March 2024

Current Affairs

Marginalisation of Rohingyas of Myanmar

Context: Recently, a wooden boat carrying Rohingya refugees in the Indian Ocean capsized off the coast of Indonesian coast, bringing attention to plight of Rohingyas. According to UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) over 4,500 Rohingya refugees set off on dangerous journeys across the Bay of Bengal.

About Rohingyas

Rohingyas are a Muslim minority community with their roots in Rakhine province of Myanmar.
Rakhine State (formerly known as Arakan State) situated on the west coast of Myanmar on the Bay of Bengal and sharing boundaries with Chittagong division of Bangladesh to its north-western side.
They are cultural and ethnically distinct from the majority Buddhist population on Myanmar.
Rohingyas have been living in Myanmar for generations, but governments in Myanmar see them as illegal immigrants and have been denying them citizenship since 1982. This makes them the world's largest stateless population.
In 2017: A large exodus of Rohingyas began following a massive violence in Rakhine province. More than 7.5 lakh Rohingyas went to Bangladesh to seek sanctuary.
UN has described the 2017 violence as 'ethnic cleansing' and that the Myanmar government has 'genocidal' intent against Rohingyas.

Current Status of Rohingyas

Around one million Rohingyas have fled Myanmar while around 6 lakh reside in Myanmar.

Rohingyas residing in Myanmar mostly reside in camps for internally displaced people where their movements and livelihoods are restricted.
Rohingyas residing in Bangladesh: Around 9.6 lakhs Rohingyas reside in refugee camps in Bangladesh. Most Rohingyas live near the Myanmar border in Cox's bazaar, which has grown over the years to house some of the world's largest and most densely populated refugee camps. The condition of Rohingyas in these camps is miserable with poor supply of food, healthcare, no formal education etc. These camps are also marked by gang violence and over 60 Rohingyas have been killed in violence in these camps. (Note: Bhasan Char Island Bangladesh has decided to relocate Rohingya refugees in this island)

Sea Voyages by Rohingyas

Considering the poor living conditions in Rohingya camps in Bangladesh and no option to return to Myanmar. Many Rohingya refugees have been undertaking dangerous journeys across the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to reach Muslim majority countries like Indonesia and Malaysia, in search of a better life.
A network of human traffickers has emerged in the region who charge an exorbitant amounts to transport them on small boats from Bangladesh to Indonesia. These boats are cramped with people with lack of adequate food.
According to UN, one in eight Rohingya who take the sea route die or disappear in the route.

Investment Facilitation for Development (IFD) agreement

Context: The non-adoption of IFD agreement at the 13th Ministerial Conference on account of opposition by countries like India and others has raised doubts regarding the legality and future of IFD agreement.

About Investment Facilitation for Development (IFD) agreement

The negotiations for IFD agreement at WTO was launched in 2017 on a plurilateral basis by a group of developing and least-developed WTO members with a mandate to streamline investment procedures and facilitate cross-border investments. The text of agreement was finalised in 2023.
This Plurilateral agreement was launched by a China led group of around 70 countries. Today, around 120 out of 166 WTO member countries back the agreement.
The agreement aims to create legally binding provisions to facilitate investment flows.
Focuses on aspects such as augmenting regulatory transparency and streamline administrative procedures to boost foreign investment inflows.
Does not contain provisions on market access, investment protection and investor-state dispute settlement.

Issues in the Investment Facilitation for Development (IFD) agreement

The IFD was first mooted in 2017 by China and other countries who depend heavily on Chinese investments, and countries with sovereign wealth funds are party to that pact.
So, it has attracted criticism for potentially favouring countries heavily reliant on Chinese investments and those with sovereign wealth funds. So, even the USA has stayed out of it.
In this regard, India and South Africa played a crucial role in not letting the agreement become part of the WTO rulebook.

Grounds for India's Opposition:

Potentially favouring countries heavily reliant on Chinese investments and those with sovereign wealth funds.
Also, India believes that some of its provisions would put the onus on the government to consult investors on policy matters which could encroach on its policy space.
Investment is not a trade issue and it had been decided in earlier Ministerial conferences that it should be kept out. Because investment could or could not result in cross-border trade. So, WTO being a trade body should not include such negotiations or agreements on investment.
India is opposed to its inclusion in the WTO as an Agreement to Annex 4 (Plurilateral agreement) of the Marrakesh Agreement as the issue does not have a Ministerial mandate which is a fundamental requirement. India cited the WTO' General council decision of 2004 where it was decided to drop talks on relationship between trade and investment from Doha round negotiations (one of the four Singapore issues).

Singapore issues:

The term "Singapore issues" refers to the work of four working groups set up during the World Trade Organization's Ministerial Conference of 1996 in Singapore. These groups are tasked with the following issues:

Some Prelims Pointers regarding WTO:

Annexure 4 of the WTO agreement provides for Plurilateral agreements. The Plurilateral agreements bind only those WTO that accept the agreement and do not impose obligations on remaining members.
Decisions to add an agreement to the existing set of Plurilateral agreements in Annexure 4 can be made exclusively by consensus. But launch of negotiations for a Plurilateral agreement does not require a consensus.
Under the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism, only states can bring legal claims against other states.

Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road in Ladakh

Context: The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) has achieved a major milestone by establishing connectivity on the 298-km Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road in Ladakh.

About Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road

It connected the strategically important all-weather 298-km long road from Manali to Leh through Darcha and Nimmu on the Kargil–Leh Highway.
It connects Nimmu in the Indus Valley to Padum, the capital of Zanskar, to Darcha village in Lahul and Spiti.
This road will become the third axis to the strategically important region, complementing the existing Manali-Leh and Srinagar-Leh routes.
It has strategic importance due to its shorter distance and the crossing of only one pass, Shinkun La.
Once the tunnel is operational, this axis will have all-weather connectivity, significantly boosting defence preparedness along the northern borders with China.
It will not only strengthen defence preparedness but also provide a significant boost to economic development in the Zanskar valley.

Shinkun La

It is a mountain pass in India, on the state boundary between Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh. It connects the Lahaul region of Himachal Pradesh with the Zanskar region of Ladakh.

Important passes of India

Ugadi festival

Context: Pre-Ugadi festivities started with vibrant 'Jatharas' (fairs) at Sri Kanakamma Ammavaru Temple in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.

About Ugadi festival:

Ugadi/Yugadi, also known as Samvatsaradi (beginning of the year), is New Year's Day.
Celebrated in the states of: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Goa in India.
Locally known as Souramana Ugadi or Mesha Sankranti (by followers of Souramana calendar system) in Karnataka.
- Souramana, or the solar year, is a way of measuring time using the movement of the sun.
- Chandramana, or the lunar year, is a way of keeping track of the year with the moon's movement.
It is observed in these regions on the first day of the Hindu lunisolar calendar month of Chaitra (falling in late March or early April as per the Gregorian calendar).
Traditions and rituals:
- Drawing colourful patterns on the floor called Muggulu.
- Mango leaf decorations on doors called Torana.
- Preparing and sharing a special food called Pachadi.
It has been an historic festival of the Hindus, with medieval texts and inscriptions recording major charitable donations to Hindu temples on this day.
Ugadi is one of the five Hindu national public holidays in Mauritius.

Traditional News Year Festivals in India:

S.NO.	Festival	Information
1.	Puthandu	Tamil NaduFirst day of year on the Tamil calendarThe festival date is set with the solar cycle of the solar Hindu calendar. References about the festival: In Netunalvatai, by a Sangam period author, NakkirarSilappadikaram by Illango AdigalManimekalai by Seethalai Satanar
2.	Jude Sheetal/Maithili New Year	Bihar; JharkhandCelebrated by the Maithilis in Bihar, Jharkhand and even Nepal.
3.	Novruz	Novruz is the Iranian New YearIn India, it is celebrated by the Parsi community. In 2009, it was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
4.	Vishu	KeralaFestival starts with Vishu Kani: arranging harvest's fruits, vegetables and seasonal flowers in front of a mirror.Devotees visit Sabarimala Ayyappan Temple and Guruvayur Krishna temple for prayers.
5.	Navreh/Kashmiri New Year	Celebrated by Kashmiri PanditsDedicated to their Goddess Sharika. On the eve of the Navreh, the priest of the family provides a Nechipatra, a collection of the important events and a scroll, Kreel-Pach of the Goddess.
6.	Gudi Padwa/Marathi New Year	Maharashtra and parts of Goa.People hoist Gudi dhwaja (a decorated flag to symbolize victory) outside their homes.Some believe that the festival marks the victory of Shivaji over Mughal dominance in the Maharashtra region.
7.	Shigmo/Shishirotsava	By Konkani speaking communities in Goa and parts of Karnataka.Two variants: Dhakto Shigmo (small Shigmo) and Vhadlo Shigmo (big Shigmo).Dhakto Shigmo: celebrated by the farmers, labor class, and the rural population;VhadloShigmo: celebrated on a major scale and everyone takes part.
8.	Cheti Chand	Celebrated by the Sindhi community.Marks the arrival of spring and harvestIn the Sindhi community, it also marks the birth of Uderolal in 1007. He, as Jhulelal, became the saviour of the Sindhi Hindus.
9.	Losoong	Also known as NamsoongSikkimese New Year, also observed in Darjeeling (West Bengal)Communities: Lepchas and Bhutias.Several religious dances (known as Chaams) are performed mostly in the famous monasteries.
10.	Ashadhi Beej	Celebrated by the Kutchi community in GujaratAssociated with the beginning of rains in the Kutch region.
11.	Sajibu Cheiraoba/Nongma Panba	ManipurCelebrated by Meiteis, an ethnic group who follow Sanamahism (traditional Meitei religion).Observed on first day of Manipuri lunar month Shajibu (month of April every year)
12.	Pana Sankranti/Vishuva Sankranti	Celebrated in OdishaAn earthen pot is filled with a sweet drink which is known as Pana and hung over a Basil (Tulsi) tree.

Also read for information on Harvest festivals: https://compass.rauias.com/gk/harvest-festivals/

World Inequality Report and Inequality in India

Context: The World Inequality Report has highlighted the paradox of India's development journey since independence, especially in the context of the Post-LPG era.

About: World Inequality Report

Launched by the Paris based World Inequality Lab.
Co-authored by economists like Nitin Kumar Bharti, Lucas Chancel, Thomas Piketty, and Anmol Somanchi.
The report in the context of India is titled as, Income and Wealth Inequality in India, 1922-2023: The Rise of the Billionaire Raj.

Findings at the India Level:

Inequality in India was at a lower level at the time of independence, like the top 1% got 11% of national income.
This inequality went through a phase of decline till the 1980s on account of the socialistic policies of the then government, like the share of top 1% declined to 6%.
But the 1980s marked a phase of transition from socialistic towards an open market economy model. This transition was completed with the launch of LPG reforms in 1991, thereby leading to skyrocketing inequality in India. Ex: The share of the top 1% in national income increased to 22%.

Income inequality in India

Wealth Inequality

Other dimensions of inequality in India:

The income and wealth inequality in India also has intersections with other socio-economic markers of deprivation which are imminent in Indian society. For example, Gender, Caste, Tribe, Region etc. For example, Often gender roles prevent women from actively participating in the economy, leading to lower incomes and lower wealth.

Gender: Women in India have remained under-developed in comparison to their male counterparts. Economically, women face hurdles like glass ceiling in jobs and promotions. For ex: According to the Opportunity Index Report, 85% working women in India believe that they have missed out on a raise, promotion or work offer because of their gender. Politically, women account for just around 14% of MPs in India and even when women are elected there are issues like Sarpanch Patis which hampers real women political empowerment of women. Socially, women face several health and educational issues such as eight abortion related deaths/day in India.
Caste: The IHDS findings state that untouchability is still practiced by around 27% of the households surveyed. According to IHDS (2011-12), 51% of Schedule Caste households have adult women with zero years of education and 27% for illiterate male members. For upper caste, it is 24% in case of women and 11% in case of men. Around 20% of upper caste households have access to internet and 10% in case of schedule caste households.
Age, particularly old age: LASI survey has highlighted that 70% of elderly population is below the poverty line and face several forms of daily life activity limitations. This has put them on an unequal footing vis-a-vis their younger counterparts.
Religion: Sachar committee has highlighted the backwardness among the Muslim communities in India in comparison to other religions in India.
Region: Development divide between North-South states in India reflects the regional development deficit in India. For example, during covid pandemic, only 10% of the students in Bihar got access to digital education but in Kerala, this accessibility was around 90%.
Ethnicity: Backwardness among the tribal communities in India vis-a-vis the mainstream population highlights the ethnic divide in development parameters. For ex: the tribals are over-represented in terms of population below poverty line, higher prevalence of malnutrition among them and then higher level of illiteracy too.

Reasons for persistence of inequality in India:

LPG reforms: Capital intensive model of development has led to jobless growth in India, thereby intensifying the divide between the rich and poor. For ex: Before the LPG reforms, only one billionaire in India. But, in the Post-LPG era, there were more than 160 billionaires in India.
Gaps in India’s Taxation: Abolition of Wealth Tax, loopholes in income tax regime etc allow the rich to effectively pay lower taxes than their fair share. This reduces the progressive nature of taxation and wealth distribution.
Lower expenditure on social services: Expenditure on health and education has remained way below the recommended value. For ex: Around 3% of GDP on education as compared to the recommended value of 6%.
Persistence of ascriptive identities: Gender, caste and religious discrimination have led to inequalities like 97% of manual scavengers are Dalits, lower female labor force participation rate and issues of religious communities such as Muslims as highlighted by Sachar committee.
Criminalization of politics: With increasing criminalization of politics (43% of MPs have criminal records), potential of political schemes and decisions for upliftment of downtrodden sections has drastically reduced, thereby reducing the poor and downtrodden sections as a mere vote bank group.

Steps taken by the government.

Housing- PM Awas yojana for housing to all.
Water- Jal Jeevan Mission for clean drinking water facilities for all.
Sanitation- Swachh Bharat Abhiyan to promote sanitation and minimum hygienic level among all.
Electricity- Saubhagya Yojana for access to electricity to all.
Financial- PM Jan Dhan Yojana for financial inclusion, particularly of women through opening zero balance bank acounts.
Educational- KIRAN scheme, CURIE scheme, Eklavya schools, National Educational Policy
Health- PM Matru Vandana Yojana, Janani Suraksha Yojana for better reproductive health of women.
Nari Shakti Vandana Adhiniyam (106th Constitutional Amendment) for increasing the women representation by providing 33% reservation to women in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly.

Way Forward

Restructuring of the tax code to include both income and wealth. Note: wealth tax was abolished in India in 2016.
Increasing public investment in sectors of health, education, and nutrition.
Super tax of 2% on wealthiest 167 families of India which can yield 0.5% of national income of revenue.
Efficient implementation of existing schemes and programs through saturation drives and awareness creation, social audit of schemes, etc.
Decriminalization of Politics to promote participation of common citizens in election process such as contesting elections.
Addressing social disabilities and empowerment of vulnerable communities like tribals, women, old age, dalits by building robust social security framework.

Conclusion

Going Forward, it is important for India to proceed with inclusive development lens so as to achieve SDGs along with the goal of Viksit Bharat Sankalp.

Black Carbon

What Is a Black Carbon?

Black Carbon is produced both naturally and by human activities as a result of the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass.
It is black in colour as its particles strongly absorb sunlight and give soot its black colour.
Primary sources include emissions from diesel engines, cook stoves, wood burning and forest fires.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CARBON DIOXIDE AND BLACK CARBON

Reducing CO2 emissions is essential to avert the worst impacts of future climate change, but CO2 has such a long atmospheric lifetime that it will take several decades for CO2 concentrations to begin to stabilize after emissions reductions begin.
In contrast, BC remains in the atmosphere for only a few weeks, so cutting its emissions would immediately reduce the rate of warming, particularly in those areas which have witnessed fast changes in the level of Black Carbon.

Impact of Black Carbon

Black carbon warms the atmosphere because it is very effective at absorbing light. It exacerbates warming of the air and surfaces in regions where it is concentrated, altering weather patterns and ecosystem cycles.
Black carbon, like all particles in the atmosphere, also affects the reflectivity, stability and duration of clouds and alters precipitation.
Depending on how much soot is in the air and where black carbon sits in the atmosphere, it has different effects.
- If it absorbs heat at the level where clouds are forming, they will evaporate.
- When it lies above lower stratocumulus clouds that block the sun, it stabilizes them and thus has a cooling effect.
- Because black carbon interacts with other components of particulate matter, such as sulfates and nitrates that reflect sunlight and cool the atmosphere, scientists do not know exactly how much black carbon itself directly contributes to global warming.

Black carbon lasts only days to weeks in the atmosphere but has significant direct and indirect impacts on the climate, snow and ice, agriculture, and human health.
Studies have found a direct link between exposure to black carbon and a higher risk of heart disease, birth complications, and premature death.

India and Black Carbon

Sources

According to a 2016 study, Sectors responsible for India’s total black carbon emissions.

The residential sector contributes- 47%.
Industries contribute - 22%.
Diesel vehicles - 17%.
Open burning - 12%,
Other sources - 2%.

Did Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) helped?

Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) would provide free liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) connections to households below the poverty line.
The primary objective was to make clean cooking fuel available to rural and poor households and reduce their dependence on traditional cooking fuels.
The PMUY has established infrastructure to go with LPG connections, including free gas stoves, deposits for LPG cylinders, and a distribution network.
The programme has thus, been able to play a vital role in reducing black carbon emissions, as it offers a cleaner alternative to traditional fuel consumption.
The programme has provided connections to over 10 crore households as of January 2024.

STATUS

In 2022-2023, 25% of all PMUY beneficiaries — 2.69 crore people — availed either zero LPG refill or only one LPG refill, according to RTI data, meaning they still relied entirely on traditional biomass for cooking.
The Hindu found in August 2023 that the average PMUY beneficiary household consumes only 3.5-4 LPG cylinders per year instead of the six or seven a regular non-PMUY household uses.
This means up to half of all the energy needs of a PMUY beneficiary household are still met by traditional fuels, which have high black carbon emissions.
A shortage of LPG and higher usage of traditional fuels also affect women and children disproportionately.
They are more prone to higher levels of indoor air pollution, causing many health issues and leading to premature deaths.

Krishi Integrated Command and Control Centre

Context: To empower the farmers of the country by equipping them with information, services, and facilities using digital technology, the Union minister of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare has inaugurated the Agriculture Integrated Command and Control Center at the Krishi Bhawan in Delhi.

Integrated Command & Control Centre (ICCC)

It is a technological solution having integrated form of various IT applications and platforms under one umbrella platform.
It will be based on the usage of technologies like artificial intelligence, remote sensing, and geographic information systems (GIS) to collect and process large amounts of data such as related to temperature, rainfall, wind speed, crop yields, etc. and then present it in graphical format.
Around eight large LED screens will be installed at ICCC to display information related to crop yields, production, drought situation, cropping patterns, etc.
The platform will also enable farmer beneficiaries to interact directly with the officials or the Minister through video conferencing facilities at the contact Centre and the helpdesk facility.
It is operating under the Ministry of agriculture and farmer's welfare.

Uses of ICCC

Mump Diseases

Context: Mumps cases have been spreading rapidly in Kerala since November 2023, particularly in the districts of Malappuram, Kozhikode, Palakkad, and Thrissur, resulting in major community outbreaks.

About Mumps Disease

It is a viral disease caused by mumps virus, which belongs to the paramyxovirus family.
It is highly contagious and spreads through respiratory droplets or direct contact with an infected person.
The disease is known for causing painful swelling of the salivary glands, particularly the parotid glands located near the ears.
Mumps is a self-limiting, airborne viral disease that primarily affects children and adolescents, causing fever, headache, and painful swelling of the salivary glands.
Complications of mumps include encephalitis, epilepsy, aseptic meningitis, acute pancreatitis, and potential infertility or a drop in sperm count in males.
Creating public awareness about the disease and the importance of isolation is crucial in controlling the transmission of mumps.

Symptoms of mumps include:

Swollen and tender salivary glands
Fever
Headache
Muscle aches
Fatigue
Loss of appetite

Complications of mumps can include inflammation of the orchitis, ovaries (oophoritis), pancreas (pancreatitis), and brain (encephalitis). In rare cases, mumps can lead to hearing loss or sterility.

Status of Mumps Disease in India:

Prevalence: Mumps is still prevalent in India, with occasional outbreaks reported in various parts of the country. However, the incidence has decreased significantly due to the introduction of the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine in the national immunization program.
Vaccination: India introduced the MMR vaccine in its Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) in 2017. The vaccine is administered in two doses, first at 9-12 months of age and the second dose at 16-24 months of age. The coverage of the MMR vaccine has been increasing steadily since its introduction.
- Despite the availability of a vaccine against mumps, it is not part of the government’s universal immunisation programme. However, children can receive the mumps-measles-rubella (MMR) vaccine against all three diseases at private centres.

Mumps vaccine exclusion from India's Universal Immunisation Program:

Mumps vaccine is not part of India's Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) due to the disease's low mortality profile and perceived low public health significance.
Indian Academy of Paediatrics (IAP) advocates for the use of the MMR (Mumps-Measles-Rubella) vaccine in the UIP.
Kerala has written to the Central Government about the mumps resurgence and the need to replace the MR (Measles-Rubella) vaccine in the UIP with the MMR vaccine.
Public health significance: Mumps is often considered a mild, self-limiting disease in children, with a low mortality rate.
While complications can occur, such as orchitis, meningitis, or encephalitis, these are relatively rare compared to the complications associated with other vaccine-preventable diseases like measles or diphtheria.
Resource allocation: Given the limited resources and the need to prioritize, the Indian government has focused the UIP on diseases with higher morbidity and mortality rates, such as tuberculosis, polio, and measles.
Including the mumps vaccine in the UIP would require additional funding and logistics, which may divert resources from other pressing public health issues.

WHO recommendation to integrate mumps control:

Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) vaccine: The WHO recommends using the combined MMR vaccine to control mumps, measles, and rubella simultaneously.
This vaccine is highly effective and has been widely used in many countries' immunization programs.
Efficiency and cost-effectiveness: Integrating mumps control with measles and rubella programs is an efficient and cost-effective approach.
It allows countries to target three diseases with a single vaccine, reducing the number of injections and simplifying the immunization schedule.
Global goals: The WHO has set global goals for measles elimination and rubella control. By integrating mumps control with these programs, countries can work towards achieving these goals while also addressing mumps incidence.

Chinese infrastructure creation along border

Context: Chinese nationals have started occupying several of their model “Xiaokang” border defence villages across India’s north-eastern borders

China has been constructing 628 such “well-off villages” along India’s borders with the Tibet Autonomous Region, including Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh for over five years now.
This infrastructural drive raises concern in India as the dwellings are understood to be “dual-use infrastructure” i.e. it can be used for both civil and military purposes and seen as a Chinese assertion of its territorial claims along the LAC which remains disputed between the neighbouring countries.
China has also been constructing infrastructure, including border villages, in Bhutanese territory.

Indian Response to border construction

Indian government has launched Vibrant Village Programme with a three-fold objective that it aims to deliver

First, Improve connectivity and basic amenities in border villages to curb migration from these areas. Lack of roads, healthcare, education and economic opportunities have led to migration of youth from border villages in search of jobs. This poses challenges for border security as it reduces the population providing intelligence inputs.
Second, Boost the local economy in border villages through promotion of tourism, trade and handicrafts. This will provide livelihood support to communities living in harsh border conditions.
Third, Strengthen security in border areas by enabling access for defence forces and boosting the morale of local communities. Lack of infrastructure has hampered patrolling in some border areas. Locals acting as ‘eyes and ears’ also need to feel connected to the mainstream.
- The Government of India has identified villages in the eastern part of Arunachal Pradesh, and in the Tawang region such as Zemithang, Taksing, Chayang Tajo, Tuting and Kibithu.
- Further, three major highways are at different stages of construction in Arunachal Pradesh: the Trans-Arunachal Highway; the Frontier Highway; and the East-West Industrial Corridor Highway.
- There are plans to improve connectivity to Tawang with the construction of at least two alternate axes —in addition to the existing one connecting Guwahati and Tawang.

About LAC (Line of Actual Control)

The LAC is the demarcation that separates Indian-controlled territory from Chinese-controlled territory. India considers the LAC to be 3,488 km long, while the Chinese consider it to be only around 2,000 km. The line is divided between the Eastern, Middle and the Western Sector.
Initially, India rejected the concept of LAC in both 1959 and 1962. However the LAC was discussed during Chinese Premier Li Peng’s 1991 visit to India, where PM P V Narasimha Rao and Li reached an understanding to maintain peace and tranquillity at the LAC.
India formally accepted the concept of the LAC when PV Narasimha Rao paid a return visit to Beijing in 1993 and the two sides signed the Agreement to Maintain Peace and Tranquillity at the LAC

Why did India accept LAC?

The Indian and Chinese patrols were coming in more frequent contact during the mid-1980s, after the government formed a China Study Group in 1976 which revised the patrolling limits, rules of engagement and pattern of Indian presence along the border.
Finally due to the Sumdorongchu standoff, when PM Rajiv Gandhi visited Beijing in 1988, the two sides agreed to negotiate a border settlement, and pending that, they would maintain peace and tranquillity along the border.

Difference between LOC and LAC?

The Line Of Control (LoC) emerged from the 1948 ceasefire line negotiated by the UN after the Kashmir War. It was designated as the LoC in 1972, following the Shimla Agreement between the two countries.
It is delineated on a map signed by DGMOs of both armies and has the international sanctity of a legal agreement.
The LAC, in contrast, is only a concept – it is not agreed upon by the two countries, neither delineated on a map or demarcated on the ground.

To Read more about India-China border dispute visit:

Recognition of McMahon Line by the US to mark boundary between India & China

Qutb Shahi Monuments of Hyderabad

Context: Hexagon (a digital solutions company) has created a digital twin of the Qutb Shahi Tomb complex using drone scanners. A digital twin is a digital model of an object, system or a process that acts the same as its real-world counterpart.

Qutb Shahi Tombs

Qutb Shahi tomb complex form a mausoleum complex which forms a royal necropolis which comprises a tomb of Royal family and officials who faithfully served them and mortuary bath and mosques.
This complex consists of 30 tombs, mosques, and a mortuary bath.
Qutb Shahi tombs are in Ibrahim Bagh, close to the famous Golconda Fort in Hyderabad, India.
They contain tombs and mosques built by various kings of Qutb Shahi dynasty.
These tombs are present in a large group on a raised platform.
Architectural styles: They have an amalgamation of Persian, Muslim, and Hindu architectural styles.
They are made using grey granite with stucco ornamentation.
Each tomb is of quadrangular shape and rises around 9-15 meters above the terrace. Smaller tombs constitute single stories while larger tombs are two storied.
Each tomb is covered by beautiful minarets.
The most impressive tomb among the group is of Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah which rises to a height of 42 meters and is protected by a large dome.
The site has a series of stepwells and aqueducts which have been recently restored.

Qutb Shahi Dynasty (1518-1687 AD)

Qutb Shahi dynasty is a Persianate Shia Islamic dynasty ruling over the Golconda region in modern Telangana.
It was founded after the collapse of Bahmani kingdom by Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk Shahi.
This dynasty came to an end in 1687 during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and annexing Golconda into the Mughal empire.
Qutb Shahis was patrons Persianate Shia culture, Persian language. However, Telugu was also given an important place in the kingdom.
Economy of Qutb Shahi Dynasty:
- They had control over the rich fertile deltas of Krishna and Godavari from where land revenue was collected.
- Handicrafts and textiles such as calico cloth, cotton weaving etc.
- The region was famous for its diamonds especially those produced at Kollur mine in Guntur district.

India – France: Strategic partners

Context: French President Emmanuel Macron graced India's Republic Day as the chief guest, marking his third visit to India since 2018.

India – France Bilateral Relations:

India and France share a longstanding and amicable relationship, marked by a Strategic Partnership established in 1998. This partnership signifies their alignment on various global issues, in addition to fostering a robust bilateral connection. The primary pillars of this Strategic Partnership include cooperation in Defence & Security, Space, and Civil nuclear domains. Beyond these, both nations have expanded their collaboration to encompass new frontiers such as security in the Indian Ocean region, joint efforts in addressing climate change and mutual focus on sustainable growth and development. India and France exhibit a high degree of alignment on regional and global matters.

Areas of cooperation
Economic	India and France have important bilateral investments and commercial cooperation, particularly in sectors involving IT corridors, smart-cities, railways, capital and trade exchanges, skill development etc. France has emerged as a major source of FDI for India with more than 1,000 French establishments already present in India. France is the 11th largest foreign investor in India which accounts for 1.68% of the total FDI inflows into India. A Joint Economic Committee which exists at the Ministerial level has setup FAST-TRACK system for French companies in India and Indian companies in France.
Defence & Security	India signed an Inter-governmental agreement to purchase 36 Rafale fighter aircraft, with formal induction held in 2020. The P-75 Scorpene Project, involving the construction of six submarines under technology transfer from DCNS (Naval group). Further, both countries hold regular defence exercises; viz. Exercise Shakti (Army), Exercise Varuna (Navy), Exercise Garuda (Air Force). (#PrelimsFact)
Diplomatic collaboration	Both nations have extended their collaborative efforts beyond the original pillars of nuclear, space, and defense. The agenda now includes vital aspects such as counterterrorism, intelligence sharing, and cybersecurity. The joint statement issued by them reinforces shared perspectives on ongoing conflicts in Ukraine and Gaza, showcasing an enhanced and diversified collaboration that surpasses the initial focus areas. Notably, France holds the distinction of being the first P-5 country to endorse India's pursuit of a permanent seat in the UN Security Council (UNSC). During the visit of PM Modi to France in 2023, both countries shared a document, “Horizon 2047” a strategic road map for the next 25 years, which includes cooperation in defence, space, nuclear energy, climate change and green transitions as well as education and people-to-people ties.
Cultural collaboration	Indian culture holds a significant presence in France, evident with the upcoming Vivekananda Cultural Centre in Paris. The ‘Namaste France’ cultural festival, initiated after President Hollande's 2016 visit, showcased diverse aspects of Indian culture across 40 French cities. In reciprocation, ‘Bonjour India’ was organized in India by French communities from November 2017 to February 2018. Moreover, every year at the famous Cannes Film Festival, an Indian delegation participates through an India pavilion to promote Indian films at the international stage.
Space & Technology	India and France have a rich history of cooperation in the field of space for over fifty years with ISRO and the French Space Agency, CNES carrying on various joint research programmes and launch of satellites. India and France issued a “Joint Vision for Space Cooperation” in 2018 and exchanged cooperative proposals addressing Earth observation, Maritime domain awareness, Global navigation satellite system, exploration of solar system, space transportation system and human spaceflight. CNES is supporting Indian human space flight programme – Gaganyaan, in the field of space medicine and supply of crew support elements.
Civil Nuclear Cooperation	An agreement on civil nuclear cooperation was signed between India and France in 2008. Subsequently, in 2010, the General Framework Agreement and the Early Works Agreement for the Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project (JNPP) were signed. (#PrelimsFact). Further, India is a member of International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), a multi-national consortium formed to construct an experimental fusion reactor, located in Cadarache, France. (#PrelimsFact)
Environment	Both India & France laid the foundation of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) at COP 15 Paris Summit to develop and deploy cost-effective and transformational energy solutions powered by the sun to help member countries develop low-carbon growth trajectories. A memorandum of understanding (MoU) on renewable energy was also signed which aims to enhance bilateral cooperation in solar, wind, hydrogen, and biomass energy. Notably, India joined the French-led High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People, aiming to safeguard 30% of global lands and oceans by 2030.
Diaspora / Community	The estimated Indian community in mainland France, including NRIs, is approximately 1,00,000, primarily originating from French enclaves like Puducherry, Karaikal, Yanam, Mahe, and Chandernagore. France hosts over 50 active Indian community organizations, with major communities hailing from Puducherry, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Punjab. During President Macron's visit to India in March 2018, a Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement was signed, facilitating temporary circular migration. (#PrelimsFact)
Maritime sector	Both nations hold significant influence in Indian ocean and Indo – Pacific region. Emphasizing the critical importance of the Indian Ocean Region, the "Joint Strategic Vision of India-France Cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region" was welcomed by leadership from both countries, outlining a strategic framework for enhancing their ties. In 2022, they jointly established the Indo-Pacific Trilateral Development Cooperation Fund, aiming to support innovative and sustainable solutions for regional countries. Additionally, a reciprocal logistic agreement has been concluded, enabling India to leverage French facilities in Djibouti, Abu Dhabi, and Reunion Island, enhancing its strategic capabilities in the region.
Educational collaboration	In the field of S&T, the Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advance Research (CEFIPRA) based in New Delhi, established in 1987, plays a major role by identifying and funding joint proposals for research projects. Both countries have signed an Administrative Arrangement for Cooperation in Skill Development and Vocational Training under Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement. Further, Knowledge Summit is being organized which is a bilateral forum dedicated to scientific and academic cooperation between France and India.

As the enduring and trusted partnership between India and France continues to evolve, the deepening geopolitical dynamics in the Indo-Pacific region offer a compelling opportunity for an even closer collaboration, particularly in bolstering India's military capabilities.

Mass kidnappings in Nigeria

Context: In the midst of Nigeria's most severe economic downturn in recent memory, the nation grapples with significant security concerns exacerbated by a surge in kidnappings across its troubled northern territories by Boko Haram militants.

Why are kidnappings happening in Nigeria?

Economic challenges such as a struggling economy, high unemployment rates, and inflation, coupled with political instability in the Niger Delta, have created fertile ground for the growth of this illicit industry.
Ransom payments have become the primary incentive for kidnappings, as successive governments have struggled to address these multifaceted security issues.

About Nigeria:

It is a country in West Africa, which is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea to the south in the Atlantic Ocean.
It is the most populous country in Africa.
Capital City: Abuja
The largest city in Nigeria is Lagos, one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world and the largest in Africa.
It is a multinational state inhabited by more than 250 ethnic groups speaking 500 distinct languages. The three largest ethnic groups are the Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo together constituting over 60% of the total population.
Active militant groups: Boko Haram
Nigeria is a member: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), African Union (AU), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).
Important geographical regions of Nigeria: Jos plateau, Shebshi mountains range, Sokoto and Borno plains.