Context: Dugongs once widespread along India’s coastline are now regionally endangered, with fewer than 200 individuals left.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Dugong.
About Dugong
Herbivorous mammal found in India’s marine ecosystems. Also known as sea cow, it resembles a cross between a seal and a whale.
Distributed through the Indo-Pacific region. It is found along the Indian coastline, primarily inhabiting warm waters around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, and the Gulf of Kutch.
Inhabits shallow coastal waters- primarily feeds on seagrass.
Key characteristics:
Dugong is able to live up to 70 years.
They rapidly regrow teeth in multiple iterations throughout their lives.
They are typically solitary or seen in small mother-calf pairs. They are shy and avoid interacting with humans.
They are air-breathing mammals that must surface regularly.
They reach reproductive maturity after nine or ten years, and give birth at intervals of three to five years.
Conservation status:
IUCN status: Vulnerable
CITES: Appendix I
Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I
In India, they are classified as regionally endangered. Once widespread in Indian waters, their numbers have dwindled to an estimated 200 individuals, with both their population size and geographic range continuing to decline.
Factors responsible for declining population of Dugong:
Habitat Degradation: Seagrass meadows are being lost at an alarming rate due to climate change, rising sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events like cyclones.
Marine Pollution: Pollution has led to accumulation of mercury and organochlorine compounds in their muscle tissues.
Illegal Hunting: Poaching, especially in the remote areas of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Government Efforts
India is a party to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
India is a signatory to the Convention’s Memorandum of Understanding on Dugong Conservation and Habitat Management across their range since 2008.
Govt. has announced the creation of the country’s first dugong conservation reserve. It spans 448.3 sq. km in the coastal waters of Palk Bay, Tamil Nadu.
Dugongs are gentle giants and act as gardeners of the sea, quietly shaping our oceans by nurturing seagrass meadows.
About Sea Grass
Seagrass is an underwater flowering plant, not to be confused with seaweed. It is classified as a wetland ecosystem.
Significance: Seagrass meadows stabilise the seafloor, support fisheries, capture carbon, and shelter marine life such as turtles and fish.
The National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management documented 516.59 sq. km of seagrass habitat in India (2022). This translates to a carbon dioxide sequestration potential of up to 434.9 tonnes per sq. km each year.
India’s most extensive seagrass meadows occur along- Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, off the coast of Tamil Nadu. It together supports more than 13 species of seagrass, the highest diversity in the Indian Ocean.
Context: India Meteorological Department (IMD) has declared the monsoon onset over Kerala on May 24, 2025, eight days ahead of its normal date schedule of June 1. The onset of monsoon marks the beginning of the four-month (June-September) southwest monsoon season over India, which brings over 70% of the country’s annual rainfall.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Key facts about Indian monsoon- southwest monsoon season over India.
What factors contributed to the early onset of Monsoon?
Multiple, large-scale atmosphere-oceanic and local factors developed and favoured the early monsoon onset this year. The monsoon arrived over the south Andaman Sea and neighbourhood areas on May 13, against a normal of May 21.
The IMD termed the onset took place under very favourable conditions, including:
1. The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO): It is one of the most important and complex ocean-atmospheric phenomena influencing Indian monsoons with origins in the Indian Ocean. A key feature is that a disturbance of clouds, wind and pressure moves eastward at a speed of 4-8 metres per second. Within 30 to 60 days, MJO winds can travel around the world and cause significant weather changes during their movement. In a favourable phase, it can enhance rainfall over India during the monsoon season.
2. Mascarene High: Mascarene High is a high-pressure area found around the Mascarene Islands (in the south Indian Ocean) during the monsoon period. The variation in the intensity of high pressure is responsible for heavy rains along India’s west coast.
3. Convection: An increase in the convective activity, i.e., the vertical transport of heat and moisture in the atmosphere also brings rainfall. E.g., a convective system over Haryana moved south-eastward and led to rains in the Delhi region (in mid May).
4. Somali Jet: It is a low-level, inter-hemispheric cross-equatorial wind band originating near Mauritius and north Madagascar. During May, after crossing the east coast of Africa, it reaches the Arabian Sea and the west coast of India. A strong Somali jet is associated with the strengthening of monsoon winds.
5. Heat-low: Following the movement of the Sun to the northern hemisphere, marking the summer season, a low-pressure area develops in the Arabian Sea. The development of a heat-low pressure zone over Pakistan and adjoining areas acted as a suction device for moist air along the monsoon trough, and its strong presence influences good monsoon rainfall.
6. Monsoon trough: It is an elongated low-pressure area extending from the heat low to the north Bay of Bengal. The north-south swinging of this trough causes rainfall during the June–September period across the core monsoon zone. Pressure gradient and monsoon onset vortex, a cyclonic formation in the Arabian Sea, also play a role in good monsoon.
7. Neutral El Nino–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) conditions were observed during the period, which typically support a normal or stronger monsoon, unlike El Niño years that often suppress rainfall over India.
What is the onset of Monsoon?
The monsoon season in India typically lasts from June to September, although its timing and intensity can vary across different regions.
Pre-monsoon period (March to May): During this time, temperatures rise across the country due to the increasing solar radiation. As summer approaches, the landmass of the Indian subcontinent heats up faster than the surrounding oceans, causing a low-pressure area to develop over the region.
Arrival of the southwest monsoon (end of May to mid-June): The southwest monsoon is responsible for the majority of the rainfall in India. It begins with the onset of the monsoon over the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean are drawn towards the low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent, creating a monsoon trough.
Factors affecting onset of monsoon:
Intense heating of the Indian landmass and formation of intense low pressure.
Deflection of SE trades after crossing the equator towards Indian west coast.
Advancement of the monsoon (June to July): The monsoon winds gradually advance across the country, starting from the southernmost state of Kerala and progressing northwards. This northward progression is known as the “monsoon onset line” and is closely monitored by meteorological departments.
Onset over different regions: The onset of the monsoon occurs at different times across various regions of India. The western coast and northeastern states receive the monsoon rains first, followed by the central and northern parts of the country. The Himalayan region experiences the monsoon last.
Monsoon progression and rainfall: Once the monsoon sets in, it brings heavy rainfall to different parts of India. The amount and distribution of rainfall vary from region to region. The western coast and north eastern states generally receive more rainfall compared to the arid regions in the northwest.
How does IMD declares that monsoon has arrived in India?
Following are the guidelines to be followed:
Rainfall
If after 10th May, 60% of the available 14 stations report rainfall of 2.5 mm or more for two consecutive days, the onset over Kerala be declared on the 2nd day.
Low outgoing longwave radiation
INSAT derived OLR value should be below 200 wm-2 in the box confined by Lat. 5-10ºN and Long. 70-75ºE.
Wind field
Depth of westerlies should be maintained upto 600 hPa, in the box equator to Lat. 10ºN and Long. 55ºE to 80ºE. The zonal wind speed over the area bounded by Lat. 5-10ºN, Long. 70-80ºE should be of the order of 15 – 20 Kts. at 925 hPa. The source of data can be RSMC wind analysis/satellite derived winds.
Note – Similar to above the onset of NE monsoon also has its own criteria: India Meteorological Department (IMD) made the following criteria in August 1988 for declaring NE monsoon onset, which was further amended in August 2006 (IMD, 2008).
The criteria are:
Withdrawal of Southwest monsoon up to Latitude 15-degree N
Onset of persistent surface easterlies over Tamil Nadu Coast
Depth of easterlies up to 850 hPa over Tamil Nadu Coast
Fairly widespread rainfall over coastal Tamil Nadu, South Coastal Andhra Pradesh and adjoining areas.
Impact of Climate Change on Monsoon:
According to IMD, there has been overall decrease in monsoonal rainfall of about 6%-10% since 1951. However, changes in monsoon remains within 10% of the long period average (LPA).
Intermittent rainfall has increased with increase in dry as well as wet spells.
Onset of monsoon and its withdrawal has also been delayed. For e.g. based on data from 1901-1940, the date of withdrawal was 1 September which was revised to 17th Sept in 2020. Despite this, monsoon 2023 was delayed by around 20 days.
It has impacted the regional spread also. Indo-Gangetic plains + Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal -> reduced. Saurashtra and Kutch, southeastern Rajasthan, northern Tamil Nadu, -> Increased
Context: The state government of Rajasthan has initiated the process for classifying the community-protected ‘Oran’ lands as forests in compliance with the Supreme Court’s direction. The sacred groves will subsequently be notified as community reserves under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
The SC recognised ‘Oran’ lands as forests under the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, in a landmark judgment in 2024. SC has also directed the Central Government to create a comprehensive policy for the management of sacred groves across the country.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Sacred Groves.
What are Sacred Groves?
UNESCO (1996) defined Sacred Groves as an area of natural vegetation preserved through local taboos and sanctions that entail spiritual and ecological values.
They are areas of natural vegetation resembling small forests protected by local communities for their religious and cultural significance.
These are important sites for worship and community gatherings. Logging and hunting are strictly prohibited in these territories.
Sacred groves are found all over India - especially in states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
There are around 14,000 sacred groves reported across India.
However, experts believe that the total number of sacred groves could be as high as 100,000.
They are known by different names in different parts of India like – Devban in Himachal, Devbhoomi in Uttarakhand, Gumpa forest in Arunanchal, Sarna in Jharkhand and Chattisgarh, Deorai/Devrai in Maharashtra, Kavu/Sarpa Kavu in Kerala, Devarakadu/ Devkad in Karnataka, Jahera/ Thakuramma in Odisha, etc.
Significance:
It acts as a repository for various Ayurvedic medicines. It is a source of replenishable resources like fruits and honey.
Sacred groves often contain plant and animal species that have become extinct in neighboring areas. They therefore harbor great genetic diversity.
They have become biodiversity hotspots, as various species seek refuge in the areas due to progressive habitat destruction and hunting elsewhere.
They are often associated with ponds and streams, and meet water requirements of local communities. They help in recharging aquifers as well.
Prohibition of cutting and chopping of trees helps reduce soil erosion and prevents desertification as in Rajasthan.
They act as lungs in urban landscapes, providing much needed vegetation cover.
Why is this directive significant?
The Centre has usually maintained that the management of wildlife and its habitat is primarily the responsibility of the States. The Centre had noted that the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, empowered States for declaration of any private or community land, as a community reserve, for protecting fauna, flora and traditional or cultural conservation values and practices.
The judgment aligned the preservation of sacred groves with the cultural and traditional rights of entire communities.
The court has asked the Ministry to develop a plan for a nationwide survey of sacred groves. The court said the survey must identify the area and extent of the groves. It said the boundaries of the groves have to be clearly marked but left flexible to accommodate future growth of the forests.
** The court cited the case study of Piplantri village to highlight how a community-driven initiative came to effectively address social, ecological and environmental challenges in a cohesive manner.
Piplantri village Rajasthan
A village in the Rajsamand district of Rajasthan, was once a victim to denuded land due to marble mining, exhausted foliage and gender inequality. From being a usual Indian village, Piplantri went on to gain international recognition for its unique model where the villagers plant 111 trees whenever a girl child is born. The girl’s parents and the villagers get together to raise a Fixed Deposit of ₹ 31,000 ($ 450) to support the girl child’s future endeavours.
The movement was spearheaded by the Padma Shri, Shyam Sundar Paliwal, who was devastated after he lost his 17 year old daughter to bouts of dehydration. He planted a tree in her memory and encouraged everyone in his village to do the same for their daughters. Soon the village was able to revive their land and even earn additional income through the forest produce. The village now has more than 350,000 trees, with various indigenous varieties, proving to be a boon to the Environment and Climate.
Context: In recent years, there has been a global transition to Electric Vehicles (EVs) largely driven by the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. However, recent research reveals negative impacts of the deployment of EVs.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Highlights of the recent study on EVs impact on environment.
Electric Vehicles
Electric Vehicles (EVs) are rapidly gaining popularity across the globe. While they make up only 2% of the total global vehicle stock, they accounted for about 20% of all new car sales in 2024, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA).
In India, around 2.5% of new cars sold in 2024 were electric, and the government plans to increase this to 30% by 2030. In China, EVs already account for nearly 50% of new car sales.
Key Highlights of the Study
Typically, an EV is at least 15-20% heavier than a comparable conventional vehicle majorly due to the weight of batteries. EVs on account of their greater weight experience higher wear and tear in their tyres compared to conventional vehicles. Thus, EVs release substantially larger numbers of small plastic particles in the atmosphere.
EVs are also able to accelerate more rapidly. This can lead to additional stress on the tyres due to increased friction and heat generation. Primary fragmentation (from potholes, braking) produces smaller airborne particles while Sequential fragmentation (gradual wear) produces larger particles.
The tyres of heavier and faster-moving vehicles produce a higher proportion of smaller particles (about 1-10 micrometres). Unlike the larger particles that settle on the ground due to gravity, smaller particles remain suspended in the air, adding to the concentration of air pollutants.
Way Forward
Expand air quality regulations: Current air quality regulations focus on PM2.5 and PM10, but with the rise of EVs and increased emission of even smaller tyre fragments, these standards need to be expanded to cover ultra-fine particulate pollution.
Incorporate Non-Exhaust Emissions: Emissions standards would probably need to account for non-exhaust emissions from vehicles.
Research & Development in tyres: Tyre manufacturers would need to invest in research and development to produce sturdier tyres that are better suited to heavier EVs.
Improve road infrastructure: Better roads reduce tyre damage and pollution.
Context: As per the findings of the Asiatic Lion Census 2025, the population of Asiatic lions in Gujarat has witnessed a significant increase reaching an estimated 891 individuals.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Asiatic lions; Project Lion; Big Cat Alliance; CDV.
Asiatic Lion Census 2025
16th edition of the Lion Census. The last such census was conducted in 2020, which recorded 674 Asiatic lions in Gujarat.
Estimated lion population: 891 in Gujarat. Gir forest in Gujarat is the only remaining natural habitat of Asiatic lions.
Methodology: The census used advanced methodologies such as direct beat verification (high accuracy and minimal margin of error), supported by modern tools including high-resolution cameras, camera traps and GPS-enabled radio collars.
Concerns: ~57% of the 891 individuals have been recorded in areas outside protected forest areas. This poses an increased threat of man-wildlife conflict.
Asiatic Lions
The Asiatic lion is a big cat of the subspecies Panthera leo.
Range: Gir forest, a dry deciduous forest ecosystem in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat, is the abode of the last surviving population.
Conservation Status:
IUCN Status: Endangered
CITES: Appendix I
Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I
Concerns: Lions remain geographically isolated in Gir. This risks the spread of epidemic or disease; risk due to decline in prey or natural disasters. E.g., In 2018, 27 lions in Gir died due to canine distemper virus (CDV)
Canine Distemper Virus:
Highlycontagious viral disease caused by a single-stranded RNA virus. Affects wide range of carnivores
Impacts several body systems, including the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, the spinal cord, and the brain.
Symptoms: Dullness, lacrimation, cough, diarrhea, and seizures. It has a high mortality rate.
Conservation Initiatives
Project Lion (2020): Infrastructure development for protection and security of Indian lions, especially health infrastructure. Focus on conflict mitigation, habitat improvement, radio-collar monitoring, and camera traps, and addressing human-wildlife conflict.
International Big Cats Alliance (2023): Foster international cooperation among 97 range countries for conservation of big cats.
This growing presence underscores the continued success of conservation efforts and the need for expanded management strategies to support their increasing numbers.
Context: Protests broke out at the Upper Siang district in Arunachal Pradesh as Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) is gearing up to carry out a pre-feasibility study for the proposed 11,000 MW Siang Upper Multipurpose Project. Locals are protesting citing concerns over its environmental and social impacts.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Siang Hydropower Project; Siang River; Adi Tribes
Siang Upper Multipurpose Project:
Proposed 11,000 MW Multipurpose Project in the Siang river.
Handle possible threats from the 60,000 MW power project (the world’s biggest hydropower dam) being constructed by China in the upper reaches of Yarlung Tsangpo river in Tibet (called Siang in Arunachal Pradesh). China is not a signatory to the International Water Conventions. It intends to divert the water from the multiple water reservoirs to dry regions of Tibet and elsewhere in the country.
Siang Upper Multipurpose Project aims to maintain natural flow of water in the Siang river throughout the year, and flood modulation in case of sudden water release by China.
Concerns:
Displacement: The project is estimated to affect at least 100,000 local residents (in the upper Siang district) who could be displaced.
Environmental concerns: There are also concerns about the environmental impact of the project involving construction activities on the Siang River.
About Siang River
The Tsangpo – Yarlung Zangbo, as it is known in China – enters Arunachal Pradesh, where it is known as the Dihang (or Siang) River.
It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the towering Namcha Barwa peak, and enters Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang (orDihang).
It turns towards the south and enters Assam, where it is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit and the Dibang, and thereafter it is known as the Brahmaputra.
River Teesta joins Jumna (Brahmaputra in Bangladesh) as a right bank tributary.
Jumna moves further and joins Padma which then joins Meghna. Meghna flows into the Bay of Bengal.
The sub-basin lies in the States of Arunachal Pradesh (Subansiri, Kameng, and Bhareli rivers) , Assam (Manas, Kopili, Sankosh, and Dikhow rivers), Nagaland {Doyang (flows into Dhansiri)}, Meghalaya (Umngot and Kynshi rivers), West Bengal and Sikkim (Teesta)
It meanders through the heartland of Arunachal Pradesh, inhabited by the Adis.
Context: A cooler-than-usual summer over large geographical areas of the country has contributed to keeping all-India average temperatures within the normal range in May 2025. The primary reason is the frequent passage of streams of western disturbances in the lower latitudes.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Western Disturbances.
Unusual weather conditions
As per the India Meteorological Department (IMD):
All-India weekly average maximum temperature was 3-5 degrees Celsius below normal over West, Central, and North India. Normal temperatures prevailed over remaining parts of the country.
Core Heatwave Zone (CHZ)- spanning Central, North, and Peninsular India between Gujarat and West Bengal, which is prone to heatwave conditions every year from March to June, has not as yet experienced significant heatwaves.
May has been exceptionally wet over the South and Central Indian regions. Southern Peninsular India has benefited from intermittent spells of rain throughout the ongoing pre-monsoon season.
Reasons for cooler temperature in Summers:
Western Disturbances: The primary reason for a wetter- and cooler-than-usual summer is the frequent passage of streams of western disturbances in the lower latitudes. Western disturbances are eastward-bound winds that originate in the Mediterranean Sea and cause rain or snow along their way.
Continuous incursion of Moisture: There has also been a continuous incursion of moisture from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea into the Indian mainland, with the subsequent wind interactions causing rainfall and thundershowers.
What are Western Disturbances?
Western disturbances are extra-tropical cyclones that originate in the Mediterranean region and move eastwards towards the Indian subcontinent, affecting Northern India, northern Bangladesh, and south-eastern Nepal.
The sub-tropical westerly jet streams help western disturbances to enter the Indian sub-continent and affect its weather. The winds while moving take up the moisture from the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Caspian Sea.
These moisture laden winds eventually reach the northwestern Himalayas and get blocked, as a result the moisture gets trapped, and precipitation is shared. This ultimately leads to:
Snowfall in western Himalayas (J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand)
Non-monsoonal rainfall over Indo-Gangetic plains (Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh). These disturbances provide moisture to Rabi season crops
On an average 4-6 disturbances (temperate cyclones) per month pass over northern India between November to April.
Context: According to a recent study, humans have mapped only 0.001% of the deep ocean since the 1950s. Most of the ocean floor remains unimaged.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts related to Deep Sea; Deep Sea Mission.
What is the Deep Sea?
Deep sea is broadly defined as the ocean depth where light begins to fade, at an approximate depth of 200 m or more below the sea level.
Two-thirds of the earth’s surface consists of the deep ocean. It is thus the world’s largest as well as least explored ecosystem.
The latest study shows:
Evident geographic disparities in deep-sea exploration. Almost 65% of sightings are from waters around three countries- the U.S., Japan, and New Zealand's coastlines.
Overrepresentation of oceanic features like canyons and escarpments in observations, whereas abyssal plains, which dominate the seafloor, are under-represented.
Hence, our perception of the deep sea is based on this limited data. This emphasises the necessity for broader global engagement in deep sea exploration and research.
Significance of expanded Deep-Sea Research:
Build evidence-based policies for ocean protection: The deep ocean stabilises our climate and ecosystems. With growing threats such as deep sea mining and warming, deep-sea research will bridge the gap in knowledge of oceanic processes associated with climate.
Mapping unexplored species: Deep sea hosts enormous marine biodiversity. It might host species in unexplored areas with medicinal potential, and also aid the conservation efforts of species.
Resource Potential: Deep sea is a storehouse of untapped natural resources including: Minerals and gas hydrates (poly-metallic nodules, gas hydrates and rare earth elements); Oil and natural gas.
Strategic importance: Deep-sea infrastructure like undersea cables facilitate over 95% of global internet traffic, and must be safeguarded from potential threats, especially as countries like China advance their deep-sea military capability. Deep-sea research and development is crucial for asserting rights within India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), under UNCLOS.
In a bid to explore those vast regions beneath the surface of the ocean, India is preparing for a deep-sea mission- Samudrayaan, expected to be launched by the end of 2026.India will send its scientists 6000 metres beneath the ocean surface in a submersible named Matsya (a 25-tonne titanium-hulled vehicle) to collect biological and geological samples, conduct environmental observations, and explore mineral resources critical to future technologies.
Context: Despite a 15% Suez Canal transit fee discount and the US-Houthi ceasefire, shipping lines remain cautious about returning to the Suez Canal Route. Instead, the ships are taking the longer Cape of Good Hope route.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Suez Canal; Cape of Good Hope.
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.
Built by French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, and completed in 1869 but opened for navigation in 1879. The Canal was nationalised by Egypt in 1956.
Length: 193 km
It enables direct shipping between Europe and Asia without circumnavigating Africa.
It links Europe with the Indian Ocean via the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea by cutting the travel distance by approximately 7,000 km.
Handles about 12-15% of global trade, including a significant portion of oil and gas shipments.
Recent Developments
Because of the Houthi attacks starting in late 2023, many global shipping companies began avoiding the Red Sea and Suez Canal, rerouting their ships around the Cape of Good Hope, a much longer route.
As a result, Suez Canal revenues plunged from $10.3 billion in 2023 to $4 billion in 2024, and global shipping costs soared. To revive the traffic, Egypt’s Suez Canal Authority (SCA) has offered a 15% fee discount on transit fee to cargo ships of minimum 130,000 mt capacity.
Despite the ceasefire and discounts, most shippers stay on the longer Africa route. As the vessels go around Africa, it is leading to higher shipping costs, extended voyage durations by 10-14 days, higher fuel burn, and eventually higher freight rates.
Context: The Expert Appraisal Committee of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has granted initial approval for conducting an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the 1000 MW Upper Bhavani Pumped Storage Project in the Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Western Ghats and Nilgiri Biosphere; EIA; Pumped Storage Hydropower Project.
Upper Bhavani Pumped Storage Hydropower Project
Location: Near Upper Bhavani dam and Avalanche-Emerald reservoirs, within 1 km of Mukurthi National Park.
The pumped hydropower project aims to harness the waters of the Upper Bhavani Dam and Avalanche-Emerald reservoirs in the Nilgiris to generate 1000 MW of power.
Developer: NTPC Tamil Nadu Energy Company Ltd.
Concerns: The area is part of the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot. These hills host unique ecosystems like the Shola forests and are home to several rare and endangered species.
The expert panel had earlier raised concerns due to the region’s ecological sensitivity. However, the developers submitted a revised layout and proposed that major infrastructure components including the water conductor system will be constructed underground to minimise ecological impact. Additionally, the revised layout avoids the highly sensitive Shola forest areas and does not involve displacement of local communities. Based on these changes, the EAC granted Terms of Reference (ToR) for conducting the EIA study.
What is the Pumped Storage Hydropower Project ?
Pumped storage plants use the principle of gravity to generate electricity using water that has been previously pumped from a lower source to an upper reservoir.
Operation of pumped storage power plants requires two reservoirs viz. upper and lower reservoir. Water in the upper reservoir is used for generating power during peak demand hours. The water in the lower reservoir is pumped back to the upper reservoir during the off-peak hours and the cycle continues.
Energy storage capacity of a pumped hydro facility depends on the size of its two reservoirs and the head between reservoirs, while the amount of power generated is linked to the size of the turbine.
Central and state governments have promoted pumped hydropower projects as part of India’s plans to achieve its non-fossil fuel energy targets.
Bhavani River:
Bhavani is an interstate Indian river which flows through Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
It originates in the Western Ghats from the Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu. It enters the Silent Valley National Park in Kerala and re-enters Tamil Nadu.
Bhavani is one of the main tributaries of the Cauvery River. It travels for 216 km and joins the Cauvery from the right bank at the Kooduthurai holy site, Tamil Nadu.
Upper Bhavani dam is located in the Nilgiri district, Tamil Nadu.
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA):
EIA is a tool used to assess the environmental, social, and economic impacts of a proposed project before it is given clearance to proceed.
It aims to predict environmental impacts, find ways to reduce adverse effects, and help decision-makers choose environmentally sustainable options.
If a project fails the EIA process, it is denied environmental clearance and cannot proceed further unless revised and approved.
Governed under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
Administered by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
EIA Notification 2006 outlines the procedure, including public hearings
Now the developers must conduct a comprehensive EIA study, organise a public hearing to gather feedback from affected communities, submit the final report to the EAC and facilitate a site visit by a MoEFCC subcommittee. Based on the findings, the final environmental clearance will be considered.
Context: Indian grey wolf population in Maharashtra’s Kadbanwadi grassland is declining due to threats from feral dogs, disease, habitat changes, and conservation challenges.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Kadbanwadi grasslands; Indian grey wolf.
Declining population of Indian grey wolf:
In the Kadbanwadi grasslands of Pune district (Maharashtra), the Indian grey wolf, a crucial top predator, is rapidly disappearing. About 10 years ago, there were around 70 adult wolves, but now only 6 have been spotted.
This sharp decline is alarming because wolves are crucial for maintaining ecological balance by regulating the populations of smaller predators and herbivores, which in turn helps sustain the overall health of the ecosystem.
Kadbanwadi grasslands
Location: Indapur tehsil, Pune district, Maharashtra.
Area: 2000 hectares
Fauna: In addition to the Indian grey wolf, Kadbanwadi is home to other species such as the Bengal fox, striped hyena, and Brahminy kite.
Indian Grey Wolves in Kadbanwadi
Indian Grey wolf is the apex predator in Kadbanwadi grasslands.
It is brown in colour with black-and-white markings on their backs.
It was considered as the grassland’s guardians as they ensure a healthy ecosystem by regulating the numbers of smaller predators and herbivores.
Conservation Status:
Wildlife Protection Act,1972: Schedule I
IUCN Status: Endangered
CITES: Appendix I
Significant threats: Attacks by feral dogs, the spread of Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) from stray dogs, genetic dilution due to crossbreeding with feral dogs, a shrinking prey base caused by the decline in shepherding practices, and habitat disruption from urban waste and encroachment.
Context: Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra have signed an MoU to jointly implement the Tapti Basin Mega Recharge Project. It is aimed at enhancing regional water security by using Tapti river water for drinking and irrigation needs in both states.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Tapti Basin Mega Recharge Project.
Tapti Basin Mega Recharge Project
The project is described as one of the largest water recharge projects globally with no displacement involved.
Water from the Tapti river will be diverted to cater to:
drinking water needs of north-eastern Maharashtra, including Nagpur.
provide irrigation support to southern and south-eastern districts of Madhya Pradesh such as Burhanpur and Khandwa.
Total planned utilisation of water under the scheme stands at 31.13 thousand million cubic feet (TMC), with 11.76 TMC allocated to MP and 19.36 TMC to Maharashtra.
Centre is expected to fund 90% of the project cost and the proposals will be submitted to classify it as a national water project.
This is the third major river-linking initiative undertaken by the Madhya Pradesh government in the past year, following the Ken-Betwa link project with Uttar Pradesh and the Parvati-Kalisindh-Chambal link project with Rajasthan.
About Tapti River:
Tapti or Tapi river is one of the major west-flowing rivers.
Origin: Multai in Betul district, Madhya Pradesh.
States Covered: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat.
Major Tributaries of Tapti are:
Right Bank: Vaghur, Bori, Purna
Left Bank: Aner, Girna, Panjhra
Important cities along the river: Burhanpur (MP), Jalgaon (Maharashtra), Surat (Gujarat)
Dams and Projects: Ukai Dam (Gujarat), Hathnur Dam (Maharashtra)
