March 2024

Current Affairs

Mushk Budiji - Aromatic rice

Context: Recently, scientists at the Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST), Srinagar, reported that altitude and temperature play an important role in the development of the aroma in Mushk Budiji rice.

Mushk Budiji

The Kashmir Himalayas are known for the cultivation of mushk budiji, an indigenous rice variety distinguished by its rich aroma and unique taste.
Mushk Budiji Rice of Anantnag district received a Geographical Indication (GI) Tag in 2023.
It is grown in higher reaches of the Kashmir valley especially in the Anantnag district.
Aromatic rice has considerable value worldwide for its distinct flavour, fragrance, and quality, its potential to enhance dining experiences, and its appeal to health-conscious consumers.

Challenges

Mushk budiji was on the verge of extinction for some time due to various factors.
- Chief among them was the prevalence of rice blast disease, its low yield, and lack of profitability. But a revival programme was launched in 2007 saw the crop make a slow comeback.
- Another challenge was the availability of counterfeit varieties in the market.

About the study

AIM – To maximise the export potential by cultivating it in places where the environmental conditions are most suitable to bring out its maximum flavour.

Technology Used

Gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) - GC-MS is an analytical method used to reveal the presence of volatile compounds present in organic mixtures extracted from geological, environmental, and biological samples.
Electronic nose - The e-nose is a tool fit with various sensors as well as an artificial intelligence (AI) component; it assessed the flavour attributes of rice samples.
Gene Expression Analysis - It involves studying which genes are active and producing proteins in a given cell or tissue at a specific time.

Findings

Altitude and temperature play an important role in the development of this aroma.
Environment guides mushk budiji’ s flavour profile through its genes.

Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

Context: Recently, Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) has introduced changes to Flight Duty Time Limitations (FDTL) to reduce pilot fatigue in a professional and scientific manner. This is in pursuance with the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established guidelines in the 1950s to limit flight and duty hours for safety which is evolving to include Fatigue Risk Management Systems.

Need for Changes:

The changes are intended to provide more rest time for pilots, redefine night duty, and require airlines to file regular fatigue reports, with implementation scheduled by June 1.
The Indian aviation market is experiencing high growth, leading to increased flying and stress on flight crews, especially with the rise of ultra-long-haul flights and widebody aircraft induction.
Flight crew fatigue is a significant factor contributing to human errors in aircraft operations and can lead to catastrophic accidents, as well as being dangerous for crew health.
The DGCA cited incidents of pilot deaths allegedly due to exhaustion while urging airlines to adhere to the new regulations starting from June 1.
The new rules include extending the mandatory weekly rest period for pilots to 48 hours from the current 36 and reducing night flying by extending the definition of 'night' by an hour and limiting the number of authorized night landings.
Over time, prioritizing airline economics over safety has led to the lowering of safety standards, allowing pilots to continue facing fatigue-related issues.

Argument of the airlines:

Airlines expressed concerns that implementing new rules aimed at better fatigue management would require around 25% more pilots, which they wouldn't be able to hire and train in a short period.

Taking airline management concerns into account, the DGCA recently allowed airlines to continue operating under previous regulations until their new schemes are approved.

About Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

The Directorate General of Civil Aviation is the regulatory body in the field of Civil Aviation which primarily deals with safety issues.
DGCA is headed by the Director General of Civil Aviation.
DGCA has been accorded with statutory status by Aircraft Amendment Act, 2020.
Directorate General of Civil Aviation is an attached office of the Ministry of Civil Aviation.
It is responsible for regulation of air transport services to/from/within India and for enforcement of civil air regulations, air safety and airworthiness standards. It also co-ordinates all regulatory functions with the International Civil Aviation Organisation.
The headquarters are in New Delhi with regional offices in various parts of India.

Functions carried out by the Directorate General of Civil Aviation:

Registration of civil aircraft
Formulation of standards of airworthiness for civil aircraft registered in India and grant of certificates of airworthiness to such aircraft.
Licensing of pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers, air traffic controllers and flight engineers, and conducting examinations and checks for that purpose.
Certification of aerodromes.
Maintaining a check on the proficiency of flight crew, and of other operational personnel such as flight dispatchers and cabin crew.
Granting of Air Operator’s Certificates to Indian carriers and regulation of air transport services operating to/from/within/over India by Indian and foreign operators, including clearance of scheduled and non-scheduled flights of such operators.
Conducting investigation into incidents and serious incidents involving aircraft up to 2250 kg AUW and taking accident prevention measures including formulation of implementation of Safety Aviation Management Programmes.
Carrying out amendments to the Aircraft Act, the Aircraft Rules, and the Civil Aviation Requirements for complying with the amendments to ICAO Annexes and initiating proposals for amendment to any other Act or for passing a new Act in order to give effect to an international Convention or amendment to an existing Convention.
Coordination of ICAO matters with all agencies and sending replies to State Letters and taking all necessary action arising out of the Universal Safety Oversight Audit Programme (USOAP) of ICAO.
Approval of institutes engaged in flying training including simulator training, AME training, air traffic services training or any other training related with aviation, with a view to ensuring a high quality of training.
Granting approval to aircraft maintenance, repair, design and manufacturing organizations and their continued oversight.
To act as a nodal agency for implementing Annex 9 provisions in India and for coordinating matters relating to facilitation at Indian airports including holding meetings of the National Facilitation Committee.
Rendering advice to the Government on matters relating to air transport including bilateral air services agreements, on ICAO matters and generally on all technical matters relating to civil aviation, and to act as an overall regulatory and developmental body for civil aviation in the country.
Regulation and oversight of matters related to Air Navigation Services. Coordination at national level for flexi-use of air space by civil and military air traffic agencies and interaction with ICAO for provision of more air routes for civil use through Indian air space.
Keeping a check on aircraft noise and engine emissions in accordance with ICAO Annex 16 and collaborating with the environmental authorities in this matter, if required.
Promoting indigenous design and manufacture of aircraft and aircraft components by acting as a catalytic agent.
Approving training programmes of operators for carriage of dangerous goods, issuing authorizations for carriage of dangerous goods, etc.
Safety Oversight of all entities approved/ certified/ licensed under the Aircraft Rules 1937.

Government e Marketplace - GeM Portal

Context: The Government e- Marketplace (GeM) plans to seek the Centre’s approval to enable work contracts for construction and building projects to also be bid out through the platform.

What is Government e-Marketplace (GeM)?

It is the Public Procurement Portal for procurement of goods and services for all Central Government and State Government Ministries, Departments, Public Sector Units (PSUs) and affiliated organisations.
It acts as a centralised and unified public procurement platform for government buyer organisations and suppliers of goods and services.
GeM endeavours to make the public procurement process transparent, efficient and inclusive.

Benefits for Buyers

Provide transparency and ease of buying
Offers rich listing of products for individual category of goods/services
Direct purchase for amounts up to INR 25000
Price Trends and Price Comparison From Multiple Suppliers
Direct notifications to sellers
Integrated Payment System
Easy to comprehend interface to search, compare, select and buy
User friendly dashboard for monitoring supplies and payments
Online grievance redressal mechanism for quick resolution

Benefits for Sellers

Access to National Public Procurement market
No charges or fee for getting registered
Special provisions and sections for startups, MSMEs and Emporium products
Fully online, paperless and contactless platform
Easy access to participate in bids/reverse auction
Online grievance redressal mechanism for quick resolution
Seller friendly dashboard for monitoring supplies & payments
Dynamic Pricing- Price can be changed based on market conditions
Direct access to Government departments and their organisations.

Cooperatives - Explained

Context: The existing challenges in the agriculture sector and the resultant farmer protests have given calls for promoting cooperatives in agriculture sector to rejuvenate agriculture as a sustainable economic model.

Cooperatives:

Constitutional Provisions for Cooperatives

The Constitution (97th Amendment) Act of 2011 created a new Part IXB (Cooperatives) following Part IXA (Municipalities) regarding cooperatives in India.
In Part III of the Constitution, Article 19(1)(c), the word “cooperatives” was added after “unions and associations” which enabled citizens the right to form cooperative societies as their Fundamental Right.
The Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV) now include a new Article 43B on the “development of cooperative societies.”
Article 243ZH to 243ZT in part IXB deals with cooperatives.
Supreme Court in Rajendra N Shah case pronounced that only the new Part IXB dealing with cooperatives sector only applies to multi state cooperative societies. The Part IXB of the Constitution does not apply to Cooperatives registered with States.

Benefits of Cooperative society:

Challenges of Cooperative Society: (Shivaji Rao Patil Committee)

Lack of Participatory character
- free rider problem as few members join only to get benefits.
- Legal loophole which enables even non-active members to vote and get elected.
- Dominated by few rich members and politicians.
Restricted coverage and role
- Cooperatives are successful in only few states.
Most of the PACS are single purpose societies leading to poor viability.
Equity infusion by the government enables the government to appoint Board of Directors leading to poor autonomy.
Restrictive State Cooperatives Act
- Government can issue directions.
- Government can postpone elections.
- Government can supersede Board of Directors.
Governance related issues
- Poor regulation by Registrar of Cooperatives.
- Financial fraud, corruption, etc.
Lack of adequate capital as cooperatives cannot raise money from the capital market.
Lack of dedicated cadre of government officials for management of cooperatives.

Steps Taken

Enactment of Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002 and its amendment in 2023 to ensure autonomy.
Creation of the Ministry of Cooperation.
Model bye-laws to enable PACS to undertake more than 25 business activities.
National Cooperative database.
Banking regulation Amendment act to strengthen regulation of urban cooperative banks.
Cooperatives as buyers on GeM portal.

Way Forward

Encourage States to adopt model cooperatives act proposed by Choudhary Brahm Perkash committee, which had provisions like- i) prohibiting cooperatives to accept funds in the form of equity from government; ii) prohibiting government officers from working in cooperatives; iii) limiting the role of government in issuing directions; iv) clear roles and responsibilities for Registrar of Cooperative societies, etc.
Enhance participatory character of cooperatives by inserting provisions related to active members in the state cooperative societies act.
Promote higher economies of scale through- i) doing away with restrictions on area of operations; ii) merger of cooperatives; iii) Encourage cooperatives to diversify their business.
Strengthen access to the capital market by setting up an umbrella organization for cooperatives.
Set up a dedicated fund for revival of sick cooperatives.
Ministry of Cooperation to announce a “policy of assured procurement” at MSP of, say, 10 crops including pulses, oilseeds and TOP through Nafed/NCCF. Make this “assured procurement” applicable for all farmers who register on a procurement portal at the time of sowing itself along with land details. (Verification through digitised land records can be used to eliminate aggregators/traders from this process)
Nafed/NCCF to plan and “capture” the entire value chain of the commodities under the guaranteed MSP items from procurement to primary processing to packaging to retail sales.
Nafed/NCCF to set up retail outlets all over the country for “Bharat” brand agri commodities. These outlets will be a conduit for regular supply to consumers. Franchisee models can be worked out and bank funding may be available to entrepreneurs for setting up “Bharat” brand outlets.
Plan, procure and hold appropriate buffer stocks of pulses, oilseeds and TOP utilising shared and decentralised infrastructure which can be built by member cooperatives of Nafed/NCCF
Agriculture, which is a state subject, to be moved to the Concurrent List so that Central Government initiatives through Nafed/NCCF do not run into legal hurdles.

H5N1 Virus: Bird flu

Context: United States has confirmed the presence of avian influenza strain H5N1 in dairy cattle for the first time. The same strain has also killed thousands of seals and sea lions in coastal stretches from the USA to Chile.

Influenza Virus:

There are four species of Influenza Virus viz. Influenza-A, Influenza-B, Influenza-C and Influenza-D.
Influenza A infects birds and mammals. Influenza A and B viruses cause seasonal epidemics of disease in people (known as flu season) almost every winter in the United States. Influenza A viruses are the only influenza viruses known to cause flu pandemics (i.e., global epidemics of flu disease).
Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). There are 18 different hemagglutinin subtypes and 11 different neuraminidase subtypes (H1 through H18 and N1 through N11, respectively).
Influenza C Virus: Detected less frequently and usually causes mild infections, thus does not present public health importance.
Influenza D virus: primarily affects cattle and are not known to infect or cause illness in people.
It has a very high rate of mutation, and this is the reason that so many different strains of influenza virus are found.
Various strains of Virus differ in certain proteins on the virus surface — hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins. This is the basis of naming viruses.
The common Influenza outbreaks caused by Influenza-A strains include H1N1 (swine flu); H5N1, H5N8, H2N9 (Bird Flu).

About Avian Flu:

Avian influenza refers to the disease caused by infection with avian (bird) influenza (flu) Type A viruses.
These viruses occur naturally among wild aquatic birds worldwide and can infect domestic poultry and other bird and animal species. Avian flu viruses do not normally infect humans.
However, sporadic human infections with avian flu viruses have occurred.
Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA).
There are 18 known HA subtypes and 11 known NA subtypes. Many different combinations of HA and NA proteins are possible.
For example, an “H7N2 virus” designates an influenza A virus subtype that has an HA 7 protein and an NA 2 protein. Similarly, an “H5N1” virus has an HA 5 protein and an NA 1 protein.

DOES IT SPREAD EASILY TO HUMANS?

No, it does not. Generally, people coming in close contact with infected alive or dead birds have contracted the H5N1 bird flu, and it does not usually spread from person to person, as per the WHO.
There is also no evidence, the WHO says, that the disease can be spread to people through properly prepared and cooked poultry food. The virus is sensitive to heat and dies in cooking temperatures.

THEN WHY THE SCARE?

H5N1 is severe and deadly – around 6 out of 10 confirmed cases in humans have led to deaths (though the actual mortality rate may be lower due to under-reporting of asymptomatic cases).
If the virus mutates and becomes easily transmissible from person to person, say by altering its shape to grab human cells much more effectively, it can potentially cause a pandemic.
Also, flu viruses are more prone to mutation because they have a segmented genome. All known strains of flu – including the seasonal flu and the pandemic flu – have jumped from birds to humans in this way.

Lalit Kala Akademi

Context: The Ministry of Culture has curtailed the powers of Lalit Kala Akademi (LKA) Chairman, V Nagdas. The Chairman is now barred from taking any administrative actions which also includes matters of appointment, recruitment, transfer, disciplinary action and financial decisions without consulting the Ministry.

About Lalit Kala Akademi (Academy)/National Academy of Art

It was inaugurated in New Delhi on 5th August 1954 by the then Minister for Education, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
The objective was to promote fine arts/visual arts in India.
The Akademi also deals with the international arts.
It was registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860, in 1957.
It is an autonomous body and is funded by the Union Ministry of Culture.
Functions through General Council, Executive Board, and other Committees, as given in the Akademi’s Constitution.
The Chairman of the Akademi is appointed by the President of India. The term of office for the Chairman is three years, which can be extended.
Main Centre: New Delhi
Regional Centres: Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Shimla, Shillong and Bhubaneswar.
The National Art Award: One of the awards and honours in India and Asia, awarded by Lalit Kala Akademi.

Definition of Visual art

One of the constitutional objectives of the LKA in 1954 was to preserve and protect art forms of surviving indigenous and traditional craftsmen, painters, and sculptors.
However, the ‘Creative Arts’ as defined in the 1954 constitution are only paintings, sculpture, and graphics.
In 1978, the rules of participation of the Triennial stated that the art forms constantly referred to as ‘folk’, ‘tribal’, and ‘tradition’ would not be allowed as they are not in the ambit of the ‘contemporary’.
National Exhibition of Art (NEA):
- Most prestigious annual event organised by the LKA. During this event, the artists are awarded.

Triennale-India exhibitions

In 1968, the LKA started its programme aiming to enter the international art circuit with the Triennale-India exhibitions.
In these exhibitions, a host of countries were invited to participate in New Delhi at regular intervals of 3–4 years.
Triennale aimed not only at creating a meeting ground for artists from the global south but also for those of the industrially developed countries.

What is T+0 Settlement?

Context: In line with the directions by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), stock exchanges will introduce the same-day or T+0 trade settlement for a limited set of securities.

What is Trade Settlement?

Trade settlement is the process of transferring securities and funds between buyers and sellers after a trade is executed.
The shorter the settlement cycle, the faster investors can access the securities and funds.

How are Trades Currently Being Settled?

Currently, the Indian stock market operates on a T+1 settlement cycle for all scrips.
For example, if an investor buys shares on Monday, he/she will receive them in their demat accounts on Tuesday. Similarly, if the shares are sold on Monday, they will receive the money in their bank accounts on Tuesday.
Under T+0, trades will be settled on the same day.

Benefits of Shorter Settlement Period

Increased Trading Opportunities: T+0 settlement provides investors with improved flexibility to capitalise on short-term trading opportunities and market fluctuations. Investors can react quickly to market developments, execute trades promptly, and optimise their investment strategies in real-time.
Reduced Settlement Risk: T+0 settlement eliminates the need to wait for an additional day for trading confirmation and settlement. Thus, reducing settlement risk and enhancing investor confidence for smoother trading experiences.
Enhanced Liquidity Management: T+0 settlement facilitates efficient liquidity management by enabling investors to access funds and securities immediately after trade execution. This allows them to reinvest proceeds or deploy capital into new opportunities without waiting for settlement cycles, maximising portfolio liquidity and agility.
Adaptation of Trading Strategies: T+0 settlement may prompt investors to employ more active trading strategies like day trading or scalping to exploit short-term price movements and generate quick profits. Algorithmic and high-frequency trading strategies may also become more prevalent, leveraging real-time settlement capabilities for rapid trade execution.

Bioplastics and Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2024

Context: Plastic is the third most commonly used petroleum derivative in the world; each year 200 million tons of plastic are consumed on the planet. It comes from a non-renewable source (petroleum), it is contaminating and non-biodegradable (it can take more than 1000 years to decompose). In this context India has come out with rules to regulate the Plastic Waste Management rules, with its latest version in 2024, seeking to incentivize bioplastics.

Issues highlighted in the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2024:

Biodegradable Plastics are those plastics which do not leave any micro plastics on degradation.
But the rules don't specify any chemical tests to test the absence of microplastics. This makes it harder for makers of disposable plastic ware to label such products as biodegradable.

About: Bioplastics

Biodegradable material that come from renewable sources.
These are 100% degradable, equally resistant, and versatile, already used in agriculture, textile industry, medicine and, overall, in the container and packaging market
PHA as bioplastic- These are polyesters produced by fermenting raw vegetable materials with a series of bacterial strains. For example, PHAs can be used for injection moulding to build automobile parts and for many other uses. Specifically, PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoate) is extracted from bacteria such as pseudomonas. In its natural form, it is similar to transparent kitchen film, with the difference that it is an authentic bioplastic.

Advantages of bioplastics

They reduce carbon footprint
They are providing energy savings in production.
They do not involve the consumption of non-renewable raw materials
Their production reduces non-biodegradable waste that contaminates the environment
They do not contain additives that are harmful to health, such as phthalates or bisphenol A
They do not change the flavour or scent of the food contained.

Uses of Bioplastics

It is expanding its use in various sectors:

medical (prostheses)
in food (catering products, disposable containers ...),
toys, and even in the
world of fashion (Versace has a clothing line Ingeo, made from corn) and, of course, biodegradable bags.

Salient Features of Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2024

Biodegradable plastics have been defined as any plastics, other than compostable plastics, which undergoes degradation by biological processes in specific environment such as soil, landfill, sewage sludge, fresh water, marine, without leaving any micro plastics or visible or distinguishable or toxic residue, which has adverse environment impact.
The definition of “importer” has been made specific and now includes the imports of any plastic packaging/ commodity with plastic packaging/ carry bags/ plastic sheets/ plastic raw material, including in the form of resin/ pellets/ intermediate material used for manufacturing plastic packaging/ films/ preforms, for commercial use.

Note: Earlier, “importer” meant a person who imports plastic packaging or products with plastic packaging or carry bags or multi-layered packaging or plastic sheets or like.

Earlier, “Manufacturer” meant and included a person/ unit/ agency engaged in production of plastic raw material to be used as raw material by the producer.

Now, it includes a person engaged in production of plastic raw material/ compostable plastics/ biodegradable plastics.

Earlier, the ambit of the definition of “Producer” was limited to people engaged in manufacturing of plastic packaging. Now, it also includes persons engaged in: Manufacturing of intermediate material that is used for manufacturing plastic packaging; Contract manufacturing of products using plastic packaging or through other similar arrangements for a brand owner.
Definition of “seller” has been inserted which means any person who sells plastic raw material for producing plastic packaging is a seller.
Only the producers registered under these rules can get raw materials from the manufacturer.
The manufacturers of compostable plastic/ biodegradable plastic carry bags or commodities permitted under the rules, will have to obtain a certificate from the Central Pollution Control Board (‘CPCB’) before marketing or selling. The manufacturer of compostable plastic/ biodegradable plastic will have to inform the CPCB, the quantity of such commodities introduced in the market and the pre-consumer waste generated by it.
Enables the local body to assess: The plastic waste generated; Plastic waste management infrastructure available for collection/ segregation/ processing and send a report to the State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee by 30th June of each year; measures to prevent stocking, distribution, sale, and usage of prohibited single use plastic items in their jurisdiction.
The Annual report will include plastic waste management infrastructure available for collection, segregation, processing; projection of plastic waste to be generated; status on framing and implementation on byelaws; Action taken to prevent stocking, distribution, sale, and usage of prohibited Single Use Plastic items.
“Responsibility of Panchayat at District level” has been inserted which lays down similar responsibilities the local body has to assess.
Another provision in the Protocols for compostable and biodegradable plastic materials has been inserted which says that the BIS should specify separate colour/ marking for plastic packaging and commodities made from compostable plastics/ biodegradable plastics.
New provisions relating to “Marking or labelling”: The commodity made from compostable plastic will have to bear a label “compostable only under industrial composting” and shall conform to the Indian Standard. The commodity made from biodegradable plastic will have to bear the label —Biodegradable

Understanding India’s Coal Imports

Context: In recent years, increasingly unpredictable weather patterns and a fast-growing economy have led to big increases in electricity demand, the meeting of which in a reliable way becomes a challenge.

Summary

India faces rising electricity shortages as hot weather exacerbates demand. While blamed on a lack of domestic thermal coal, analysis reveals logistical challenges as the primary issue.

Logistics Challenges: Shortages are not due to coal availability but logistical inefficiencies. Ministry of Power acknowledges these issues, emphasizing the need for better transportation networks.

Short-Term Solutions: While addressing logistics takes time, immediate actions are necessary. Alternative coal sources, including domestic auctions, are viable options.

Import Misconceptions

The Ministry of Power issued an advisory urging power generators to monitor coal stocks until June 2024 and import coal if needed, up to 6% by weight.

However, this advisory shouldn't be misconstrued as a mandate.
It explicitly uses the term "Advisory" and states to "opt for blending as per the requirements."
Analysis suggests that a mere 0.3% additional blending could have mitigated previous shortages, indicating that 6% imports aren't necessarily essential.
Misinterpreting the advisory as a mandate could lead to significant cost impacts, given that coal still powers over 70% of India's electricity.
Mandating 6% imported coal blending for all coal-based generation could raise variable costs by 4.5%-7.5%.
This could exacerbate the 15% increase in power purchase costs observed in FY23, attributed to rising demand, coal imports, and imported coal prices.
It's imperative for electricity regulators to discern advisories from mandates to uphold the prudence of electricity costs and ensure responsible decision-making in the energy sector.

Cost Implications: Mandating imports could significantly raise electricity costs, impacting consumers. Regulatory oversight is crucial to prevent unjustified cost hikes.

Plant Disparities: Coal shortages primarily affect distant plants, not those near mines. Blanket import mandates are unjustified given these differences.

Correcting misconceptions is vital. Addressing logistical challenges and considering cost-effective alternatives are key to mitigating coal shortages without burdening consumers.

Successful test firing of Stage-2 of Vikram 1 space launch vehicle by Skyroot Aerospace

Context: Skyroot Aerospace has successfully test fired the Stage-2 of Vikram Space launch vehicle, called Kalam-2 at the propulsion testbed of ISRO’s Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.

Vikram-1 is India's first private orbital rocket launch, and its Stage-2 is called Kalam-250.

Vikram-1 is a small-lift launch vehicle being developed by Skyroot Aerospace, an Indian private space company.
When launched, it will become India's first privately-developed orbital rocket, marking a significant milestone in the country's space sector.
The rocket's second stage, which is responsible for propelling the payload into orbit after the first stage separates, is named Kalam-250.
This stage has been successfully test-fired, bringing Skyroot Aerospace closer to their goal of launching Vikram-1.

Kalam-250 rocket motor utilizes high-strength carbon composite material and solid fuel propellant.

The Kalam-250 rocket motor, which powers the second stage of the Vikram-1 rocket, is made of high-strength carbon composite material, which uses solid fuel and a high-performance Ethylene-Propylene-Diene terpolymers (EPDM) Thermal Protection System (TPS).
This lightweight yet robust material helps to reduce the overall weight of the rocket while maintaining structural integrity.
Additionally, the Kalam-250 uses solid fuel propellant, which is a type of rocket fuel that is stable, easy to store, and provides high thrust.
The combination of carbon composite material and solid fuel propellant makes the Kalam-250 an efficient and reliable rocket motor.

IN-SPACe is responsible for promoting and regulating private sector participation in space activities.

The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre, known as IN-SPACe, established a government entity under the Department of Space.
Its primary objective is to promote, encourage, and regulate the participation of private companies in India's space sector.
IN-SPACe acts as a single-window agency for private entities, helping them navigate the regulatory framework, obtain necessary permissions, and access ISRO's facilities and expertise.
By streamlining the process and providing support, IN-SPACe aims to foster the growth of India's private space industry and attract investments.

Skyroot Aerospace is the only private company in India to have successfully launched both suborbital and orbital rockets.

While Skyroot Aerospace has indeed successfully launched a suborbital rocket called Vikram-S in November 2022, they have not yet launched an orbital rocket.
Suborbital rockets are designed to reach space but not complete an orbit around the Earth, while orbital rockets are capable of placing payloads into orbit.
Vikram-1, which is currently under development by Skyroot Aerospace, will be their first orbital rocket.

The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple

Context: The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple, Bhojpur, in Madhya Pradesh, has been included into UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites.

Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple

Introduction:

Situated: along the Betwa and Kaliasot Rivers, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Constructed: during the 11th century
Patronage of: Raja Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty
Dedicated to: Lord Shiva
Paramara dynasty:
- Reigned over the Malwa region and adjacent territories from the 9th to the 14th century.
- Raja Bhoj emerged as a celebrated monarch.
- He was renowned for his architectural treatise, the “Samaranganasutradhara”.
- Inscriptions and literary works attribute King Bhoj with an extensive temple building initiative, dedicated to various aspects of Shiva.
- However, the Bhojpur temple remains the sole surviving shrine definitively linked to Bhoja.
The temple has been designated as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Architectural features of the temple:

Architectural style reflects the evolution of temple design during the Paramara period.
Elements of the Bhumija style emerged in the 9th century and flourished until the 13th century.
Bhumija style is an evolved form of the Nagara temples.
The main structure and the shikhara in this style harmoniously blend influences from the Dravidian style of temple architecture.
The temple does not have a mandapa, which have led researchers to propose the hypothesis of it being a funerary monument.
The unfinished shikhara is decorated with small sub-shrines or kuta-stambhas and corner bands known as Lata.
The temple has a square plan and it is built on a raised plinth with ornate carvings and sculptures in its exterior.
In the centre, the garbhagriha is constructed which houses a massive lingam, carved from a single stone.
Projecting balconies are built on three sides of the temple.
The northern wall features a makara-pranala, which provided a drainage outlet for the liquid used to bathe the lingam.
The four brackets supporting the cornerstones feature four different divine couples: Shiva-Parvati, Brahma-Shakti, Rama-Sita, and Vishnu-Lakshmi.

About Paramara Dynasty (9th-14th Century):

Introduction:

Exerted dominion over Malwa and adjacent territories in west-central India.
Originated from the Parmara clan of Rajputs.
Initially served as vassals to the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta.
They rose to sovereign power around 972 CE when Siyaka, one of the rulers, sacked Manyakheta and established Paramaras as an independent authority.
Capital: Dhara (modern-day Dhar)
The dynasty faced repeated conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms such as the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Kalachuris of Tripuri, and the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti.
Due to the challenges, the capital was shifted to Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu).
Religion:
- Predominantly followers of the Shaivite tradition.
- Also supported Jain scholars

Rulers:

Earliest known king Siyaka:
- Harsola copper plate inscription (949 CE), mentions him as vassal to the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III.
- As a Rashtrakuta vassal, Siyaka engaged in military campaigns against the Pratiharas and Hunas.
- He secured victory over Krishna III's successor, Khottiga, in 972 CE.
Munja (Siyaka's successor):
- Munja attained victory over various neighbouring kingdoms, such as Chahamanas, Guhilas, Hunas, and Kalachuris.
- He was defeated by Western Chalukya king Tailapa II. This resulted in loss of southern territories to the Chalukyas.
Sindhuraja (Munja’s successor):
- He reclaimed the lost territories by defeating the Western Chalukya king Satyashraya.
- He expanded the dominion by defeating Shilaharas, Somvanshi, and rulers of Lata (now South Gujarat).
- His court poet, Padma Gupta, wrote his biography, Nava-Sahasanka- Charita.
King Bhoja (Sindhuraja’s son and successor):
- Reigned from 1010–1055 CE.
- The dynasty reached its zenith during his reign.
- Bhoja's inscriptions mention his titles as Parama Bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Parameshvara.
- Extended control from Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in the south, and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east.
- He founded the town of Bhojpur.

Cultural Contributions of King Bhoja:

Under his rule, Malwa and its capital Dhara became one of the chief intellectual centres of India.
Chintamani-Sarnika (1055 CE) was composed by his court poet Dasabala.
Besides the Bhojeshwar Temple, he also construction of three dams in Bhojpur.
- The first dam, built on Betwa River.
- A second dam was constructed in a gap between the hills.
- A third dam diverted more water from the smaller Kaliasot river.
Bhoja established the Bhoj Shala which was a centre for Sanskrit studies and a temple of Saraswati in Dhar.
Bhoja was renowned as a scholar king, and several books are attributed to him. He was an expert on poetry, and the treatise Shringara-Prakasha was authored by him.
Some of his surviving works in Sanskrit language:
- Bhujabala-bhima, a work on astrology
- Champu-Ramayana or Bhoja-Champu, a re-telling of the Ramayana in mixture of prose and poetry (champu genre)
- Govinda-vilasa, poem
- Raja-Martaṅda or Patanjali Yogasutra Bhashya, a major commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
- Raja Mriganka Karana, a treatise on chemistry, dealing with the extraction of metals from ores, and production of various drugs.
- Samarangana-Sutradhara, a treatise on architecture and iconography.
- Sarasvati-Kanthabharana, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar for poetic and rhetorical compositions.
- Tattva-Prakasha, a treatise on Shaivite philosophy.
- Vidvajjana-Vallabha, treatise on astronomy.
- Vyavahara-Manjari, a work on dharmasastra or Hindu law
- Yukti-Kalpataru, a work dealing with several topics including statecraft, politics, city-building etc.
His Prakrit language poems are: Kodanda-Kavya and Kurma-Sataka.
- The Kodanda-Kavya was found inscribed on stone slab fragments at Mandu.
- The Kurma-Sataka was found inscribed at the BhojShala in Dhar.

The Paramara Dynasty experienced a decline in their power, ultimately leading to the defeat and death of the final recorded ruler, Mahalakadeva, by the forces of Alauddin Khilji of Delhi in 1305 CE. However, despite this, inscriptions indicate that Paramara authority persisted for some time following Mahalakadeva's downfall.

International Astronomical Union

About International Astronomical Union:

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) is a non-governmental organisation that works to advance astronomy. It was founded in 1919 and is headquartered in Paris, France.
Primary functionsof IAU:
- Promoting astronomical research, communication, education, and development through international cooperation.
- Assigning designations and names to celestial bodies (stars, planets, asteroids, etc.) and any surface features on them.
- Establishing standards for astronomical observation and data.
The IAU is a member of the International Science Council (ISC). It has over 12,000 individual members from more than 100 countries.

Planetary Nomenclature:

Planetary nomenclature is used to uniquely identify a feature on the surface of a planet or satellite so that it can be easily located, described, and discussed.
IAU is the internationally recognised authority for assigning names to planetary surface features. It follows some rules and conventions to do so.
- The IAU’s Rule 9 states: “No names having political, military or religious significance may be used, except for names of political figures prior to the 19th century.”

Key Facts:

Recently, IAU’s working group for Planetary System Nomenclature has approved the name “Statio Shiv Shakti” for the landing site of Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander.
Recently, IAU has named an asteroid after an Indian astro-scientist Prof. Jayant Murthy for his contributions to astronomy, especially to the New Horizons mission. His team’s endeavour to observe ultraviolet background radiation in the outer Solar System, where the interference from the Sun and interplanetary medium is minimal, have played a crucial role in broadening understanding of cosmic phenomena.
- New Horizons is an interplanetary space probe launched by NASA's in 2006.
- It is the first spacecraft to explore Pluto, flying by the dwarf planet and its moons on July 14, 2015.
- In early 2019, New Horizons flew past its second major target – Arrokoth, the most distant object ever explored up close. (Arrokoth is a trans-Neptunian object located in the Kuiper belt)

Asteroid Belt:

Asteroids are rocky remnants from the early formation of our solar system (about 4.6 billion years ago) that mainly orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter.
The asteroid belt is a nearly flat ring that contains millions of asteroids, ranging in size from less than 10 metres to 530 kms (The largest asteroid is Ceres, which is about one-quarter the size of Earth’s moon).