Context: In a major breakthrough, India has successfully set up a “Global Alliance for Global Good- Gender Equity and Equality” to push women’s empowerment and gender equality during the 54th Annual Meeting of World Economic Forum in Davos.
More information:
The aim of the alliance is to bring together global good practices, knowledge sharing, investments in the field of women’s health, education, and enterprise.
The project is a follow up of the activities of the Engagement Group and initiatives drafted under the G20 framework, inter alia, the Business 20, Women 20 and G20 EMPOWER, among others.
This alliance also aims at taking forward the commitments of G20 leaders for the benefit of the larger global community.
This initiative marks a significant stride toward achieving multiple SDGs, including SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-Being, 4- Quality Education, 5 – Gender Equality and Empowerment, 17- Global Partnership for Development and more, underscoring India’s commitment to gender equality and equity as a critical component of global development.
This alliance is Supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the alliance will be housed and anchored by the CII Centre for Women Leadership. The World Economic Forum has come on board as a ‘Network Partner’ and Invest India as an ‘Institutional Partner’.
Given India’s abiding commitment to ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’ – One Earth, One Family, One Future– and its continued efforts towards ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Prayaas’, the ‘Alliance for Global Good- Gender Equity and Equality’ is on the verge of being a force to reckon with on all gender-related issues of G20 nations.
About World Economic Forum (WEF):·
Professor Klaus Schwab founded WEF in 1971, originally called the European Management Forum, as a non-profit foundation based in Geneva, Switzerland.
It is the International Organization for Public-Private Cooperation.
In 2015, the Forum was formally recognised as an international organization.
Context: The Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) is claiming that the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is carrying out a deliberate dismantling of slum settlements, which could have far-reaching consequences for a significant number of Delhi's residents.
The issue of slum demolition and urban redevelopment is multifaceted, involving a delicate balance between urban planning, housing rights, and political motivations. It tends to be a contentious subject because, while some perceive it as necessary for urban progress and modernization, others view it as a process that displaces impoverished communities, often without providing satisfactory alternatives for their relocation or livelihoods.
What is Slum?
The definition of “Slum” varies from country to country. In India, the central government through the office of the Registrar General of India’s National Sample Survey office have their own definition in the same way as each state has its own definition of slum.
Definition of Slum as per census 2011
There are regional differences in the names by which slums are known in India. In Delhi, slums are commonly called ‘Jhuggi-Jhompdi’, whereas in Mumbai they are called Jhopadapatti or Chawls’. Other known names are- ‘Ahatas’ in Kanpur, ‘Bustees’ in Kolkata, ‘Cheris’ in Chennai and ‘Keirs’ in Bangalore.
But physical characteristics in most of these slums are essentially the same. They are usually a cluster of hutments with dilapidated and infirm structure shaving common or no toilet facilities, suffering from lack of basic amenities, inadequate arrangements for drainage and for disposal of solid and wastages and garbage.
These in adequacies make the living conditions in slums extremely suboptimal, unhygienic and results in usually higher incidence of air and water borne diseases for the dwellers.
Maharashtra had a population of 1.18 crore living in slums in 2011, followed by Andhra Pradesh at nearly 1.02 crore. At 2.20 crore, these two states accounted for more than one-third of India’s 6.55 crore slum population (2011 Census).
Key Factors Responsible for growth of Slums
1. Rapid Urbanization: The migration of people from rural areas to cities in search of better job opportunities and living conditions leads to rapid urbanization.
This often results in the development of slums as cities struggle to accommodate the influx of people.
According to the Union Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, about 34% of India's population lived in urban areas in 2019, and this is projected to reach 40% by 2030, contributing to the expansion of slums.
Roughly 1.37 crore households, or 17.4% of urban Indian households lived in a slum in 2011, data released by the registrar general and census commissioner.
2. Lack of Affordable Housing & Poverty: The deficit of affordable housing in urban areas leaves low-income groups with no choice but to reside in slums. Further High levels of poverty force people to seek affordable housing, which is often found in slum areas.
In India, 21.9% of the population lives below the national poverty line in 2011.
3. Weak Urban Planning: Weak governance and corruption can lead to inadequate implementation of housing policies and urban development plans, contributing to the growth of slums. The absence of effective slum redevelopment policies has led to the proliferation of slums in major cities like Mumbai and Delhi.
4. Migration: Internal migration due to factors like natural disasters or conflicts leads to the formation of slums. Further Environmental issues like land erosion, floods, and droughts in rural areas push people towards cities, often resulting in slum living due to the lack of alternatives.States like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, which have high rates of out-migration, often see their residents ending up in slums of metropolitan cities.
5. Socio-Political Factors: Discrimination and social inequalities based on caste, religion, or ethnicity can marginalize certain groups, limiting their access to adequate housing and forcing them into slums.
For Eg-Marginalized communities like the Dalits often face housing discrimination, leading to higher slum populations among these groups.
According to 2011 census-Around 40% of slum population of Punjab is SC, Tamil Nadu has 32%, Chandigarh has 30% and Haryana has 30% SC slum population.
6. Economic Disparities: The widening gap between the rich and the poor in urban areas results in a lack of affordable options for the lower-income groups, pushing them towards slum areas.India's Gini coefficient, a measure of income inequality, has been rising, indicating growing economic disparities.
7. Lack of Legal Recognition: The lack of legal recognition of slum dwellers' rights often leads to a neglect of these areas in urban planning and development.
Many slum dwellers do not have formal property rights, affecting around 65 million people in India according to some estimates.
8. Globalization: It has led to uneven urban development, where certain areas become highly developed while others are neglected, leading to slum formation.
The rapid growth of Global IT hubs in cities like Hyderabad and Bengaluru has not been matched with proportional housing and infrastructure development in all areas.
Issues faced by Slum Dwellers:
1. Overcrowding and Poor Living Conditions: Slums are characterized by high population density, resulting in cramped and inadequate living spaces. This leads to a lack of privacy, increased stress, and difficulty in maintaining hygiene. The houses are often constructed from makeshift materials, lacking durability and safety.
For eg- Dharavi is Asia’s largest slum. It is spread over 2.5 square kilometres and has a population density of 227,136/square kilometre.
2. Lack of Basic Amenities: Many slums have limited access to essential services like clean drinking water, sanitation, and reliable electricity. This leads to health risks due to contaminated water and poor hygiene. The scarcity of toilets forces residents to use open spaces or overcrowded public facilities, exacerbating health and dignity concerns.
3. Health Issues: The conditions in slums, including poor sanitation, inadequate nutrition, and overcrowded living spaces, contribute to the spread of communicable diseases like tuberculosis and cholera. Limited access to healthcare exacerbates these issues.
4. Quality Education: Children in slums face challenges in accessing quality education. Schools in these areas are typically under-resourced, with high student-teacher ratios and inadequate infrastructure. This results in lower literacy rates and educational attainment, perpetuating the cycle of poverty.
5. Unemployment and Underemployment: A significant portion of slum residents are employed in the informal sector, which offers unstable and low-paying jobs. This lack of job security and benefits such as healthcare and pensions contributes to the economic vulnerability of these populations.
6. Environmental Degradation: The lack of proper waste management systems in slums leads to environmental issues like pollution of nearby water bodies and land. This not only harms the environment but also poses health risks to the residents and the broader community.
7. Social Stigma and Discrimination: Slum dwellers often face social stigma, which impacts their ability to access services, find quality employment, and integrate into wider society. This discrimination can lead to social exclusion and perpetuate the cycle of poverty.
8. Legal and Policy Challenges: Many slums are built on land without legal permission, making it difficult for the government to provide basic services or enforce regulations. This uncertain legal status also leaves residents vulnerable to evictions and displacement.
9. Impact on vulnerable section:
Women in slums face specific challenges, including limited access to healthcare, especially reproductive health services, and higher vulnerability to violence. Cultural and societal norms often restrict their mobility and access to education and employment opportunities.
Economic hardships often compel families to send their children to work, depriving them of education and exposing them to hazardous conditions. Child labor is prevalent in sectors like garment manufacturing, where children work long hours for minimal wages.
Govt Initiatives
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U) - It has In-Situ Slum Redevelopment (ISSR) as one of its four components under which slum rehabilitation can be taken up using land as a resource.
The Integrated Housing & Slum Development Programme (IHSDP) merged the National Slum Development Programme (NSDP) and Valmiki Ambedkar Malina Basti Awas Yojana (VAMBAY). It sought to offer adequate shelter and infrastructure to slum dwellers in urban areas.
The Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the Urban Poor (ISHUP) - The Scheme envisages the provision of interest subsidy to EWS and LIG segments to enable them to buy or construct houses. It will provide home loan with Central Government subsidy to EWS/LIG persons for acquisition of house as also for construction of house.
The problem of slums in developing nations is intricate and multi-dimensional, necessitating a comprehensive strategy to tackle the diverse difficulties encountered by residents of these areas. Initiatives aimed at bettering living standards, offering cost-effective housing, and boosting economic prospects are crucial in making significant progress in easing the struggles of slum inhabitants. Through focused and cooperative approaches, it's feasible to attain the objective of establishing sustainable and inclusive urban settings.
Context: Structured negotiation is a collaborative and solution-driven dispute resolution technique which is increasingly being used as an alternative to litigation. It typically involves inviting the defaulting service provider to the negotiation table and impressing upon them the benefits of complying with social welfare legislations. While its utility pervades sectors, structured negotiation has been most effective in settling disability rights cases in the United States, a development that one of us, Ms. Feingold, has played no small part in ensuring.
First, what is a disability?
Right of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016
Defines "Person with disability" means a person with long term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which, in interaction with barriers, hinders his full and effective participation in society equally with others.
Let us look at the disabled population in our country
Disabled Population in India as per census 2011 (2016 updated) – In India out of the 121 Cr population, 2.68 Cr persons are disabled which is 2.21% of the total population.
Among the disabled population 56% (1.5 Cr) are males and 44% (1.18 Cr ) are females. In the total population, the male and female population are 51% and 49% respectively.
Majority (69%) of the disabled population resided in rural areas (1.86 Cr disabled persons in rural areas and 0.81 Cr in urban areas). In the case of total population also, 69% are from rural areas while the remaining 31% resided in urban areas.
Issues
Let us begin the discussion with a very good quote: which summarizes the overall issues faced by the disabled:
Unavailability of data and statistics:
And the reason for that is:
Difficult to define disability
Coverage: Different purposes require different disability data
Reluctance in reporting disability as disability is considered to be a stigma in many places/societies
Health
There is lack of affordable access to proper health care, aids and appliances
Healthcare facilities and poorly trained health-workers in rehabilitation centres is another concern
Education:
The education system is not inclusive.
Inclusion of children with mild to moderate disabilities in regular schools has remained a major challenge.
There are various issues such as availability special schools, access to schools, trained teachers, and availability of educational materials for the disabled.
Further, reservations for the disabled in higher educational institutions has not been fulfilled in many instances
Employment:
Even though many disabled adults are capable of productive work, disabled adults have far lower employment rates than the general population.
The situation is even worse in the private sector, where much less disabled are employed
Accessibility:
Physical accessibility in buildings, transportation, access to services etc still remain a major challenge.
Discrimination/Social Exclusion:
Negative attitudes held by the families of the disabled, and often the disabled themselves, hinder disabled persons from taking an active part in the family, community or workforce.
Differently-abled people face discrimination in everyday life. People suffering from mental illness or mental retardation face the worst stigma and are subject to severe social exclusion.
Hence these issues create a vicious cycle:
Right of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016
Defines "Person with disability" means a person with long term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which, in interaction with barriers, hinders his full and effective participation in society equally with others.
Accessible India Campaign : Creation of Accessible Environment for PwDs:
A nation-wide flagship campaign for achieving universal accessibility that will enable persons with disabilities to gain access for equal opportunity and live independently and participate fully in all aspects of life in an inclusive society.
DeenDayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme:
Under the scheme financial assistance is provided to NGOs for providing various services to Persons with Disabilities, like special schools, vocational training centres, community based rehabilitation, pre-school and early intervention etc
Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase / fitting of Aids and Appliances (ADIP):
The Scheme aims at helping the disabled persons by bringing suitable, durable, scientifically-manufactured, modern, standard aids and appliances within their reach.
But Poor implementation of policies and schemes hinders the inclusion of disabled persons. Though various acts and schemes have been laid down with an aim to empower the disabled, their enforcement face many challenges.
So in essence we can say that the disabled people have to go through everyday pain of being excluded from a whole host of normal life activities.
Not only that, they have to constantly find ways of living with equal productivity and dignity as others which the able-bodied often simply do not have to think about.
Because of which there exists a massive gap between what people with disabilities, when provided appropriate tools and resources, are capable of achieving and what they are allowed to achieve, on account of the multiple impediments placed in their path.
Way Forward
Prevention
A lot of disabilities are preventable: (Example wasting of muscles due to Polio)
large number of disabilities are preventable, including those arising from medical issues during birth, maternal conditions, malnutrition, as well as accidents and injuries.
However, the health sector especially in rural India has failed to react proactively to disability
Preventive health programs need to be strengthened and all children need to be screened at a young age.
Case Study: Kerala has already started an early prevention programme. Comprehensive Newborn Screening (CNS) programme seeks early identification of deficits in infants and reduce the state's burden of disability.
Awareness:
People with disabilities need to be better integrated into society by overcoming stigma
There should be awareness campaigns to educate and aware people about different kinds of disability
Success stories of people with disabilities can be showcased to inculcate positive attitude among people
Employment:
Disabled adults need to be empowered with employable skills o The private sector needs to be encouraged to employ them.
Better measurement:
The scale of disability in India needs to be better understood by improving the measurement of disability.
Education:
State-wise strategies on education for children with special needs need to be devised.There should be proper teacher training to address the needs of differently abled children and facilitate their inclusion in regular schools.
Safety measures like road safety, safety in residential areas, public transport system etc, should be taken up Further, it should be made legally binding to make buildings disabled-friendly
Policy Interventions:
More budgetary allocation for welfare of the disabled. There should be a disability budgeting on line of gender budget.
Proper implementation of schemes should be ensured. There should be proper monitoring mechanisms and accountability of public funds.
Context: Supreme Court of India found that prison manuals in more than 10 States, including Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, continue to have provisions which sanction discrimination and forced labour on the ground of caste in prisons.
About caste system:
It is a form of social stratification that involves a system of hierarchically ranked, closed endogamous strata, the membership of which is ascribed and between which contact is restricted and mobility theoretically impossible.
Prison statistics in India
Of the total 4,78,600 prison inmates in the country, 3,15,409 or 65.90% belong to the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and the Other Backward Class categories in 2020 (NCRB).
Reason for continuity of caste based discrimination in prisons:
However, despite all modern forces of change, the caste system continued to exist in Indian society.
Idea of purity and impurity: The Prisons Act, 1894 contain specific provisions concerning prisons’ functioning and the regulation of prisoners’ actions. Since prisons are a State list subject, the Prisons Act guides respective state governments to formulate their respective prison manual rules. E.g:
Accordingly, the Rajasthan Prison Manual prescribed that hospital attendants must belong to a “good caste”.
Similar provisions continue in several states like, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab. The “Mehtar” and “Chandal” castes, communities historically associated with manual scavenging and cleaning, have been explicitly allocated tasks of sweeping and cleaning work.
Prison manuals safeguard the privileged position of Savarna Hindus (Brahmins) by guaranteeing their exclusive rights to prepare and transport food for all inmates.
Institutionalised bias: The prison system reflect and perpetuate societal biases. Discrimination based on caste may be ingrained in the attitudes and practices of prison staff, affecting the treatment of inmates. E.g:Dalits even have a separate ward in prisons.
Deep-rooted social structures: The caste system has historically dictated social interactions, leading to hierarchies and inequalities. E.g: Treatment of inmates from the denotified tribes as “habitual offenders.
Gaps in laws: The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013, does not encompass prison administration, thereby rendering it ineffective in prohibiting manual scavenging within Indian prisons.
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 : The act ignore of the casteist allocation of jobs in prison and unable the protect the core dignity of human beings (Article 21).
Initiative taken to deal with caste based discrimination in prison:
Constitutional Provision:
Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
Article 17: Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden.
Article 21: No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty.
International initiative:
Nelson Mandela Rules: To treat prisoners with inherent dignity and to prohibit torture and other ill-treatment and state that there should be no discrimination amongst the inmates on the grounds of status.
Government Initiative:
Model Prison Manual of 2016: Based on Nelson Mandel Rules, aims at bringing in basic uniformity in laws, rules and regulations governing the administration of prisons and the management of prisoners all over the country.
Judiciary intervention:
Rama Murthy Judgment (1997): SC identified nine issues concerning prisons, such as overcrowding, trials being delayed, the torture and ill-treatment of prisoners, neglect of health and hygiene, insubstantial food and inadequate clothing.
Shatrughan Chauhan v. Union of India: SC said the legal procedure adopted to deprive a person of his life or liberty must be fair, just and reasonable and the protection of Article 21 of the Constitution of India inheres in every person, even death-row prisoners, till the very last breath of their lives.
Measure to be adopted to bring equality amongst the prisoners:
Recommendations given by Mulla Committee:
Setting up an All India Service called the Indian Prisons & Correctional Service for fostering a more inclusive and equitable approach within the prison system.
National Commission for Prisons to function as a specialized advisory body for all prison and allied matters.
Independent and regular inspection of prisons: Can be a very effective tool in improving conditions of prisons
All state governments should amend outdated prison manuals and adopt the Model Prison Manual of 2016.
Sensitization policies that prohibit discrimination and harassment within the prison environment.
Context: Forty years after the introduction of the domestic violence provision in the Indian Penal Code, women are still at risk of having their complaints dismissed or disbelieved by police and judiciary.
About domestic violence
Protection of Women from domestic violence Act 2005 (PWDVA): The act provides the definition of domestic violence as: Harms or injures or endangers the health, safety, life, limb or well-being, whether mental or physical, of the aggrieved person or tends to do so and includes causing physical abuse, sexual abuse, verbal and emotional abuse and economic abuse.
Crime against women
Crimes against women have increased year on year. As per the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) report 2015, every day 21 women die because of dowry in India.
According to the NCRB report 2019, 4 lakh cases were registered under Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC).
As per the National Family Health Survey 5 (2019- 20), 30 percent of women between the ages of 18 and 49 experienced physical violence from the age of 15 (that's over 20 crore women), while six per cent experienced sexual violence in their lifetime.
In 2021, 136,000 complaints were registered under Indian Penal Code Section 498A (cruelty by husband or his relatives).
According to NFHS data, 87 per cent of married women who are victims of marital violence do not seek help.
Cause for domestic violence against women
Cultural factors
Patriarchy: It is a cultural value that places men in power and authority over women. This leads to an unequal power dynamic between the sexes. This imbalance of power can lead to the use of physical force to exert control over women.
Collectivism: This cultural value places a greater emphasis on the requirements of the community and family over those of the individual, and honour and reputation within the family are highly valued in collectivist societies. As a direct consequence of this, instances of domestic violence go unreported, thus ensuring that the cycle of abuse continues.
Religious beliefs: In traditionalist societies, religion is used to justify domestic violence, with men citing religious texts to support that male is superior than female.
Socio-economic factors
Lack of education: A lack of education might result in a lack of knowledge regarding women's rights and gender equality. As a result, women may experience domestic violence and be treated as less valuable.
Poverty: Due to the tension that financial strain can cause inside families, poverty can make domestic violence worse. Due to their possible financial dependence on their abusers, women in low-income households may be especially susceptible to domestic violence.
Alcohol and substance misuse: In India, alcohol and drug misuse might be risk factors for domestic violence. Alcoholism can cause people to lose their inhibitions and act violently.
Dowry: It is often linked to social status and can be seen as a measure of a family's wealth and prestige. In situations where the dowry is not considered sufficient, the bride may face mistreatment as a way for the groom's family to assert dominance and control, reinforcing power imbalances.
Initiative taken by government:
Dowry Prohibition Act 1961: The court is empowered to act in its own knowledge or on a complaint by any recognized welfare organization on dowry murder. Indian Evidence Act is also amended to shift the burden of proof to the husband & his family when the bride dies within 7 yrs. of marriage.
Amendment to Criminal Act 1983: This Act talks about domestic violence as an offence, rape is also made a punishable offence.
Protection of Women from domestic violence Act 2005(PWDVA, 2005): Any person who has reason to believe that an act of domestic violence has been, or is being, or is likely to be committed, may give information about it to the concerned Protection Officer/police.
The act also defines physical abuse, sexual abuse, verbal and emotional abuse and economic abuse.
Indian Penal Code (IPC):
Section 498A IPC: It was introduced in 1983 with the objective to tackle the problem of the large number of women dying in their homes. The section addresses the subjection of any woman to cruelty (whether mental or physical of such a nature that is likely to drive the woman to commit suicide or to cause grave injury or danger to life, limb or health and also with unlawful demand for any property or valuable security.
Sections 319 to 338 of the IPC: Deal with assaults and grievous hurt in various forms.
National Commission for Women (NCW): The NCW is an organisation that works to support and assist women who have experienced domestic abuse. Their helpline number is 1091.
Domestic Violence Helpline: It is a toll-free hotline that offers victims of domestic violence support and assistance around-the-clock. Their phone number for their helpline is 181.
Challenges in Addressing the issues of domestic violence
Misuse of law: In Rakesh and Reena Rajput v The State of Jharkhand case, the Jharkhand High Court said , "There is a phenomenal increase in matrimonial disputes in recent years and it appears that in many cases, the object of Section 498A IPC is being misused and the section is used as weapon rather than shield by dis gruntled wives, this is one of the reason where innocent individuals have been wrongly implicated.
Under the PWDVA law, state governments are required to appoint protection officers (POs). Several States are yet to implement POs. And where they are in post, they are under-resourced, under-skilled and overworked.
Inadequate support services: Insufficient availability of shelters, counselling services, and legal support can hinder women from leaving abusive relationships. Adequate funding and resources for support services are critical. In Delhi only, there are 13 women shelters and short-stay homes for women and most are overcrowded and used mainly by the underprivileged, according to Ending Domestic Violence Through Non-Violence: A Manual for PWDVA Officers, published by Lawyers Collective.
Social shame: Societal stigma and the fear of judgment can prevent women from disclosing their experiences of domestic violence. The stigma attached to being a victim may lead to feelings of shame and isolation.
Threats and intimidation tactics: Many women face the fear of retaliation from their abusers, making it difficult for them to speak out or seek help. Threats and intimidation tactics can be powerful barriers to reporting abuse.
Lack of reliable and periodical data: On violence against women (VAW) and girls, which leads to a situation of speculations and sensationalism; it also creates an atmosphere of fear and anxiety.
Attitudinal problem: Across many States, it is observed that the police were more likely to send women back to violent households to reconcile with the perpetrator or go for counselling.
Way forward
Prevention of violence requires numerous immediate, medium and long term interventions including large scale campaigns to sensitise and educate men and women on VAW.
The intervention should begin by focusing on gender equality in education since the quality of education received by women has not equipped them to question the patriarchy.
Trauma-informed institutional response, revamping of the support systems based on impact assessments and increasing the number of one-stop centres with adequate professionals are some of the other measures needed.
Draft National Policy for Women, 2016:
Strict monitoring of response of enforcement agencies to violence against women will be put in place. Efforts will be made to ensure speedy /time bound trial of crimes against women.
Alternate dispute redressal systems such as family courts, Nari Adalats etc., will be strengthened.
Efforts will be made to increase the representation of women in judicial positions across the board as female judges often bring a heightened sensitivity to gender-related cases and their presence can lead to fairer and more informed decisions in such cases.
Efforts will be made to streamline data systems through review of various data sources (Census, NFHS, NSS, NCRB) to develop a compatible and comprehensive data base on Violence Against Women.
Gender specific training incorporating gender sensitivity and a thorough briefing on the specific laws for women will be undertaken continuously for all ranks and categories of police personnel.
Case study of VAW: Mararikulam Panchayat
The Mararikulam Panchayat implemented the mapping programme through the Kudumbashree community network as part of their effort to make Mararikkulam a women-friendly Panchayat.
A crime-mapping exercise and awareness campaign on the issue of VAW taken up.
Context: The migrant labor force plays vital role in nation's growth and development, but they are often disregarded and considered forgotten citizens. Moreover, the state mechanisms show lack of care and attention towards the migrant workers.
About migrant workers
According to the Census, a person is considered a migrant if his/her place of birth is different from the place where he is enumerated. It also uses place of last residence or if the place in which he is enumerated during the census is other than his place of immediate last residence.
Migration is the geographic movement of people across a specified boundary various reasons especially social, economic, political reasons. Along with fertility and mortality, migration is a component of the population change.
The term “in migration” and “out migration” are used for migration within a country and are comparable to the terms “immigration” and “emigration” used in international migration.
Factors for migration:
Status of Migration in India
As per the census 2011, the total number of internal migrants in India is 46 crore or 37% of the country’s population.
As per NSS 2020-21 Survey:One in three Urban Indians is a ‘migrant’ but mostly intra-state. Among migrants, 55% have moved between villages mostly women moving after marriage.
Marriage is a larger driver of migration than jobs for women. Jobs are the biggest reason of migration from men.
Himachal Pradesh and Telangana have the highest share of job-related migrants in their total urban male population.
Delhi has the highest share of persons (21.3%) who have come from outside its territory.
Challenges faced by migrant workers:
Discrimination: Migrant workers may face discrimination based on language, ethnicity, or cultural differences, that can leads to social isolationand access essential services.
Health issues : Workers often live in overcrowded and substandard housing conditions with limited access to sanitation facilities contributes to health issues, like stagnant water around the settlement becomes a breeding ground for vector borne disease.
Lack of social safety: Many migrant workers lack of social safety nets such as healthcare, insurance, and retirement plans during economic shocks and health crises .E.g.: During Covid-19 pandemic, more than 80 percent workers in the informal sector lost employment in India and about 75 percent of these workers were small traders & daily wage-labourers, according to Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy.
Education exclusion: Frequent relocations of migrant families often face difficulties in ensuring access to education for their children.
Low wage: Migrant workers often engage in unorganized and informal sectors where they receive wages below the minimum standard and lack job security, rendering them vulnerable to exploitation.
Lack of realistic data: The current data structure lacks a realistic statistical account of the number of migrant workers and a comprehensive understanding of the nature of their mobility.
Political exclusion: Migrants do not usually have voting rights in their destination states, which leaves migrants unable to make political demands for entitlements and seek reforms.
Risk of exclusion: This Public Distribution System (PDS), may face risk of exclusion because many sections of society who still don’t have Aadhar Cards, consequently depriving them of food security.
A roadmap to improve the conditions of migrant workers:
Promote social integration by creating programs that facilitate cultural exchange and understanding between migrant workers and local communities that help migrants adapt to their new environments.
Establish a system for regular updates to keep the database current and reflective of the changing circumstances of migrant workers.
Enabling the political inclusion of migrant workers so they can demand their entitlements. This will enhance the accountability of political leadership towards the welfare of migrant workers in their respective states.
Setting up inter-state coordination mechanisms between source states and destination states to work with each other.
The Ministry of Labour and Employment should set up a special unit for migrant workers, that manages migration resource centres in high migration zones.
A national labour helpline should be established.
Embedding a migration wing in each state’s labour department. Creation of night shelters, short-stay homes and seasonal accommodations for migrants in cities.
Government intervention for migrant workers
e-SHRAM portal: To create a national database of unorganised workers seeded with Aadhaar. It is also to facilitate delivery of Social Security and welfare Schemes to such workers.
One Nation One Ration Card: To create a technology systems that will be used for enabling migrants to access Ration from any Fair Price Shop in India.
Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHC) for Migrant Workers/Urban Poor (under Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban ): To caters to the housing needs to eligible beneficiaries.
Code on Social Security, 2020: The code broadens the definition of an employee to encompass informal workers to extend the existing social security net. Under this central government will establish social security funds for informal workers, gig workers, and platform workers.
Prime Minister Street Vendor’s AtmaNirbhar Nidhi (PM-SVANidhi): To offer affordable working capital loans to street vendors, enabling them to restart their livelihoods adversely affected by the Covid-19 lockdown.
State migrant cell: Established to develop a database of migrant workers in various states, along with comprehensive mapping.
Election Commission's remote voting plan for migrants: That would allow domestic migrants to vote in national and regional elections for enabling political inclusion of migrant workers so they can demand their entitlements.
Context: A study of over 4 lakh FIRs in Haryana has found that not only are cases of violence against women, in which women are the primary complainants, less likely to be registered and more likely to be dismissed in court or result in acquittals. This is attributed to the limited presence of women in the legal process.
Key findings of the study
The study matched over 2.5 lakh FIRs with judicial records found on the e-courts website and found that women’s complaints are less likely to go from the police station to the judiciary.
There are fewer convictions about 5% for women and 17.9% for male complainants.
The study also found that women complaining of violence (VAW cases) wait longer at the police station before an FIR can be registered. While this wait has been pegged at 7 hours for all complainants, for women complaining of violence, the wait is 9 hours.
The study also found that on an average, women take more time to register an FIR.
Women’s participation in judiciary
At global level: According to the International Bar Association, women lawyers make up 51% of the profession but only occupy 32% of senior roles. In the judiciary, women make up 43% of all judges and hold 26% of all senior positions.
In India: According to India Justice Report (IJR) 2022, women make up approximately 35% of the total number of judges at the district court level, and around 13 at the high court level.
Importance of Women in the judiciary
Female judges often bring a heightened sensitivity to gender-related cases, including those involving domestic violence, sexual harassment, and discrimination. Their presence can lead to fairer and more informed decisions in such cases.
Women judges serve as role models for aspiring female lawyers and judges. They inspire and encourage more women to pursue legal careers and work towards breaking down gender barriers in the profession.
Bringing different perspectives and diverse reasoning on the bench creates greater public trust and confidence because it is more reflective of the composition of society
Women judges bring their unique life experiences and perspectives to the table. It integrates varied social contexts and experiences that need to be included, recognized and, most importantly, valued.
Reason for low participation of women in Judiciary
Gender bias and stereotypes: Deep-rooted gender bias and stereotypes persist in many societies, which can influence perceptions of women's abilities and roles. These biases may lead to skepticism about women's competence and suitability for judicial roles.
Lack of representation: When there are few women in leadership positions within the judiciary, it can be discouraging for women considering such careers. The absence of role models can make it difficult for women to envision themselves succeeding in these roles.
Gendered division of labor: Cultural and societal expectations often place a heavier burden on women for caregiving and domestic responsibilities. This can make it challenging for women to pursue demanding legal careers.
Discrimination and harassment: Some women in the legal profession may experience discrimination and sexual harassment, which can create a hostile work environment and deter them from pursuing judicial careers.
Gender-blind policies: Policies fail to consider the unique challenges women face, such as work-life balance, and implicit bias in hiring and promotion, that do not provide the necessary support, training, and resources to address these issues, resulting in the underrepresentation of women in the judiciary.
Lack of Women's Reservation: While some states like Telangana, and Odisha etc. have implemented reservation policies to promote women's representation in the lower judiciary, there is no such provision in the High Courts and Supreme Court.
Inadequate judicial infrastructure: Like the absence of restroom facilities, and the lack of childcare services, overcrowded and cramped small courtrooms serves as a hindrance to women.
Recommendations
Provide women lawyers with the tools and support they need to succeed in leadership roles, including:
creating a positive work environment
investing in measures directed at redistributing their care roles
taking steps to dispel common myths and stereotypes based on grounds of sex, gender, and race
Create formal processes and mechanisms to eliminate discrimination, violence, and harassment in the world of work such as:
conducting audits to identify the prevalence of sexism and gendered violence and its risk factors
introducing legal protections and measures to support victims of domestic violence at work
creating formal reporting mechanisms
preventing reprisals against those who report such incidents
Context: Punjab Chief MinisterBhagwant Mann led a large prayer gathering of schoolchildren,in which they pledged to reject the scourge of drugs.
Punjab continues to grapple with the menace that has plagued it for over a decade. Seasoned police officers describe it as narco-terrorism, propagated by an unfriendly neighbour.
The Director-General of Police regularly updates the public on drug seizures, citing an alarming annual tally of 12,000 to 14,000 cases filed under the NDPS Act, alongside a record seizure of 1,100 kg of heroin in 2023.
Drug overdose deaths continue — as per the government’s own report, 266 persons have died of drugs between April 2020 and March 2023.
Earlier it was also reported that the problem of drug abuse is likely to explode in the next decade as the usage in now reaching the adolescents. It was also observed that impact of drug abuse has increased both in rural and Urban India.
There has been also an increase in drug-abuse particularly post the corona pandemic.
What is Drug or Substance Addiction?
Drug addiction occurs when its abuse affects a person’s work and normal family life. It creates a ripple effect in the lives of the user and his immediate circle of family, friends, co-workers, neighbours and acquaintances.
Why Punjab remains a problem?
Geographic Location:
The state’s vulnerable geography makes it a hotspot for smuggling of heroin and other opioids across the border.
Declining Agricultural Wealth
Agriculture, which brought the state its wealth, is stagnating and with little industrialisation there is high unemployment present today in Punjab, which makes it a ideal breeding ground for drug industry to make inroads.
Reminiscent of Khalistan movement
In the 1980s, Punjab was in the grip of a violent separatist militancy which has now ebbed but has left its scars. Though Punjab got rid of the secessionist movement only for it to be replaced with narcotics-terrorism thus highlighting the linkages between organised crime and terrorism.
Functional challenges
The small quantity of the drugs seized by the police are clubbed under personal consumption and not as aggregators or peddlers, and this lapse is being utilised by the drug cartels which now engage small time and part time drug peddlers not only making it difficult for police to crack but also multiplying the spread.
Ludhiana as the Drug capital
As Drug usage is also directly proportional to availability of money, Ludhiana being a business hub and with the large population has led to its emergence as Drug capital in Punjab.
Further the presence of strong diaspora abroad and the remittances contributed by them increases the paying capacity of people also in rural areas.
REASONS FOR DRUG ABUSE IN INDIA
GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION: India is located between the Golden Crescent (IRAN, PAKISTAN and AFGHANISTAN) and the Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam) which are the largest opium producing region globally.
LOW INCOME GROUP: Population belonging to the lower strata of the society are particularly exposed to drug abuse in India, and use these as a form of relaxation agent.
SOCIETAL PRESSURE: Most of the youth who get addicted to drug abuse is due to the fact that they start it under the peer pressure or even due to the isolation suffered at the adolescent level at the hands of parents and friends. Apart from this performance pressure, growing emptiness and changing socio-economic conditions are having a toll on the age group.
HEALTH CONDITIONS: It can also be due to mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression or even due to the high levels of stress.
POOR LAW ENFORCEMENT: Corruption among the local enforcement agencies (police) and the loopholes at the border levels have been successfully exploited by the drug cartels. There is also a shortage of staff and equipment to tackle the illicit traffic of drugs.
CURRENT ECONOMIC DOWNTURN: The economic downturn due to covid pandemic and the global recession that is following will certainly increase the trend of drug abuse in India.
GLAMOURISATION:
There has been also glamourisation of intoxication and addictive substance via social media and OTT platforms through web series.
Steps taken by Punjab to counter
Many villages have formed their own anti-drug committees.
Some police districts have introduced gully cricket, while others have instructed constables to mentor addicts.
Police personnel’s are also harnessing the power of social media, with district police chiefs often leading these initiatives.
The prayer gathering at the Golden Temple was an attempt in this direction such that the tenets of religion can be also utilised as a tool of moral suasion.
Indian Government Efforts To Fight Drug Abuse
Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB): NCB is primary agency responsible for curbing trade in illicit drugs & precursor chemicals. NCB shares intelligence with other agencies like Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI), Central Board of Excise and Customs (CBEC), and Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) for better coordination.
NCB also take required actions to control drug trafficking under the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act of 1985. India has entered into 26 bilateral agreements to tackle the threat of drug trade.
Narco-Coordination Centre was established in 2016.
A mechanism under the NCB which was restructured in 2019 into a four-tier district-level scheme.
Seizure Information Management System (SIMS) was also launched in 2019 under Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, for better coordination of all drug law enforcement agencies.
Constitution of National Fund for Control of Drug Abuse
Project SUNRISE was launched specially for the Northeast region to tackle rising HIV prevalence, especially among the people injecting drugs.
NASHA MUKT BHARAT campaign was also launched.
India’s NCB works with several international agencies like SAARC Drug Offences Monitoring Desk, BRICS, Colombo Plan Drug Advisory Program, ASEAN Senior Officials on Drug Matters, BIMSTEC, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), and International Narcotics Control Board (INCB), among others, to combat the illicit trade of drugs.
India is also a signatory to UN Convention on NARCOTIC DRUGS (1961), UN Convention on PSYCHOTROPIC Substances (1971), UN Convention on TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME.
Context: A draft menstrual hygiene policy is out by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Need for Menstrual Hygiene Policy policy
Health and Hygiene: Poor menstrual hygiene can lead to various health issues, including infections and discomfort. According to 5th NHFS (2019-2021):
Women aged 15-24 years who use a hygienic method of protection during their menstrual cycle is 78%. Among these women, 64% use sanitary napkins, 50% use cloth, and 15% use locally prepared napkins.
Only 73% of rural women while 90% of urban women use a hygienic method of menstrual protection respectively.
However, a few States continue to have lower than average access to use of a hygienic method of menstrual protection by women and girls.
Dignity and empowerment: Access to proper menstrual hygiene products and facilities is a matter of dignity and basic human rights. It is essential to ensure that individuals can manage their menstruation with dignity, without feeling ashamed.
Gender equality: Menstruation is associated with stigma and discrimination, leading to gender inequality. A menstrual hygiene policy can help challenge these social norms and promote gender equality by addressing issues related to menstruation.
Accessibility and affordability: A policy can promote the availability and affordability of menstrual hygiene products.
Promote work participation: By creating a more inclusive and supportive environment like, may include flexible working hours, access to sanitary products, and menstrual leave. It will reduce absenteeism and increase productivity and higher work participation rates.
Access to education: By providing essential menstrual hygiene products and support, schools and institutions can help remove barriers that might otherwise prevent girls from attending classes.
About draft Menstrual Hygiene Policy
Menstrual hygiene is the practice of maintaining cleanliness and managing menstruation in a safe and healthy way. It is important for the well-being and dignity of individuals who menstruate. Proper menstrual hygiene management helps prevent infections, discomfort, and allows individuals to continue their daily activities without disruption.
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare(MoHFW) is the Nodal Ministry for the Menstrual hygiene policy.
The policy recognizes menstruation as a natural bodily process for all who menstruate including girls and women of reproductive age and addresses the long-standing challenges associated with menstruation in our country.
By adopting a life cycle approach, the policy ensures comprehensive support through the entire menstrual journey, recognizing the unique needs of individuals from menarche to menopause.
Specific focus on prioritising underserved and vulnerable populations, ensuring equitable access to menstrual hygiene resources and addressing their specific needs.
This policy aligns with India’s commitment to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly in relation to Goal 3 on good health and well-being, Goal 4 on quality education, Goal 5 on gender equality, and Goal 6 on clean water and sanitation.
The policy will serve as a catalyst to raise awareness, challenge societal norms and foster a society that embraces menstrual hygiene as a natural and normal part of life.
Vision
All women, girls and persons who menstruate are able to experience menstruation in a manner that is safe, healthy and free from stigma.
Goal
Each girl, woman and person who menstruates across India can access safe and dignified menstrual hygiene resources in order to improve their quality of life and thereby realize their full potential in health and wellbeing, education, economic and other aspects of life.
Target
The policy caters to the needs of and covers all who menstruate in rural, urban and tribal areas, as well as in educational institutions, workplaces, healthcare settings and other public places.
Objectives
To ensure that women, girls and persons who menstruate have access to safe, hygienic and quality menstrual products and sanitation facilities.
To create an enabling environment for people including women, girls, men and boys so that they have access to correct information on menstruation, and to address myths, stigma and gender issues around menstruation.
To provide a coordination mechanism among different Central Government Ministries, States/ UTs and relevant stakeholders and sectors.
To create a ‘menstrual friendly environment’ in all settings including homes, schools/ educational institutions, workplaces and public spaces.
To foster innovative practices with social entrepreneurs and the private sector.
To strengthen environmentally sustainable menstrual waste disposal.
Policy strategy
Ensure access to affordable and safe menstrual hygiene products: To ensure affordable and accessible menstrual products such as disposable or reusable sanitary pads, menstrual cups, tampons or reusable cloth pads, etc are available to all who menstruate, especially those in low-income communities and marginalized groups.
Promote quality standards and regulatory framework: Develop and implement comprehensive quality standards for different types of menstrual hygiene products available in the market to ensure their safety, efficacy and reliability.
Availability of clean and dignified menstrual hygiene facilities: Promote the development and improvement of menstrual-friendly infrastructure in homes, educational institutions, workplaces and public spaces to include safe, clean and private toilets, proper waste disposal systems and handwashing facilities with soap and clean water.
Promotion of education and awareness on menstrual hygiene: Awareness campaigns targeting menstruators to provide accurate information including options of products available, debunk myths and misconceptions and address social and gender-related challenges associated with menstruation.
Collaboration with Non-government sector/engagement with private sector: Support research and development initiatives that explore new technologies, materials and product designs which improve menstrual hygiene management, while considering accessibility, ease of use, affordability and environmental sustainability.
Foster research and innovation in menstrual hygiene management: Encourage research institutes and academia to contribute to evidence-based policymaking, promote innovation and improve the overall understanding and implementation of menstrual hygiene practices.
Context: The Union government has revoked the suspension order of International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) director K.S. James.
About IIPS
It is a prominent institution dedicated to population studies and training. It serves as a regional Institute for Training and Research in Population Studies for the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) region. ESCAP is one of the five regional commissions under the jurisdiction of the United Nations Economic and Social Council.
Started in 1956 under the joint sponsorship of Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, the Government of India and the United Nations.
It is an autonomous organisation of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Situated in Mumbai.
Earlier it was known as the Demographic Training and Research Centre (DTRC).
Objectives of the Institute
To train persons from India and other countries in demography and related fields, including demographic aspects of family planning.
To undertake scientific research on population problems which are of special importance to India and other countries in the ESCAP region.
To collect, organize and disseminate demographic information about the population of India and other countries of the world.
To provide services of research, evaluation, training, consultation and guidance related to demographic problems to government departments, public corporations or private establishments as deemed desirable in pursuance of the objective of the Society.
To undertake, organize and facilitate study courses, conferences, lectures, seminars and the like to promote the aforesaid objectives.
To undertake and provide for publication of journals and research papers, books and to establish, maintain libraries and information service in furtherance of the objectives of the Society.
Context: The Central government has decided to hold a caste census as part of the next Census exercise. The dates for the next decennial Census exercise, last held in 2011, are yet to be notified by the government. The last time that India’s entire population was counted by caste was in 1931. Since then, only Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have been counted in the Census exercises.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains- Need For Caste based Census and associated Challenges.
Timeline of Caste based Census:
Caste census means inclusion of caste-wise tabulation of India’s population in the Census exercise.
Pre-Independence:
1871 Census was the first attempt to measure the population and enumerate caste data across India.
1931 Census was the last exercise to enumerate caste data.
Post-Independence:
Union of India after Independence, decided as a matter of policy not to enumerate caste wise populations other than SCs and STs.
Thus, India’s largest caste bloc – Other Backward Classes – have not figured in any census from 1951-2011.
There is no proper estimate for the population of OBCs, various groups within the OBCs, and others.
In 1961, the GOI advised States to conduct their own surveys and draw up State-specific OBC lists if they so desired.
Aftermath of Mandal Commission:
In 1979, Mandal Commission (Socially and Educationally Backward Classes Commission) suggested expansion of affirmative action to include other backward classes.
OBCs, as per 1931 census, amounted to 52% of Indian population. Based on which a 27% reservation was given to the OBCs in 1990.
Later there appeared demand for introducing the OBC category in the decennial census to count them.
Socio-Economic Caste Census 2011:
SECC 2011 was the first caste-based census since 1931.
It was conducted by the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) and Ministry of housing and urban poverty alleviation in rural and urban areas respectively.
This was the first time such a comprehensive exercise has been carried out for both rural and urban India, which included caste-wise population data.
2011 SECC data, excluding the caste data, was finalised and published by the government.
Demand being raised to enumerate castes as part of Census 2021 itself. To make available authentic data on caste-wise population and their socio-economic conditions.
What is the need For Caste based Census?
Estimate change in demography: Present reservations and other welfare scheme entitlements to OBC are still based on the population estimates of 1931
Bring about social justice: Help governments’ welfare schemes reach the most backward and deprived castes that have been marginalised to date.
Help rationalise reservation policy as per the need of a specific caste or community: Land fragmentation and decades of agricultural stagnation have turned many upper-caste landowners into marginal farmers. Whereas rising rural wage has benefitted some of the backward classes including Dalits.
Demand for Reservations: There have been demands to expand OBC reservation (as the present 50% cap is arbitrary) and inclusion of dominant castes like Jats, Kapus, Patidars, Marathas etc. into the OBC category. Often these demands are not based on scientific evidence. Hence, a Caste based socio-economic census will bring out the real picture.
OBC Sub-categorisation: OBC membership is large and heterogeneous, with vast intra-caste differences in socio-economic conditions. Some better-off groups among OBC castes have cornered a disproportionately large share of seats reserved for OBCs giving rise to the demand for sub-classification of various caste groups among OBCs. The caste-based socio-economic census will help in such classification.
Assess the impact of Affirmative action: A socioeconomic caste census would help in assessing how far the extension of reservations to OBCs benefited them.
Identify relative deprivation of some castes.
Concerns against Caste Based Census:
Subvert India’s anti-caste struggle: Constitution, social reform movements and forces of modernity have long aspired for the annihilation of caste.
Reinforces Caste Identities: Enumeration of castes might reinforce caste identities prevalent in society.
Vote bank politics: Caste wise data may be used as a tool for caste-based political mobilisation.
New demands for Reservation: Numbers about OBCs might provide a new issue to the regional parties to mount pressure on the Centre for an OBC quota in central government jobs and educational institutions.
Federal concerns: According to the 7th schedule of the Constitution, the Census is in the domain of the Union. Thus, State governments conducting their own caste census is against the constitutional spirit.
Conclusion: While caste-based OBC enumeration is necessary for documenting discrimination, understanding current social- economic conditions of various castes and developing policy to distribute resources. A full caste census might be cumbersome as Indian society is divided into roughly 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes. However, caste as a criterion for the distribution of resources may pose significant risks, including reinforcing caste identities and promoting divisive politics.
Context: The Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) has long been a central focus in discussions around women's empowerment. While India's FLFPR has improved from 23.3% in 2017-18 to 37% in 2022-23, it still falls short compared to the world average of 47.8% (2022). Moreover, a significant portion of this participation comprises unpaid helpers in household enterprises, highlighting the persistent issue of unpaid labor among women.
Thisarticle explores -
what is Unpaid care work
Need for recognition of unpaid care work
several challenges while Calculating unpaid care work
Potential solutions to create a more inclusive and equitable workforce.
About Unpaid care work
According to OECD, refers to all unpaid services provided within a household for its members, including care of persons, housework and voluntary community work. These activities are considered work because theoretically, one could pay a third person to perform them.
Unpaid = the individual performing this activity is not remunerated
Care = the activity provides what is necessary for the health, well-being, maintenance, and protection of someone or something
Work = the activity involves mental or physical effort and is costly in terms of time resources
Need for recognition of unpaid care work
Mis-estimation of Economic activity: Non-inclusion of unpaid care work in national accounting statistics like GDP grossly misestimates the level of economic activity.
If unpaid care work were assigned a monetary value, it would constitute 9% of the global GDP.
Female Labour Participation: Unpaid care work is a significant barrier preventing women from entering and staying in the workforce, as highlighted by the International Labour Organization (ILO). This burden creates "time poverty," restricting women's ability to engage in paid employment and acquire the skills necessary for better job opportunities. This challenge is not unique to India; globally, in 2016, 46.7% of women cited domestic duties as the reason for their absence from the workforce, compared to only 6.3% of men.
Wage Gap: often domestic care work by women is treated as unproductive and it is reflected in low wages for women in the labour market when compared to men.
Need for a Care Economy: India's demographic landscape is expected to change between 2020 to 2050, necessitating more elderly care alongside continuing levels of childcare.
By 2050, the proportion of elderly persons is expected to increase to 20.8% of the population, i.e. about 347 million persons. Moreover, even as the proportion of children reduces marginally to 18%, the number of children will still be close to 300 million.
Calculating unpaid care work presents several challenges, as outlined below with examples:
Perception of "Work": Unpaid care work is often not considered 'work' in the traditional sense. For instance, a mother caring for her children or a spouse looking after an elderly partner may not view these responsibilities as 'work' despite the significant time and effort involved. Consequently, when surveys ask about 'work,' respondents may exclude care activities from their responses, leading to underreporting.
Subjectivity and Variation: The nature of care work varies widely and can be highly subjective. Consider the task of cooking meals: one person might cook three meals a day from scratch, while another might use pre-packaged foods, making it challenging to standardize measurements. Additionally, caregiving responsibilities change over time – caring for a toddler differs from caring for a teenager, making it difficult to capture the full spectrum of care work.
Invisible Labor: Much of care work is invisible. Emotional support, mental labor (like planning and organizing), and managing family dynamics are essential components of caregiving but often go unnoticed. For example, a caregiver may spend hours coordinating doctor's appointments and managing medications, which are critical aspects of care but not easily quantifiable.
Seasonality: Care work can vary seasonally. Consider holiday preparations – the workload for cooking, decorating, and gift-giving increases significantly during certain times of the year. These fluctuations make it challenging to capture the consistent level of care work throughout the year.
Cultural Differences: Cultural norms significantly impact how care work is perceived and distributed within households. For example, in some cultures, extended family members often share caregiving responsibilities, while in others, it may fall primarily on women. These cultural variations complicate efforts to standardize measurement across diverse societies.
Data Collection Methods: Traditional data collection methods like surveys may not fully capture care work. Respondents may forget or underestimate the time spent on caregiving, especially if it's a continuous, fragmented task. They may also not recognize certain caregiving activities as 'work,' leading to inaccuracies in reporting.
Valuation of Care Work: Assigning a monetary value to care work is complex. For example, estimating the economic value of a stay-at-home parent's contributions involves considering factors like the cost of hiring childcare, cooking, cleaning, and emotional support. These intangible contributions are challenging to quantify accurately.
Key Takeaways from Article
Addressing Childcare Needs: Some State governments have focused on building support services through the Anganwadi network.
The 2024-25 Budget increased the Ministry of Women and Child Development's budget for the Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0 scheme by 3%.
Community-Based Creches: Various models of community-based creches are operational in parts of some States, in partnership with government and non-government bodies. There is a need to review these models for replicability, financial sustainability, and scalability.
Demand for Hired Caregivers: Rising demand for hired caregivers in urban and peri-urban areas but this sector lacks regulation, leaving domestic workers who double as caregivers without training, protection, or standards. Bodies like the Domestic Workers Sector Skill Council and the Healthcare Sector Skill Council are responsible for skilling but need more support.
Policy Framework: A comprehensive policy is needed to define the care ecosystem from a life course perspective.
A multi-ministerial committee involving the Ministries of Women and Child Development, Health and Family Welfare, Labour and Employment, Social Justice and Empowerment, and Skill Development and Entrepreneurship should be initiated.
Way Forward
Adequate Investment in care infrastructure such as Pre-Primary Education, Health, Electricity, drinking water, LPG connection etc. For example, A 2017 analysis by the Women’s Budget Group found that if an additional 2 percent of the GDP were invested in the Indian health and care sector, the country could generate 11 million additional jobs, nearly one-third of which would go to women.
Social Protection Policies:
Allow tax deductions of care-related expenses by the households for formalisation of domestic workers.
Provide for the cash transfer to women so that they can purchase childcare services from domestic workers.
Promote active labour market policies:
Paid maternity leave and Paternity leave to care for the children.
Efficient implementation of Public Works Programme such as MGNREGA
Enhance skill set through vocational training and retraining to enhance employability.
Provide Gender-sensitive work environments such as reduced or flexible working hours.
Facilitate entry of women into Gig Economy
Nurture and promote women led SHGs.
Redistribute: Support NGOs and Private sector to care for the children and Elderly Ex: Old age homes, Pre-Primary Schools etc.
The above-mentioned strategies can contribute to meeting goals of SDG 1 (end poverty); SDG 3 (ensure healthy lives); SDG 4 (ensure inclusive and equitable quality education); SDG 5 (achieve gender equality); SDG 6 (ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation) etc.
Conclusion: Increasing women’s participation in the labor force requires addressing the entire spectrum of care responsibilities. Creating a supportive care ecosystem will help reduce gender inequality and empower women economically, benefiting both society and the economy as a whole as highlighted by The World Economic Forum’s report on the ‘Future of Care Economy’ which highlights three perspectives: economic productivity, business opportunity, and human rights (gender equality and disability inclusion).
