chaired by IUCN and UNDP, MFF provides a platform for collaboration among the many different agencies, sectors and countries which are addressing challenges to coastal ecosystem and livelihood issues.

Steps to promote mangrove forests.

Natural regeneration
Promotion of plantation activities in suitable land on the banks of rivers near estuary and on inter-tidal mudflats associated with the areas that are inundated by sea water on a daily cycle.
Regeneration of Mangrove forests in areas where it has been degraded.
Sharing of best practices.
Conservation of existing mangroves.
Notification of protected areas in mangroves.
Ensuring ecological flows in rivers.
Effective implementation of Coastal Regulation Zone Guidelines.

A temple in a South Delhi flat is set to get an elephant, all the way from Assam

Context – Maa Baglamukhi temple atop a four-story residential apartment in south Delhi’s Greater Kailash neighborhood could soon be the owner of an elephant that it proposes to get from Assam.

What are the issues involved?

The area earmarked for the Elephant is a residential area, which might be detrimental to both the animals and the humans in the area.
The area faces chronic water shortages, which goes against the basic needs of such giant animals.
This also goes against the Delhi High Court order 2018, which mandated the rescue of all the captive elephants in Delhi.

What are the rules around the transfer and transport of elephants?

According to the provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act, elephants are a Schedule 1 species and, therefore, cannot be captured or traded, whether wild or captive.

Section 12 of the Act allows Schedule I animals to be translocated for ‘special purposes’ such as education and scientific research. Captive elephants, because of their historical role in forest management, timber transport, presence in estates of erstwhile royal families and in temple precincts for religious purposes, can be owned and, therefore, come under a special category.
Section 40 (2) of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 prohibits the acquisition, possession and transfer of a captive elephant without the written permission of the Chief Wildlife Warden of the State.
In 2021, the Environment Ministry introduced an amendment that allowed the transfer of elephants for ‘religious or any other purposes’.
According to the latest rules, new relaxations are provided under which captive elephants can change owners or be transferred. These include, for instance, situations when an owner is no longer in a position to maintain the elephant or when a state’s Chief Wildlife Warden “deems it fit and proper” to transfer the elephant in circumstances which call for better upkeep of the elephant.

Green patch spread in Antarctica

Context: Plant cover across the Antarctic Peninsula, a long, mountainous extension of Antarctica that points north towards South America, has increased more than 10 times over the past few decades due to rising temperatures, a new study says.

Extent of Antarctica warming

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the United Nations body that advances scientific knowledge about climate change, has estimated that the Earth as a whole is warming at the rate of 0.14-0.18 degrees Celsius per decade whereas the Antarctica is warming at 0.22 degrees Celsius and 0.32 degrees Celsius per decade currently.
The situation in the Antarctic Peninsula is worse than in the rest of Antarctica—it is warming five times faster than the global average. On average, the Antarctic Peninsula is now almost 3 degrees Celsius warmer than in 1950.
In July this year, ground temperatures in parts of the continent were around 10 degrees Celsius higher than normal, and up to 28 degrees higher on certain days.

Findings of the study

Researchers used satellite imagery and data to conclude that the extent of vegetation in the Antarctic Peninsula has increased 14 times in just 35 years.

Worrying green cover

Soil in Antarctica is primarily poor or nonexistent, but this increase in plant life will add organic matter, and facilitate soil formation. This raises the risk of non-native and invasive species arriving, possibly carried by eco-tourists, scientists or other visitors to the continent
Increase in plant life could also reduce the Antarctic Peninsula’s ability to reflect sunlight (solar energy) back to Space — a darker surface absorbs more solar radiation. This could further increase ground temperatures, with local and global repercussions.
Rising temperatures will exacerbate the loss of ice and raise global sea levels.