Context: Oxford Economics, which is an independent economic advisory firm, has developed the Global Cities Index.
Global Cities Index
Covers the 1,000 largest cities in the world which are in 163 countries.
The index is based on 5 categories of Economics, Human Capital, Quality of Life, Environment and Governance which are aggregated to create a overall score for each city.
According to the report, these 1,000 largest cities account for 60% of global GDP and 30% of global population.
Top 10 cities according to Global Cities Index: New York (USA), London (UK), San Jose (USA), Tokyo (Japan), Paris (France), Seattle (USA), Los Angeles (USA), San Francisco (USA), Melbourne (Australia), Zurich (Switzerland).
Close to three-fourths of these cities are clustered in the top 22 nations, with at least 10 big cities, and as many as one-third were bunched together in the top three nations: China with 159 cities, followed by the United States (US) with 92 and India with 91.
Methodology and indicators used to measure Global Cities Index
The report ranks the cities on a cumulative of 27 indicators grouped into following five categories:
Economics Category: Based on GDP size, GDP growth, GDP per person, Employment growth, Economic stability and Economic diversity.
Human Capital Category: Based on Educational attainment, Universities, Corporate Headquarters, Population growth, Age profile and Foreign-born population.
Quality of Life Category: Based on Life expectancy, Income per person, Income equality, Housing expenditure, Recreation & cultural sites and Internet speed.
Environment Category: Based on Air quality, Emissions intensity, Natural disasters, Temperature anomalies and Rainfall anomalies.
Governance Category: Based on institutions, political stability, business environment and civil liberties.
Status of Indian Cities in the Global Cities Index
Total 91 cities are included in the top 1000 cities of the Global Cities Index. However, the average rankings of Indian cities is much lower.
The low average ranking of Indian cities is due to large deficit in human capital, poor quality of life and environmental indicators.
Among Indian cities, the top 10 ranked were: Delhi (350), Bengaluru (411), Mumbai (427), Chennai (472), Kochi (521), Kolkata (528), Pune (534), Thrissur (550), Hyderabad (564) and Kozhikode (580).
There is a heavy concentration in some regions. The largest cluster was in northern belt, account for 40% of the 91 Indian cities. Next came southern India (29 cities), followed by western region (12 cities) and least in eastern region (10 cities).
Context: The AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation) scheme was a flagship programme launched by the NDA-1 government in June 2015, with its 2.0 version launched on October 1, 2021.
What is Amrut scheme?
The Mission covers covering 500 cities that includes all cities and towns with a population of over one lakh with notified Municipalities.
The major project components are Water Supply system, Sewerage, Septage, Storm Water Drainage, Urban Transport, Green Space and Parks, Reforms management and support, Capacity building etc.
It is being operated as Central Sponsored Scheme. The project fund is divided among States/UTs in an equitable formula in which 50:50 weightage. It is being given to the urban population of each State/UT and number of statutory towns.
(AMRUT) 2.0 scheme, has been launched on 01 October, 2021 for the period of 05 years i.e. from the financial year 2021-22 to the financial year 2025-26.
It is designed to provide universal coverage of water supply through functional taps to all households in all the statutory towns in the country and coverage of sewerage/septage management in 500 cities covered in first phase of the AMRUT scheme.
AMRUT 2.0 will promote circular economy of water.
Other components of AMRUT 2.0 are:
Pey Jal Survekshan to ascertain equitable distribution of water, reuse of wastewater, mapping of water bodies and promote healthy competition among the cities /towns.
Technology Sub-Mission for water to leverage latest global technologies in the field of water.
Information, Education and Communication (IEC) campaign to spread awareness among masses about conservation of water.
What is the present status?
The project has a very slow implementation with less than 50% execution completed in most states.
It is estimated that about 2,00,000 people die every year due to inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene.
The disease burden due to unsafe water and sanitation per person is 40 times higher in India than in China.
The 150 reservoirs monitored by the central government, which supplies water for drinking and irrigation, and are the country’s key source of hydro-electricity, were filled to just 40% of its capacity a few weeks ago.
Around 21 major cities are going to run out of ground water.
In a NITI Aayog report it was stated that 40% of India’s population will have no access to drinking water by 2030. Nearly 31% of urban Indian households do not have piped water; 67.3% are not connected to a piped sewerage discharge system; and average water supply per person in urban India is 69.25 liters/day, whereas the required amount is 135 liters.
What went wrong? (Critical analysis of AMRUT)
Not holistic approach - Instead of a holistic approach, it took on a project-oriented attitude.
Lack of city participation - AMRUT was made for cities with no participation from the cities. It was quite mechanical in design, with hardly any organic participation of the elected city governments, and driven by mostly private interests.
Bureaucratic nature - The project was owned by bureaucrats, parastatals, and large technology-based companies. For example, in the governance architecture, the apex committee is headed by the secretary of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MOHUA) and all the members are non-elected. Similarly, the State level high powered committee is headed by the chief secretary with a private nexus of consultants and professionals. Peoples’ representatives are completely missing, in violation of the 74th constitutional amendment.
Changes in climate and rainfall pattern are not taken into account while planning for water management in cities.
Since the drivers are large private players and builders, real estate development has become a proxy for urban planning — disappearance of water bodies and lakes, disrupted storm water flows, and absence of storm water drainage is very common.
Some other reasons for the delay could be lack of political will, given that some states like Bihar have not even realised their second instalment of funds towards the projects, concentration on other projects, overburden, corruption and rise in construction cost
What can be a way ahead?
Sustainable development of cities must be the core idea. Issues like air, water and soil pollution, housing, tourism, real estate, employment etc must be considered.
Urban local bodies, elected representatives and common city people must also be taken into account.
Research and innovation must be done in order to understand the changes in rainfall pattern. Wetland conservation, river front development, aquifer recharge, water harvesting must be done.
Digital solutions to address the issues of corruption, monitoring funds transfer and utilization must be designed.
Context: In a pre-election survey carried out by CSDS, 79% of people voted that India belongs to all religions. The belief in plurality and diversity of India is more pronounced in urban areas (84%) and higher among educated classes (83%).
About pluralism
Pluralism refers to the country's rich diversity in terms of cultures, religions, languages, and traditions coexisting within one nation. India is celebrated as a pluralistic society where various communities with different backgrounds and beliefs live together harmoniously.
Constitutional provisions with respect to pluralism:
Preamble: The Preamble of the Indian Constitution declares India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic. It further gives liberty of thought expression belief faith and worship to all; this reflects the respect towards the ideal of secularism and religious pluralism from the outset.
Article 25 - Freedom of Religion: Article 25 guarantees the freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate religion. This ensures that individuals have the right to follow any religion of their choice without discrimination.
Article 26 - Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs: Article 26 grants every religious denomination or section thereof the right to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes, manage its own affairs in matters of religion, and own and acquire movable and immovable property.
Article 27 - Freedom from Taxation for Religious Purposes: Article 27 ensures that no person can be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious institution.
Article 28 - Freedom from Religious Instruction in Educational Institutions: Article 28 provides that no religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained by state funds. However, it allows educational institutions established by religious minorities to impart religious instruction to students of that religion.
Article 29 - Protection of Interests of Minorities: Article 29 protects the interests of minorities by granting them the right to conserve their distinct language, script, or culture. This ensures the preservation of religious and cultural diversity in India.
Article 30 - Right of Minorities to Establish and Administer Educational Institutions: Article 30 provides religious and linguistic minorities with the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. This protects their autonomy in educational matters and allows them to impart education in accordance with their religious and cultural beliefs.
Aspects of pluralism in India:
Cultural Diversity: India is home to multiple cultures, each with its own distinct traditions, art forms, cuisines, and languages. Cultural diversity can be seen in festivals of Holi, Diwali, Eid, and Christmas to the varied cuisines of different regions, Indian culture reflects a variety of influences.
Cultural pluralism ensures a state in which minority groups maintain their own cultural identities while participating actively in all aspects of the dominant society.
In a culturally pluralistic society, different groups are tolerant and can coexist without major conflict, but minorities are encouraged to maintain their ancestral customs.
Racial diversity: 1931 census classified India’s racial diversity in the following groups- The Negrito, The Proto-Australoid, The Mongoloid, The Mediterranean, The Western Brachycephals and the Nordic. Representatives of all the three major races of the world, namely Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid, are found in the country.
Religious Pluralism: India is birthplace to several major religions like Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism, among others. People of various faiths coexist peacefully, and religious tolerance is a fundamental value enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
Linguistic Diversity: India has over 1,600 languages and dialects, which make it one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world. Linguistic diversity of india has been given constitutional protection under Article 343-351 and Eighth schedule of Indian Constitution.
Political Pluralism: India is a federal parliamentary democratic republic, where power is shared between the central government and individual states. Our democratic system allows for diverse political ideologies and parties to participate in elections and governance, enhancing our country's pluralistic ethos.
Social Pluralism: Indian society comprises various social groups based on factors such as caste, ethnicity, and economic status. Despite historical challenges like the caste system, efforts towards social equality and inclusivity have been undertaken (Article 17, Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955, SCs and STs Prevention of atrocities act 1989), which are aimed at creating a more equitable society.
Artistic and Intellectual Pluralism: India has a rich tradition of art, architecture, literature, music, and philosophy, with contributions from diverse cultural backgrounds. This plurality is reflected in classical dance forms, literary traditions, philosophical schools of thought etc.
Regional diversity: India has regions such as snowcapped mountains of Himalayas, to deserts of Rajasthan to Evergreen forests of Northeast India to the great plains of Northern India to the coastal plains of south India, all this contributes to distinct subcultures and diversity of India.
Challenges to plurality and diversity of India:
Globalization: Globalization has been held responsible for creation of a monoculture which has led to the erosion of social identity. Globalization leads to homogenization of culture, where people consume the same cultural products regardless of their location. This has led to a loss of cultural diversity and a weakening of local cultural identities.
Exclusionary Nationalism: Exclusionary nationalism is a product of interwar period in Europe, but its impact can be seen in 21st century as well, Exclusionary nationalist believe that country belongs to one community or religion which is antithetical to the idea of diversity.
Regionalism: Regionalism highlight interests of a particular region/regions over national interests. It can also adversely impact national integration. Overall law and order situation is hampered due to regional demands and socio-political agitations.
Communal and divisive politics: At the time of elections, ascriptive identities such as caste, religion etc. are evoked by politicians to garner votes. This type of divisive politics results in violence, feeling of mistrust and suspicion among minorities.
Development deficit: Uneven pattern of socio-economic development, inadequate economic policies and consequent economic disparities can lead to backwardness of a region. Consequently, this can result in violence, migration and demands of separatism. For instance, economic backwardness was one of the reasons for the demand of Uttarakhand as a separate State.
Nativism: It leads to clashes between different ethnic groups due to factors such as job competition, limited resources, threat to identity etc. E.g. frequent clashes between Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims in Assam.
Son of soil theory: This doctrine is exclusionary in nature. It ties people to their place of birth and confers some benefits, rights, roles, and responsibilities on them, which may not apply to others. (Discrimination against migrants from Bihar in Maharashtra)
Inter-religious conflicts: They hamper relations between communities by spreading fear and mistrust. They also destroy secular fabric of the country. (Muzaffarnagar riots.) It can be divided into following sub forms-
Communal violence: Communal violence is a major issue in India, with incidents of violence occurring between different religious communities.
Religious conversion: Religious conversion is controversial in India, with some religious communities accusing others of forcibly converting people to their religion. The issue of religious conversion has led to tensions and conflicts in parts of the country.
Religious extremism: Extremist groups advocate violence and promote hatred towards other religious communities for vested interests.
External factors: Terrorism and armed militancy in Kashmir region and Northeast region are responsible for destroying the interfaith and ethnic harmony in the regions.
Despite the challenges, there is no denying its essential role in sustaining and evolving Indian society. The real issue lies in how diversity is managed. Problems like regionalism, communalism, and ethnic conflicts arise when development benefits are unevenly distributed, and certain cultural groups are not given proper recognition. Therefore, addressing these disparities through equitable development and fostering cultural understanding is vital to mitigating such challenges and building a more inclusive and harmonious society.
Context: A new study published in The Lancet, has suggests that India's population will peak by mid-century and decline to about 1.09 billion by the end of the 21st century. It could even be as low as 724 million.
Key findings of the study:
By 2100, Indian women will have an average of 1.29 children, leading to a sharp population decline since a replacement rate of 2 is needed.
In contrast, the projected fertility rates are 1.53 for the United States and 1.78 for France.
The UN projects that India’s population will be 1.64 billion by 2050, the study projects 1.61 billion by 2048.
In the 1950s, India's Total Fertility Rate (TFR) was nearly 6 children per woman. Despite extensive family planning efforts and forced sterilizations during the Emergency, the TFR only dropped by 17% from 5.9 in 1960 to 4.9 in 1980. However, between 1992 and 2015, it decreased by 35% from 3.4 to 2.2.
Family planning has significantly diminished in importance within Indian policy discourse.
From 1975 to 1994, family planning workers were required to meet specific targets for sterilizations, condom distribution, and intrauterine device (IUD) insertions.
These targets frequently resulted in explicit or implicit coercion. However, after the Cairo Conference on Population and Development in 1994, these targets were discontinued.
Reason for decline in fertility rate:
Public policies promoting small family norms and contraception have been weak, yet couples have moved away from large families. India's socioeconomic transformation since the 1990s is likely a key factor.
As agriculture's role in the economy shrank, school and college enrolment surged, and jobs in government, multinationals, and software services brought financial rewards.
Parents shifted their strategies, prioritizing education over larger families. Unlike in the West, where fertility decline is linked to a retreat from family, Indian parents have shown increased commitment by having fewer children and investing more in their education.
Researcher shows that while families of different sizes at the same income level engage similarly in leisure activities and women's workforce participation, smaller families spend more on private schooling and coaching classes for their children. This decline in fertility is driven by aspirations for their children's success, not their own.
Context: The Supreme Court ruled that a Hindu marriage is not valid ‘unless performed with ceremonies in proper form’. This was despite the couple in question having an official marriage certificate.
Marriage
Marriage, a social institution present in virtually every culture, serves several functions and comes in various types:
C.P. Kottack: Marriage is a socially recognized relationship between a socially recognized male (Husband) and a socially recognized female (Wife) so that the children born to the wife are accepted as the offspring of both the husband and wife.
Functions of Marriage:
Social Stability and Order: Marriage provides a framework for organizing familial relationships, establishing legal rights and responsibilities, and maintaining social order within a community.
Reproduction and Family Formation: Traditionally, marriage has been the primary institution for procreation and raising children. It provides a stable environment for the upbringing of offspring.
Emotional Support and Companionship: Marriage offers emotional and psychological support through companionship, intimacy, and partnership. Spouses often rely on each other for love, encouragement, and comfort.
Economic Cooperation: Marriage facilitates economic cooperation and pooling of resources between spouses, enabling them to share financial burdens, manage household expenses, and plan for the future together.
Cultural and Religious Significance: Many cultures and religions attach profound cultural and religious significance to marriage, viewing it as a sacred union with spiritual implications.
Legal and Social Recognition: Marriage grants legal and social recognition to the relationship between spouses, conferring rights such as inheritance, healthcare decision-making, and spousal benefits.
Types of Marriage:
Monogamy: Monogamy involves the union of two individuals, typically one man and one woman, forming an exclusive partnership. It is the most common form of marriage in many societies.
Polygamy:
Polygyny: Polygyny permits a man to have multiple wives simultaneously. This practice has historical and cultural roots in various societies, though it is less common today.
Polyandry: Polyandry allows a woman to have multiple husbands simultaneously. It is rarer than polygyny and is found in specific cultures, often in areas with scarce resources.
Group Marriage: Also known as communal marriage or collective marriage, group marriage involves multiple men and women forming a marital union together. This type of marriage is relatively uncommon and often associated with alternative lifestyle communities.
Same-Sex Marriage: Same-sex marriage involves the union of two individuals of the same gender. While historically marginalized or prohibited in many societies, it has gained legal recognition and acceptance in an increasing number of countries.
Arranged Marriage: Arranged marriage involves families or intermediaries selecting spouses for individuals based on various factors such as compatibility, social status, and familial considerations. While prevalent in some cultures, the degree of consent and autonomy can vary significantly.
Each type of marriage reflects the values, norms, and traditions of the society in which it occurs, shaping individuals' lives and relationships in diverse ways.
About Ruling
The Supreme Court Ruling:
The Supreme Court ruled that a Hindu couple, despite possessing an official marriage certificate, was deemed to have "never acquired the status of husband and wife."
This ruling was based on the fact that the couple's marriage was registered under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HMA) before they performed the wedding rituals.
Consequently, the couple did not need to obtain a divorce because they were considered to have never been married in the first place.
Understanding Solemnized Marriage:
Solemnizing a marriage entail conducting an official marriage ceremony, including appropriate rituals.
In India, marriage is governed by personal laws and statutes like the Special Marriage Act, 1954 (SMA).
Different religions have their own requirements for a valid marriage, such as rituals for Hindus and Christians, and a contractual agreement for Muslims.
Registered Marriages vs. Solemnized Marriages:
Terms like "court marriage" or "registered marriage" typically refer to civil marriages under the Special Marriage Act, 1954 (SMA), conducted without religious rituals.
Marriages under personal laws (e.g., HMA for Hindus) require adherence to religious rituals for validity.
The registration of marriages solemnized under personal laws is governed by respective statutes, such as Section 8 of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
Implications of Marriage Registration:
Marriage registration serves various official purposes, such as spousal visa applications and joint medical insurance.
However, the absence of marriage registration does not inherently invalidate a marriage, as registration alone does not confer validity.
Legal Presumptions and Evidence:
Various legal presumptions exist regarding marriage, such as the presumption of marriage when cohabitation is continuous.
Evidence of a valid marriage includes proof of performing rituals, long-term cohabitation, and acceptance by family and friends.
While a marriage certificate holds corroborative value, it is not considered conclusive evidence on its own in legal proceedings.
Significance in Legal Matters:
Validity of marriage is crucial in legal contexts like bigamy trials and inheritance disputes.
Proof of performing valid rituals, evidence of cohabitation, and acceptance by family and friends are essential in establishing the validity of marriage.
A marriage certificate supplements evidence but is not sole proof of marriage validity.
Context: According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), women and children are 14 times more likely than men to die in a disaster.
Impact of climate change on vulnerable groups:
Disproportionate health risks and mortality: Women and girls, especially in poverty, face significantly high health risks due to societal roles, responsibilities, and cultural norms.
Prolonged heat is particularly dangerous for pregnant women (increasing the risk of preterm birth and eclampsia), young children, and the elderly.
Exposure to pollutants in the air (household and outdoor) affects women’s health, causing respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and also the unborn child, impairing its physical and cognitive growth.
Agriculture and livelihood vulnerabilities: Agriculture, a vital livelihood source for women, especially in rural India, is severely affected by climate change. Climate-driven crop yield reductions lead to increased food insecurity, affecting nutritional intake and exacerbating health and domestic challenges for women.
Within households with small and marginal landholdings, men often face social stigma from unpaid loans, leading to migration, distress, and sometimes suicide, while women bear heavier domestic workloads, worsened health, and more intimate partner violence.
Water and sanitation: Extreme weather events disrupt water cycles, making access to safe drinking water difficult, increasing the burden on women and girls responsible for water collection, thereby reducing their time for productive work and healthcare.
A report from the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) in 2021 found that 75% of Indian districts are vulnerable to hydromet disasters (floods, droughts and cyclones). NFHS 5 data showed that over half of women and children living in these districts were at risk.
Food and nutritional insecurity: Climate change-induced food insecurity leads to poor physical and mental health among women, who bear the brunt of increased domestic workloads and intimate partner violence due to resource scarcity.
Data from NFHS 4 and 5 indicate that women in drought-prone districts are more likely to be underweight, suffer from intimate partner violence, and experience higher rates of girl marriages. These conditions, stemming from food and nutritional insecurity, increased workloads, and income uncertainty, detrimentally affect women's physical and mental health.
Way Forward
Empowering women in climate solutions: Recognizing and empowering women as key agents in climate solutions can significantly improve outcomes. As tribal and rural women have been key in environmental conservation efforts. Equipping women and their collectives such as Self-help Groups and Farmer Producer Organisations with knowledge, tools, and resources can foster local climate solutions.
Addressing heat waves and water shortages: Immediate actions include protecting priority groups (outdoor workers, pregnant women, infants and young children and the elderly) from heat.
Urban authorities need to implement heat wave plans(based on local temperature plus humidity), including altering work and school timings, providing cooling facilities, and improving public drinking water access to prevent heat-related deaths.
Long-term strategies involve improving tree cover, minimising concrete, increasing green-blue spaces and designing housing that is better able to withstand heat are longer-term actions.
On water scarcity, leveraging India's traditional rainwater harvesting expertise is vital. Work done by the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation in a few districts of Tamil Nadu showed that using geographic information systems, the panchayat could map key water sources, identify vulnerabilities and climate hazards and develop a local plan to improve water access by directing government schemes and resources.
Case study: On urban planning
The Mahila Housing Trust in Udaipur showed that painting the roofs of low-income houses with reflective white paint reduced indoor temperatures by 3° C to 4° C and improved quality of life.
Community-led resilience: Building resilience through community-led initiatives, empowering local bodies like panchayats and Self-Help Groups (SHGs), through devolution of powers and finances and investing in building the capacity of panchayat and SHG members.
Revising policy with a gender perspective: The National and State Action Plans on Climate Change (NAPCC & SAPCC) need to evolve beyond portraying women merely as victims, acknowledging them as vital agents of change. This requires a shift towards gender-transformative strategies and a comprehensive approach to climate adaptation.
Context: While transition to city life might have weakened some structures of caste oppression, they have morphed through language, state sanction and policy, and have evolved to allow caste to thrive in Indian cities.
About Caste and Urbanization
Views on village life:
Mahatma Gandhi saw the Indian village as a self-reliant, equitable and just non-violent order, and argued for the decentralisation of power to the villages through Gram Swaraj.
B.R. Ambedkarrejected village life and encouraged Dalits to move to the city.
Ambedkar said that an Indian village is “the working plant of the Hindu social order” and argued that it is the ideal place to understand caste.
Ambedkar believed that the idealisation of Indian village life emerged either from the colonial romanticisation of the rural population or from the desire of Hindus to retain caste domination.
In the Constituent Assembly, Ambedkar opposed the idea that villages should be recognised as autonomous administrative units and felt relieved that the Assembly rejected the idea.
Views on Urbanisation
Ambedkar: In the process of urbanisation, Ambedkar saw an opportunity for Dalit liberation. He believed that the systems of caste oppression that thrive in Indian villages become weaker in cities. These included segregation of Dalits into ghettos, restrictions on economic activities, and denial of land ownership.
Jyotirao Phule: He had also admired city life for being liberal and enabling him to earn a living. Cities offer an opportunity to become a stranger among a sea of strangers and transition from a caste-based order to a class-based order. One defined not by genealogy but by accumulation of resources or capital.
Caste discrimination in urban India:
Language of purity-pollution: Caste translates into a city’s spatiality through the language of ‘purity-pollution’. A consumer survey in 2021 revealed that eating non-vegetarian food is the biggest deal-breaker in finding rental housing in India.
Gopal Guru (Indian political scientist) says that the ghetto is not merely a space but also forms the constitution of the body of the ghetto dweller. The language of purity-pollution that identifies the savarna space as ‘pure’ and one that can be polluted by the Dalit body, extends to the logic of the city.
Example: The language of caste has been imposed on public spaces of the city by various governments. In March 2017, the Uttar Pradesh government, issued regulations for meat shops that included, for example, a ban on selling meat near religious places and black paint or curtains in the facade of the shop to hide the sight of meat from pedestrians. In 2021, several municipal corporations in Gujarat banned the sale of meat-based street food on the city’s main roads citing “religious sentiments”.
Ghettoisation of caste: Urban governance policies and housing crises have also sustained caste-based segregation.
A large-scale study found that public services and access to municipal infrastructure such as clean drinking water are the worst in Dalit and Muslim ghettos.
Research in sacrifice zones regions marked for severe environmental pollution such as landfills shows that such areas are overwhelmingly inhabited by Dalits and Muslims.
A recent report by the Housing and Land Rights Network on forced evictions in India also shows that Dalits and Muslims are the most impacted by slum demolition drives.
Apartmentisation: In some cities, caste discrimination still affects how people live. For example, in residential areas, Dalits often have separate access to facilities like elevators and toilets. Domestic workers who live with their employers usually have small rooms and bathrooms, or just a bed in a corner. Sometimes, they even have their own separate entrances.
Employment opportunities: OBCs and SCs end up working in the informal sector due to a combination of limited job options and societal pressures linked to caste. E.g. Some occupations are linked to caste such as manual scavenging.
Economic discrimination and school choice: Lower castes often face economic hardship, making private schools with higher fees out of reach. This limits their access to potentially better educational resources.
Students from backward castes might be ostracized by classmates or teachers due to their caste background. e.g. Dalit students shunned during midday meals in Gujarat’s Morbi district.
Caste based matrimonial: In urban areas, caste-based matrimonial practices such as Rajput matrimony,Baniya Matrimony contribute significantly to sustaining caste discrimination, despite the modern and cosmopolitan facade of cities. Such matrimonial preferences reinforce caste identities and boundaries, limiting social interaction and integration across different caste groups. This perpetuation of caste lines through marriage not only entrenches social and economic inequalities but also normalizes the preference for intra-caste relationships, thereby obstructing efforts towards social cohesion.
Way forward to deal with caste discrimination:
Economic empowerment: Provide more economic opportunities, fair employment practices and skill development programs to uplift marginalized caste communities in urban areas.
Housing policies: Develop housing policies that promote mixed-caste neighbourhoods and discourage segregation based on caste.
Social inclusion initiatives: Support community-led initiatives that foster social cohesion and inclusion, including inter-caste dialogue, cultural exchange programs, and community-building activities.
Promote inter-caste interactions: Platforms can encourage users to connect with potential partners from different castes.
Tenant support services: Establish tenant support services to assist those facing caste discrimination in finding housing and enforcing their rights.
Context: The article analyses the paradoxical increase of both unemployment and wages in urban India, revealing that despite higher incomes, the urban poor face persistent poverty and inequality, with slum dwellers particularly affected.
It points out that higher wages in casual and self-employment in urban areas do not necessarily lead to economic mobility, calling for more public support to address these disparities.
Key takeaways:
The India Employment Report (IER) 2024, produced by the Institute for Human Development and the International Labour Organization.
It highlights the higher unemployment rates in urban settings (4.8%) compared to rural areas (1.5%) in 2000.
It also notes higher average monthly earnings in urban locales across various employment types in 2022, thus presenting an intriguing case of higher unemployment coexisting with higher wages, necessitating further exploration into its implications for the urban poor.
Rural-Urban Migration Trends- The report signals a decline in the allure of urban migration for economic reasons, with male migration showing a downturn by 1.2% during 2000-08 and further marginally in 2021. The trend underlines the importance of analysing income and employment trends among slum dwellers to understand urban economic mobility and work quality.
Kolkata Slum Survey Insights -A study conducted over ten years in Kolkata's slums saw a decline in skilled and semi-skilled labour employment, contrasting with an increase in petty business and small shop employment. Thus, highlighting a shift towards self-employment and casual work amidst varying income dynamics.
Income Trends in Slums- Income Changes in Slums Income for most slum dwellers has fallen, with notable drops among government employees and shop owners. However, unskilled workers saw their income rise, pointing to a complex situation of earning and employment in slums. These findings suggest a broader economic transformation reflected in the slums.
Gender Dynamics and Workforce Participation -While the survey noted a decline in women's workforce participation in slums, the IER 2024 reports a modest increase in female workforce participation across urban areas.
Casual Work and Economic Mobility-There's an increase in casual, insecure jobs, which don't offer good pay or job security. This trend shows that while more people might be working, they're not necessarily in good jobs, impacting the economic stability of the urban poor
Urban poverty
Urban poverty is a form of poverty quite visible in mega cities characterized by substandard living conditions and income along with deficient provisions of basic amenities and low quality of life. As per NSSO survey reports, there are over 80 million urban poor. It is different from Rural poverty in its characteristics and causes.
The situation of Urban Poverty
Urban poverty in India is unique. Although the proportion of urban poor has declined over the last decades, there is a steady increase in the number which has a direct impact on the slum areas of the metros.
In India, “Gareebi Hatao” was made a major objective of the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) when the urban poor got an identity. According to the report of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (2001), about 23.5% of urban households live in slums.
Although the percentage of slum dwellers had declined to 17% by 2011, the total number of slum households had increased from 10 million in 2001 to 13 million in 2011. The majority of urban poverty occurs in megacities.
The 2011 Census found that around 12 per cent of the urban population in “Class I” cities lived in slums, with higher rates in the larger cities.
Causes of urban poverty
1) Increasing migration: due to the decrease in opportunities in the rural sector and the continuously decreasing benefits of agriculture.
2) Lack of investment: Lack of investment in basic requirements like skills, education, and health in rural areas of India
3) Loss of income: A person migrating from a rural area does not get a proper salary in cities. Due to this they are forced to work in the unorganized economy and are exploited by the capitalists.
4) Affordable Housing Shortage: The congestion in slum areas increases continuously due to a reduction in affordable housing. This further leads to a lack of facilities like light, water, and sanitation.
5) Informalisation of Labour: urban jobs are often informal, meaning they're not officially recognized, regulated, or protected by the government. These jobs tend to be insecure, without benefits like healthcare or pensions, and contribute to the persistence of poverty.
6) Disproportionate Impact of Inflation: Inflation affects everyone, but the impact on the poor is much greater. As prices go up, those with lower incomes find it harder to afford basic necessities, deepening their poverty.
7) Deprivation of government benefits to Migrants: When people move from rural areas to cities, they often struggle to access government programs and benefits they're entitled to, such as subsidized food or healthcare, exacerbating their poverty in the urban setting.
8) Lack of Access to Community Assets: The difficulty that urban poor have in accessing shared resources that can help improve their lives, like clean water, education, or safe spaces for children to play. Without access to these community assets, it's harder for them to break out of poverty.
State Response to Urban Poor
One Nation One Ration Card- Department of Food and Public Distribution has launched the ‘Integrated Management of Public Distribution System (IM-PDS)’ for implementation in all States/UT.
Objective
Introduce nationwide portability of ration card holders under NFSA, 2013 enabling them to lift their entitlement to food grains from any Fair Price Shop of their choice in India with their same ration card.
The remaining family members who migrate to another location can claim their share of the PDS ration.
Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihood Mission (DAY-NULM)-launched by the Government in 2013 by restructuring the Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY).
Coverage: All district’s headquarter towns (irrespective of population) and all other towns with a population of 1 lakh or more as per Census 2011.
Target Population: The primary target of NULM is the urban poor, including the urban homeless.
Funding: Funding will be shared between the Centre and the States in the ratio of 75:25. For North-eastern and Special Category States, this ratio will be 90:10.
Aim: Reducing the poverty and vulnerability of urban poor households.
PM SVANidhi
It is a Central Sector Scheme (100% funded by MoHUA). The scheme will be implemented by MoHUA. SIDBI will be the implementation partner of the scheme.
Objectives
The scheme will help formalise the street vendors and will open new opportunities to this sector to move up the economic ladder.
Facilitate working capital loans up to Rs 10,000
Incentivise regular payment
Reward digital transactions
Measures to be Taken to Tackle Urban Poverty
Formalizing Informal Employment: A substantial step towards integrating urban poor into the economy is the formalization of informal jobs. This includes legal recognition, which would enable access to social security benefits.
Government Scheme Inclusivity: Expanding the reach of government programs, such as the One Nation One Ration Card Scheme, to cover the migrant urban population ensures no individual is left out due to geographic mobility.
Urban Job Guarantee Scheme: Implementing a job guarantee program similar to the rural-focused MGNREGA can provide the urban poor with stable employment and income.
Financial Empowerment: Recognizing the urban poor as a priority group for sector lending would facilitate their access to necessary financial services, empowering them to start businesses and improve their housing and living conditions.
Skill-Based Data Mapping: Aligning the urban poor's database with their skills can open pathways for suitable employment opportunities. The national migrant database is a crucial initiative to enable this alignment.
Urban Development- Improved infrastructure is a prerequisite for increased economic growth in India. Poverty can be reduced quickly with rapid urban development.
Urban Employment Guarantee Programme - It can generate a new set of ‘green jobs’ that can strengthen the capacity of ULBs as well as promote sustainable urban development.
Context: The interim budget for 2024-25 has introduced an expansion of the ‘Lakhpati Didi’ scheme, increasing the target from 2 crore Lakhpati Didi’s to 3 crore. Additionally, the Prime Minister refers to 'Lakhpati Didi’s in Mann Ki Baat to catalyse women empowerment.
Lakhpati Didi Scheme
Launched in: 2023
Nodal ministry: Ministry of Rural Development
Aim: To catalyze economic empowerment and financial independence among women in rural areas.
Criteria for identifying potential lakhpati Didi:
A Self Help Group member who has completed a minimum of two years and has availed of the Community Investment Fund (CIF).
A beneficiary of livelihood intervention through DAY-NRLM and practising at least two livelihood activities.
Key features: A Lakhpati Didi is a Self-Help Group Member.
The government aims to train 3 crore women to become influencers both at home and in their communities. The objective is to shift the focus from social and financial inclusion to entrepreneurial success.
The programme is aimed at training women in self-help groups (SHGs) to earn a sustainable income of at least Rs 1 lakh per annum per household.
Women will be trained in various skills and after completing the training, women will be provided with opportunities to earn income using their skills.
It facilitates diversified livelihood activities, by ensuring convergence across all Government departments/ Ministries, Private sector and Market players.
Subset of the programme:
Drone Didi: Under this scheme, drones will be provided to approximately 15,000 women SHGs for agricultural activities. Drones have the potential to revolutionize agriculture by enabling precision farming, crop monitoring, and pest control.
Skill training: Women under this scheme receive training in diverse skills such as LED bulb making, plumbing, and more.
Context: The recent inauguration of the new Parliament building, and the Ram temple has sparked discussions regarding the intersection of politics and religion in urbanisation.
About Urbanization:
Urbanization is a process that transforms the built environment, converting formerly rural into urban settlements, while also shifting the spatial distribution of a population from rural to urban areas.
Urbanization in India is mainly due to liberalization of its economy after the 1990s, which gave rise to the development of the private sector.
Presently, although urbanization is taking place at a fast rate in India, but still urban areas account for just 3% of the nation’s land and 31.1% of its population (Census of India 2011).
Factors that have led to the Urbanization in India
Population growth: An outcome of more births than deaths in urban areas, a direct function of the fertility rate as well as the quality of healthcare systems (lower mortality rates, particularly for infants).
Migration: Rural to urban migrations due to agriculture distress, better employment opportunities, access to better education, healthcare and amenities etc. has been a strong urbanization factor.
Expansion of towns and cities: Due to high economic growth that the city has witnessed over the years. Because of this, the government in India has decided to grab the opportunity to further thrust the country into urbanization, several smart cities to be put up in various locations, and other initiatives.
Overcrowding: Beyond the carrying capacity results in congestion, pollution and additional burden over limited natural resources of urban areas.
Governance status: As per Census 2011, the urban system of India consists of 7933 settlements - statutory and census towns. While statutory towns are governed as urban local bodies, census towns are governed as villages. As a result, India is transitioning from a mostly rural to a quasi-urban country.
Lack of adequate town planning: Master plans statutory instruments critical for managing urbanisation. They guide and regulate the present and future utilisation of land, expansion, and zoning of cities. But about half of our statutory towns are expanding without any master.
Enhanced sense of relative deprivation: Gives rise to urban crimes such as human trafficking, sexual assault, child labour, Juvenile delinquency, prostitution, drugs and suicides.
Sub-Optimal utilisation of urban land: Due to fragmented and poorly recorded ownership of urban land. multiple public sector organizations/agencies— ports, railways, ULBs, etc.— own land under their jurisdictions. For a city to develop holistically, planning for each land parcel needs to fall into one comprehensive spatial strategy.
Pressure on basic infrastructure: Giving rise to unsustainable land price, unaffordable rent, inadequate health and education infrastructure, solid waste management problem etc.
Unplanned growth of slums: As per Census 2011, 17.3% of the total urban population was under slums in India.
Government initiatives to deal with urbanisation:
100 Smart Cities Mission: To develop smart cities across the country, making them citizen friendly and sustainable.
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): To provide basic civic amenities like water supply, sewerage, urban transport, parks as to improve the quality of life for all especially the poor and the disadvantaged.
National Mission on sustainable habitat: It is one of the eight climate missions under the NAPCC mitigation strategy, to make the cities sustainable through improvements in energy efficiency in building, management of solid waste and to shift to public transport.
National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY): For bringing together urban planning, economic growth and heritage conservation in an inclusive manner to preserve the heritage character of each Heritage City.
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U): To addresses urban housing shortage among the EWS/LIG and MIG categories including the slum dwellers by ensuring a pucca house to all eligible urban households by the year 2022, when Nation completes 75 years of its Independence.
500 Healthy Cities Programme’, for a period of 5 years to ensure holistic socio-economic development of Indian cities.
All the cities/towns under the proposed 'Healthy Cities Programme' should strengthen regulations to maximize the efficiency of urban land.
A citizen outreach campaign for making the process of urban planning more inclusive and accessible.
National Council of Town and Country Planners to be constituted as a statutory body of the Government of India to improve the governance of urban areas.
Adopt a circular economy system to minimize their negative impacts on the environment.
Preventing distress migration to cities through Rurbanization i.e., providing urban like facilities in rural areas or make rural areas smart.
The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has recommended that master plans in cities should be revisited for the improved governance of cities.
Context: The Finance Minister promised a committee to study India’s population growth to ensure that the nation is on target to meet the Viksit Bharat goal by 2047.
India’s current Population Dynamics and further challenges:
The steady decline in fertility rates is leading to a scenario where two parents are now being replaced by two children and all segments of the society have begun to adopt family planning.
Currently, 33 per cent of the population is aged 20-29, while 23 per cent of the population is aged 40-59. But in 2047, the proportion of the younger population will decrease, and the proportion of older working ages will increase, with each forming about 28 per cent of the population.
Dependency burden, defined as the number of individuals ages 15-59 supporting children under 15 and older population above 60, will vary dramatically between states.
For example in 2021, in Bihar, 151 working-age adults supported 100 dependents, while in Tamil Nadu, 189 adults supported the same population; this will flip with the worker-to-dependent ratio changing to 201 in Bihar and 132 in Tamil Nadu by 2051.
As fertility declines, the burden of child care for women will drop. An analysis of National Family Health Survey data shows that in 1993, an average woman spent about 14 years caring for children under age five.
This number dropped to eight years in 2021, however, time freed up from childcare has not been utilised in increased participation in the workforce.
Way forward:
To ensure that this growing proportion of middle-aged workers can keep up with the changing demands of an increasingly technologically driven economy, government must invest in continued skill upgradation and on-the-job training.
For expanding women’s ability to participate in the job market may be to improve the availability of childcare, possibly through creative combinations of Anganwadi and the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. MGNREGA works should include rotational provision of childcare under the supervision of a trained early childhood educator.
A combination of rising numbers of elderly and a declining number of children to care for them means the government must increase the ability of this older population to be self-sustaining.
A combination of policies will be needed, including rising retirement age, enhanced old age pension schemes, and increased ability to sell land or homes, assets in which most of the wealth of the Indian elderly resides.
Lessons from China, as China implemented a strict one-child policy, bringing it to a demographic cliff. China has reached a point where the needs of its aging population have begun to drag down its economic growth. Relaxing the one-child limitation has been unsuccessful in increasing fertility.
This suggests that India should refrain from a similarpanicked reaction and let fertility decline continue at a natural pace.
The future of elderly and children in India will depend on how productive workers are in states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. The newly formed 16th Finance Commission will have the task of investing in workers in these states to ensure the well-being of all Indians in the future.
Conclusion
Addressing these difficult challenges needs input from various experts like population researchers, economists, social scientists, and government policy specialists. Creating a special committee to study the challenges brought about by changes in population alongside the 16th Finance Commission will help guide government spending decisions, leading to positive effects on priorities.
Context: On the occasion of the International Day of Women and Girls in Science on 11 February, the Indian National Science Academy (INSA) witnessed the launch of the “Science for Women-A Technology & Innovation (SWATI)” Portal.
About SWATI Portal
Developed hosted and maintained by: National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR), New Delhi.
Initiative of: Inter Academy Panel (IAP) on Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics & Medicine (STEMM).
Objective: To create a single online portal representing Indian Women and Girls in Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics & Medicine (STEMM).
Features: It contains a comprehensive database profiling Indian women across STEMM fields.
Includes profiles of women awardees (Padma / Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar / Stree Shakti Science Samman) & Directors, Secretaries Academy Presidents.
Includes each and every Indian woman in science, across all career stages and subjects, spanning both academia and the industry, enabling reliable and statistically significant long term research on the issues of equality, diversity and inclusivity in India.
Significance: Will serve in policy making to address the challenges of Gender-gap.
Facilitating sustained and statistically robust long-term research on matters pertaining to equality, diversity, and inclusivity in India.
It will inspire and empower more young women and girls to pursue education and careers in scientific fields.
Creating a dynamic search engine and accessible database.
About the InterAcademy Partnership (IAP)
It is a global network consisting of over 140 national and regional member academies of science, engineering, and medicine.
It was founded in 1993 as the InterAcademy Panel (IAP).
The mission of IAP is for the world's merit-based academies to play a vital role in ensuring that science serves society inclusively and equitably and underpins global sustainable development by advising the public on the scientific aspects of critical global issues.
