Environment

Great Nicobar Infrastructure Project

Context: Concerns over the Great Nicobar Infrastructure Project were raised in Rajya Sabha. The project faces criticism from environmentalists and tribal rights activists over potential displacement and ecological damage in the Great Nicobar Island. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about the Great Nicobar Infrastructure Project.

Mains: Development vs. Conservation Debate, Biodiversity loss, inadequate EIA etc. 

About Great Nicobar Infrastructure Project: 

  • Strategic development initiative aimed at transforming Great Nicobar Island into a key economic and security hub. 
  • Spearheaded by: NITI Aayog and Andaman & Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation (ANIIDCO). 
  • The project includes: Transshipment port, an airport, a power plant, and a township, aligning with India’s vision for economic growth, regional connectivity, and national security in Indian Ocean Region (IOR). 

Location and Strategic Importance: 

  • Great Nicobar Island is the southernmost island of the Andaman & Nicobar group.
  • Lies close to the Malacca Strait, a critical global trade route.
  • Enhances India’s maritime presence amid rising Chinese influence in the Indo-Pacific.
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Economic & Geopolitical Significance of the Project: 

  • Strengthens Blue Economy, promoting shipping, tourism, and fisheries.
  • Enhances National Security by ensuring naval dominance in the Indian Ocean. 
  • Boosts India’s Act East Policy by improving connectivity with ASEAN countries.

Environmental & Tribal Concerns of the Project: 

  • Ecological Impact: Great Nicobar Islands hosts the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, recognised by UNESCO in 2013. The infrastructure project entails felling of over 1 million trees and poses risks to endemic species (E.g., Nicobar megapode, leatherback turtles).
  • Tribal Rights: Affects Shompen (PVTG) and Nicobarese tribes by disrupting their traditional lifestyle and exposing them to external influence and diseases. Requires compliance with the Forest Rights Act, 2006.  

While the project strengthens India's maritime influence and economic resilience, balancing development with ecological and tribal concerns is essential. 

World Air Quality Report 2024 

Context: The World Air Quality Report 2024 by IQAir, a Swiss air quality technology company, highlights severe air pollution levels globally. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about World Air Quality Report 2024. 

Key Findings of World Air Quality Report 2024

1. Most Polluted Countries (PM2.5 levels in µg/m³)

  • India ranks as the 5th most polluted country, with 13 of the 20 most polluted cities located in India.
  • India’s PM2.5 concentration in 2024 was 50.6 µg/m³, a 7% decrease from 2023 (54.4 µg/m³).
  • Only 12 countries worldwide met WHO’s PM2.5 guideline of 5 µg/m³.

2. Most Polluted Cities in the World

  • Byrnihat (Assam-Meghalaya border; a regional industrial hub) is the most polluted city globally, with a PM2.5 level of 128.2 µg/m³. 
  • Delhi is the most polluted capital city globally for the sixth consecutive year (PM2.5: 108.3 µg/m³ in 2024).
  • Six Indian cities are in the top 10 most polluted cities worldwide.
world air quality report 2024

Causes of Air Pollution in India

Anthropogenic Factors: 

  • Crop Stubble Burning:
    • Major source in Punjab, Haryana, UP, and Delhi NCR.
    • 60% contribution to PM2.5 levels during peak pollution periods.
  • Vehicular Emissions:
    • Rapid urbanisation and increase in automobiles.
    • Use of diesel and older vehicles worsens pollution.
  • Industrial Discharges: Thermal power plants, cement, and steel industries emit SO₂, NO₂, and PM.
  • Construction & Demolition Dust: Metro projects, real estate boom, lack of dust control measures.
  • Firecrackers: Diwali and winter festivals aggravate pollution levels.

Natural & Meteorological Factors: 

  • Winter Temperature Inversion: Cold air traps pollutants, worsening air quality.
  • Low Wind Speeds: Stagnant air prevents dispersal of pollutants.
  • Geographical Factors: The Indo-Gangetic Plain traps pollutants due to Himalayan barrier effect.

Impacts of Air Pollution: 

(A) Health Effects

  • Respiratory diseases (asthma, lung infections, COPD).
  • Cardiovascular issues (stroke, heart attacks).
  • Chronic illnesses (kidney disease, cancer).
  • Reduced life expectancy.

(B) Economic Impact

  • Increased healthcare costs.
  • Loss of workforce productivity.
  • Impact on agriculture (pollutants affect crop yield).

(C) Environmental Impact

  • Smog formation affecting visibility.
  • Acid rain affecting soil and water bodies.
  • Impact on biodiversity.

Government Measures to Control Air Pollution: 

(A) Policy & Action Plans: 

  • National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) (2019): Targets 40% reduction in PM2.5 & PM10 levels by 2026 in non-attainment cities.
  • Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) (2017): Temporary measures in Delhi-NCR based on AQI levels.
  • Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) (2021): Permanent body to coordinate air pollution control in Delhi-NCR.
  • State-Specific Action Plans: Punjab & Haryana promoting Happy Seeder machines & Pusa bio-decomposers for stubble management.

(B) Technological & Infrastructural Measures:

1. BS-VI Fuel Standards (2020): Stricter emission norms for vehicles

2. Faster Adoption of Electric Vehicles (FAME-II): Encouraging EVs & public transport

3. Odd-Even Scheme (Delhi): Reducing vehicular congestion

(C) Judicial & Legislative Interventions: 

1. Supreme Court Ban on Firecrackers: Promoting green firecrackers.

2. NGT & EPCA Regulations: Ban on diesel generators in Delhi.

Challenges & Way Forward:

Challenges: 

  • Poor enforcement of environmental laws.
  • Dependence on crop residue burning in agriculture.
  • Limited public transport & clean energy alternatives.

Way Forward:

  • Strict implementation of NCAP & GRAP.
  • Investment in public transport, metro networks & EVs.
  • Use of alternative stubble disposal methods.
  • Cross-state coordination for pollution control.

Satkosia Tiger Reserve

Context: As per the latest Tiger Census (2022), the Satkosia Tiger Reserve (STR) in Odisha does not have a single tiger. The state government of Odisha is keen on resuming its tiger reintroduction programme in STR. 

However, this poses a looming threat of relocation for indigenous populations settled in the core, buffer and impact zone of the tiger reserve.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Satkosia Tiger Reserve; Tiger Reserve.

Satkosia Tiger Reserve: 

  • In 2007, the Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary and Baisipali Sanctuary were combined to form the Satkosia Tiger Reserve (STR). 
    • Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary, established in 1976, covers over 795 sq. km  spanning four districts of Odisha (Angul, Cuttack, Boudh, and Nayagarh). 
    • Baisipali Sanctuary was notified in the southern part of Nayagarh district in 1981. 
  • STR covers 1,136.70 sq. km with a core zone of 523.61 sq. km.
  • Key features: 
    • STR has a unique biodiversity, as it is located at the meeting point of two biogeographic regions, the Deccan Peninsula and the Eastern Ghats. Covered with marshes and evergreen forests. 
    • It has a 22.5 km long Satkosia gorge created by the Mahanadi river. It is designated a Ramsar site (wetland of international importance). It has over 400 plant species, 183 fish species and more than 200 species of birds.
  • In 2007, the State government census recorded 12 tigers in STR, but by 2018-19, only one remained. The 2022 census found no tigers in STR.
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Efforts to restore Tiger population in STR: 

  • To restore the tiger population, India’s first inter-State tiger relocation programme was launched in 2018. 
    • A male tiger was brought from the Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh and a tigress from the Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve, MP. 
    • However, the effort of restoration did not succeed. 
  • Challenges:
    • Prevalence of poaching. 
    • Resistance of villagers against:
      • Potential rehabilitation (Four villages are located in the forest core, 131 villages in the buffer, and 234 villages in the impact zone of STR).
      • Deforestation 
      • Threat of man-wildlife conflict. 

The tiger reintroduction project must secure consent from locals and public representatives, with voluntary relocation of villages and proper financial compensation as per the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) norms.  

Madhav National Park becomes India’s 58th Tiger Reserve

Context: India has added the Madhav National Park in Madhya Pradesh as the country’s 58th Tiger Reserve. It is the ninth tiger reserve in the state after Kanha, Satpura, Bandhavgarh, Pench, Sanjay Dubri, Panna, Veerangana Durgavati and Ratapani. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Madhav Tiger Reserve; Tiger Reserve; key facts about Tiger. 

About Madhav Tiger Reserve: 

  • Location: Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh
  • Key geographical features: 
    • Vegetation: dry deciduous forests, semi-evergreen forests and grasslands. 
    • Sakhya Sagar, a man-made reservoir within the park, has been designated as a Ramsar site since 2022. 
  • Key fauna: Tiger, leopard, jackals, nilgai, sambar, wild boar etc.
  • Historical significance:
    • Earlier Shivpuri National Park, was renamed Madhav National Park after Madho Rao Scindia, the Maharaja of Gwalior belonging to the Scindia dynasty of the Marathas. 
    • The dense forests of the National Park were the former hunting grounds of Mughals and Scindia rulers.
    • The tiger reserve has George Castle inside the reserve, built by Scindias in anticipation of British King George V’s visit in 1911. 
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What are Tiger Reserves?

  • Tiger reserves are legally declared protected areas designated to conserve tigers and their habitats. 
  • The tiger reserves were set up as a part of Project Tiger initiated in 1973.
  • They are administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
  • The tiger reserves are constituted on a core/buffer strategy to promote tiger conservation.
    • The core areas have the legal status of a National Park or a Sanctuary. 
    • The buffer or peripheral areas are a mix of forest and non-forest land, managed as a multiple use area.

Who notifies Tiger Reserves?

  • Tiger Reserves are notified by State Governments as per provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 on advice of the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
  • The following steps are involved in the notification:
    1. The State Government identifies potential areas and submits a proposal to NTCA.
    2. NTCA reviews the proposal. After thorough evaluation, NTCA recommends the proposal.
    3. The State Government notifies the area as a Tiger Reserve.
  • With the formation of the tiger reserve, NTCA provides funds for the management of Tiger Reserve. 
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Key Facts about Tiger

  • Tiger is an umbrella species. Its conservation automatically ensures the conversation of a large number of flora and fauna and entire ecosystems.
  • India is home to 75% of the global tiger population. 
    • The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts a tiger census across India every 4 years.
    • As per the latest Tiger Census Report (2022), India has 3682 tigers. (2967 in 2018)
    • Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers (785) in India, followed by Karnataka (563) and Uttarakhand (560). 
  • Conservation status: 
    • IUCN Red List: Endangered
    • Wildlife Protection Act: Schedule 1
    • CITES: Appendix 1

Read More: List of Tiger Reserves in India

US exits UN Climate Damage Fund

Context: The US President Donald Trump has withdrawn from the recently created United Nations Climate Damage Fund (Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage- FRLD) which is aimed at providing financial support to countries ravaged by climate change disasters.

It is noteworthy that the US has already pulled out of the Paris Agreement, stopped the participation of its scientists in a meeting of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and cancelled previously committed money for the Green Climate Fund.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about United Nations Climate Damage Fund. 

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About UN Climate Damage Fund (Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage- FRLD):

1. Background:

  • It was established under COP 27 (2022) in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt and further operationalised at COP 28 (2023) in Dubai, UAE. 
  • It is created in response to long-standing demands from low income developing nations for climate justice and financial assistance.
  • It recognises the disproportionate impact of climate change on developing and vulnerable nations, particularly Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries (LDCs).
  • It forms part of the broader climate finance architecture under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement.

2. Objectives and Purpose: 

The fund aims to:

  1. Addressing Loss & Damage: Provide financial support to countries suffering from climate-induced disasters (E.g., cyclones, wildfires, droughts).
  2. Support Recovery & Rehabilitation: Assist in rebuilding communities and infrastructure affected by climate change impacts.
  3. Aid in Non-Economic Losses: Support responses to cultural, social, and environmental losses (E.g., displacement, biodiversity loss, damage to heritage sites).
  4. Enhance Climate Resilience: Help vulnerable countries develop risk management strategies for climate adaptation.

3. Structure and Governance:

  • The Fund operates as an entity under the Financial Mechanism of the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement.
  • It is accountable to and functions under the guidance of both the Conference of the Parties (COP) and the CMA (Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement).
  • The fund is expected to work in coordination with other international climate finance mechanisms, including:
    • Green Climate Fund (GCF)
    • Adaptation Fund
    • Global Environment Facility (GEF)

4. Funding Sources and Contributions:

  • Developed countries are expected to contribute to the fund as part of their commitments under the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement.
  • Multilateral and private-sector contributions may also be encouraged.
  • Innovative financing mechanisms (E.g., levies on fossil fuel companies, climate taxes) can also be explored in future.

5. Challenges:

  • Sufficient Funding: Developing countries which are affected the most argue that contributions should be grants-based rather than loans.
  • Who Pays? While developed nations acknowledge the need for funding, discussions continue on how much they should contribute.
  • Coordination with Existing Funds: Avoiding duplication with other climate finance mechanisms.
  • US Withdrawal: The US, which is historically the largest emitter, has withdrawn from the fund, raising doubts about the future of the fund.

SC seeks Uttarakhand response on ‘misuse’ of Afforestation Funds

Context: The Supreme Court has sought a response from Uttarakhand state government on a Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) report that alleges misuse of Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) funds by the Forest department to buy gadgets, like iPhones and laptops.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016. 

About Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016

  • The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016 aims to compensate for the loss of ecosystem and forest land due to diversion of forest land for non-forest use. 
  • The CAMPA funds are utilised for compensating the loss of forest land and ecosystem services by:
    • compensatory afforestation
    • improving quality of forests through assisted natural regeneration
    • enrichment of biodiversity
    • improvement of wildlife habitat
    • control of forest fire
    • forest protection and soil and water conservation measures.

Key Provisions

  • A company diverting forest land must provide alternative land to take up compensatory afforestation.
  • For afforestation, the company should pay to plant new trees in the alternative land provided to the state.
  • The Act establishes two interest-bearing, non-lapsable funds, namely:
    • National Compensatory Afforestation Fund (National Fund) under the Public Account of India
    • State Compensatory Afforestation Fund (State Fund) under Public Accounts of 33 States/UTs.
  • Fund Allocation: 
    • National Fund receives 10% of collected funds.
    • State Funds receive the remaining 90%.
  • These Funds receive payments for (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest (NPV), and (iii) other project-specific payments. 
  • These funds are non-lapsable and earn annual interest as per the rate declared by the Central Government on a year-to-year basis.
  • Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) manages funds collected from the forest land diversion. 
  • CAF Act, 2016 provides for audit of the accounts of both National and States/UTs CAMPA Authorities by the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India (CAG).

India has an estimated 6327 river Dolphins: Survey

Context: The first-ever comprehensive survey of river dolphins has revealed a population estimate of 6,327 dolphins mainly in the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus river basins across eight Indian states. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about Gangetic Dolphin; Project Dolphin; Echolocation.

Major Highlights of the Report

  • There were 6,324 Ganges river dolphins, and three Indus river dolphins (a related species).
    • The Gangetic dolphins were spread in river Ganga, tributaries of Ganga, Brahmaputra, tributaries of Brahmaputra and Beas river. 
  • The first-ever survey was led by the Wildlife Institute of India and state forest departments of certain states.
    • It was conducted under Project Dolphin launched in 2020. 
    • The next survey will likely take place after four years.
  • The highest number of dolphins were reported in Uttar Pradesh (highest concentration in Chambal River), followed by Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam.
  • Acoustic Survey: For their survey, the researchers travelled by boat at a constant speed using acoustic hydrophones (essentially underwater microphones) that pick up sounds emitted by the dolphins. 
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About Gangetic Dolphin and Indus Dolphin

  • India is home to two species (out of five species of river Dolphin globally) of freshwater dolphins — Gangetic Dolphin and Indus river Dolphin.
  • Found mainly in the Indian subcontinent, particularly in Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu River systems.
  • Key Characteristics: 
    • An adult gangetic dolphin could weigh between 70 kg and 90 kg.
      • Male dolphins as being about 2-2.2 metres long
      • Females are a little longer at 2.4-2.6 m. 
    • The breeding season extends from January to June. 
    • The species is shy (avoids human contact) and feeds on several species of fishes, invertebrates etc.
    • Dolphins stay under water and surface only sporadically to breathe.
  • Significance: 
    • Dolphins act as an umbrella species and their conservation has direct impacts on their habitat and biodiversity.
    • They serve as bio-indicators of healthy river ecosystems. 
  • Conservation Status (Both dolphins):
    • IUCN Status: Endangered
    • CITES: Appendix I 
    • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I 
  • Threats: 
    • Getting entangled in fishermen’s nets
    • River Pollution 
    • Habitat loss due to construction of dams and barrages
    • Poaching

Dolphin Conservation Efforts

  • Conservation Action Plan for the Ganges River Dolphin (2010-2020). 
  • Project Dolphin (2020) to promote awareness and involve local communities in conservation efforts.
  • Comprehensive Action Plan (2022-2047) to ensure well being of the river dolphin and aquatic habitats.
  • Recognition of Ganges river dolphin as the National Aquatic Animal of India. 
  • MoEFCC has included Ganges river dolphin as one of the 22 critically endangered species for providing financial assistance to States under the Centrally sponsored scheme ‘Development of Wildlife Habitats’.
  • Important habitats of Gangetic river dolphins along the Ganges river have been notified as Protected Areas, such as Vikramshila Dolphin Sanctuary, Bihar.

Echolocation:

  • Echolocation is the use of sound as a form of navigation.
  • Echolocation (bio sonar) is a biological active sonar used by several animal groups, both in the air and underwater. 
  • Echolocating animals emit calls and listen to the echoes of those calls that return from various objects near them. 
  • They use these echoes to locate and identify the objects. 
  • Echolocation is used for navigation, foraging, and hunting prey.
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Ganges Dolphin and Echolocation: 

  • Ganges river dolphin most typically makes echolocation sounds such as clicks, bursts, and twitters.
  • As the dolphin is blind, it produces an ultrasonic sound that is echoed off other fish and water species which allows it to identify prey. 
  • Echolocation is used for population counts by using acoustic surveying.

Wetland Conservation

Context: Meghalaya High Court’s recent suo motu public interest litigation to monitor wetland conservation highlights the urgency of protecting these ecosystems.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Wetland Conservation

Wetland

  • Wetland is an area of land that is either covered with water or saturated with water. 
  • These are transition zones between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
    • E.g., Mangroves, lake littorals (marginal areas between highest & lowest water level of the lakes), floodplains (areas lying adjacent to the river channels beyond the natural levees and periodically flooded during high discharge in the river) & other marshy or swampy areas. 

Importance of Wetlands

  • Nature’s own filter: Act as nature’s kidneys by recycling nutrients & removing sediments from surface & groundwater. Make surrounding land mass fertile for the growth of crops.
  • Biodiversity conservation: Wetlands contribute to human well-being through provision of food, energy and clean water, support to livelihoods and biodiversity.
  • Enhance climate adaptation & resilience from extreme weather:
    • It helps in replenishing groundwater; their filtering capacity helps to protect groundwater quality. 
    • Acts like a sponge & helps in flood control by soaking extra water from the surroundings. 
    • Thus it acts as buffer shorelines against erosion & pollutants.
  • Carbon emission mitigation: Acts as a carbon sink, soils around wetlands can store carbon for many years (climate change mitigation).
  • Provides ecological, cultural & socio-economic benefits to society:
    • Provides habitat for wildlife & fisheries, including threatened species. 
    • It provides opportunities for tourism (recreational), research fishing and other commercial activities.

Pressure on Wetlands

  • Global wetland decline:
    • Wetlands cover 6% of the Earth’s surface but provide 40.6% of ecosystem services.
    • 50% of wetlands have been lost since 1900.
    • Between 1970 and 2015, wetland surface area declined by 35%.
    • Loss rate: (-) 0.78% per year, three times higher than natural vegetation loss.
  • Biodiversity threats:
    • 81% decline in inland wetland species since 1970.
    • 36% decline in coastal and marine species.
    • Increasing extinction risks for wetland species. 
  • Major causes:
    • Urbanisation and Industrialisation: Rapid expansion of cities has led to the destruction of wetlands for infrastructure development.
    • Agricultural Expansion: Conversion of wetlands for farming reduces biodiversity and disrupts water balance.
    • Pollution: Industrial waste, sewage, and agricultural runoff contaminate wetland ecosystems.
    • Climate change: Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns impact wetland hydrology. 
    • Overexploitation of resources: Unsustainable fishing, groundwater extraction, and land reclamation degrade wetlands. 

Wetland Conservation in India

  • India’s Ramsar Commitments:
    • India is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention. As of February 2025, India has 89 Ramsar sites designated across diverse ecological zones.
  • Status of Wetlands:
    • Total wetland area: 15.98 million hectares (National Wetland Decadal Change Atlas, 2017-18).
    • Ramsar sites cover only 1.33 million hectares (~8% of total wetlands).
    • 66.6% of wetlands are natural (43.9% inland, 22.7% coastal).
  • Decline:
    • Natural wetlands in India are shrinking. 
    • Nearly 30% of India’s natural wetlands have been lost in the last four decades due to urbanisation, pollution, and encroachment.
    • Major urban centres have witnessed alarming losses:
      • Mumbai has lost 71% of its wetlands from 1970 to 2014
      • East Kolkata Wetlands have shrunk by 36% between 1991 and 2021
      • Chennai has lost 85% of its wetlands, as per a WWF study. 

Read More: Wetlands 

Economic Implications of Wetland Loss

  • A study in Cali, Colombia, estimated that the loss of urban wetland ecosystem services amounts to $76,827 per hectare annually, while the loss in peri-urban areas is $30,354 per hectare annually.
  • Similar losses can be expected in India, given the rapid rate of wetland degradation.

Strategies for Wetland Conservation

  • Integrated wetland management: Aligning wetland conservation with broader environmental and development goals.
  • Policy and governance: Implementing stricter regulations to prevent encroachments and pollution.
  • Community involvement: Encouraging local participation in wetland restoration and protection.
  • Technology and research: Utilising satellite imagery, GIS mapping, and AI to monitor wetland changes. 
  • Climate change mitigation: Recognising wetlands as both a source and sink of carbon, making them crucial for climate action. 

Also Read: Four more wetlands declared Ramsar Sites in India 

Wetland Conservation and Global sustainability

  • Conservation and management of wetlands are now seen as integral to global sustainability.
    • 14th Conference of the Parties (COP14) of the Ramsar Convention held in 2022 emphasised the need for wetlands to be part of broader environmental strategies.
    • The conference stressed that wetland conservation should not be a standalone initiative but should be linked to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Global Biodiversity Targets, the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, and climate change mitigation efforts.

Effective implementation of the Ramsar Strategic Plan would contribute significantly to global environmental sustainability.

Why are Gharials Endangered?

Context: The Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh released 10 gharials into the Chambal river at the National Chambal Gharial Sanctuary in Morena district, MP to bolster the population of gharials. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Gharial; National Chambal Gharial Sanctuary; Chambal river. 

About Gharial

  • The gharial is a species of long-snouted, fish-eating crocodilians. 
  • Gharial (from Hindi word ghara meaning pot/vessel) refers to the bulbous snout tip of adult males, which resembles an inverted pot. 
  • Key Characteristics:
    • Slender snouts lined with numerous sharp interlocking teeth.
    • Males grow 3-6 meters, and females 2.6–4.5 meters in length. 
    • Fish is the mainstay of their diet.
    • Sandbanks, sandbars, and islands are critical to their ecology, serving as preferred sites for basking and community nesting. 
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  • Distribution:
    • Freshwater river-systems of India. 
      • Chambal River (tributary of river Yamuna) holds the largest population of Gharials in the wild, in India. 
    • Small populations exist in Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh’s upper Brahmaputra.
    • Likely extinct in Myanmar and Bhutan.
  • Ecological Importance: 
    • Gharials are important for a river’s ecosystem as they clean up carrion.
  • Threats:
    • Historical: Overhunting for skins, trophies, eggs, and traditional medicine.
    • Modern challenges: Dam construction, irrigation canals, siltation, river course changes, embankments, sand-mining, pollution, and fishing nets.
  • Conservation status:
    • IUCN status: Critically Endangered
    • CITES: Appendix I
    • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972:  Schedule I 

Gharial Conservation

  • Madhya Pradesh has the title of “gharial state,” as it hosts over 80% of India’s gharials. This has happened due to decades-long conservation efforts in the state. 
  • Between 1975 and 1982, India established 16 captive breeding and release centers and five gharial sanctuaries. 
  • Today, the species survives primarily in five sites:
    • National Chambal Sanctuary
    • Katerniaghat Sanctuary, UP
    • Chitwan National Park, Nepal 
    • Son River Sanctuary, MP
    • Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary, Odisha 

Conservation Efforts

  • Captive breeding programmes and population monitoring 
  • Engaging local communities in habitat preservation and awareness campaigns
  • Managing threats like sand mining
  • Stronger river protection and sandbank restoration 

National Chambal Gharial Sanctuary

  • Located on the Chambal River near the tripoint of three states: Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh,
  • The sanctuary protects a 435-km stretch of one of India’s cleanest rivers. 
  • Apart from gharials, the stretch hosts over 290 bird species, including rare Indian Skimmers (80% of the national population).
  • Important Fauna: Red-crowned roof turtle, endangered Ganges river dolphin, mugger crocodile, smooth-coated otter, striped hyena and Indian wolf. 
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Chambal River

  • Chambal is the chief tributary of the Yamuna River.
  • Origin: Vindhya Range, Madhya Pradesh state. 
  • From its source, it flows north-northeast through Madhya Pradesh, forming the boundary between Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, before turning southeast to join the Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh.
  • Chief Tributaries: Banas, Kali Sindh, Sipra, and Parbati 
  • Chambal’s lower course is lined by a 16-km belt of badland gullies resulting from accelerated soil erosion.
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Impact of Ethanol Production on Environment

Context: Concerns about the Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) programme refuse to die down in Andhra Pradesh, with scientists and farmers saying water resources are depleting and emissions from factories are polluting the air, water, and soil.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme

Mains: Impact of ethanol on Environment

Ethanol Blending

  • Ethanol blending in petrol refers to the practice of mixing ethanol, a type of alcohol/biofuel, with petrol to create a blended fuel.
    • E10, is the most common blend, which consists of 10% ethanol and 90% petrol. 
    • E20, is a higher ethanol blend, which has 20% ethanol and 80% petrol. 
  • Ethanol is naturally produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts or via petrochemical processes such as ethylene hydration.
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Ethanol Blending Target

  • India launched its Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP) in 2003. It is aimed at reducing the country’s dependence on crude oil imports, cutting carbon emissions and boosting farmers’ incomes.
  • The National Policy of Biofuels 2018 provided indicative targets of 20% ethanol blending in petrol and 5% biodiesel blending in diesel by 2030.
    • Encouraged by the past 7 years performance under the Ethanol Blending Programme, the Government advanced the targets of 20% ethanol blending from 2030 to Ethanol Supply Year (ESY) 2025-26.
    • In 2022, India’s blending programme achieved the significant milestone of 10% ethanol blending in petrol.
    • As of 2024, the blend percentage is 15%.
  • First-generation (1G) Ethanol is sourced from food crops like sugarcane and foodgrains (broken rice, corn).

Concerns about Ethanol Production

  • Water Resource Depletion:
    • Ethanol plants require 8-12 litres of water/litre of ethanol. Over-reliance on groundwater is reducing availability for drinking water and agriculture.
    • Factories located near rivers (like Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh) add pressure on already lean water flows.
  • Pollution from Ethanol Factories:
    • Ethanol plants fall under the ‘red category’ of polluting industries (pollution score of 60+).
    • Hazardous emissions from ethanol factories include acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, and acrolein cause air, water, and soil pollution and pose significant health risks.
    • Lokayukta officials have criticised pollution control failures  from Ethanol factories (particularly in East Godavari, Krishna, and NTR districts of Andhra Pradesh). 
  • Risks Food Security:
    • Primarily Ethanol to meet blending targets is procured from grain-based ethanol. E.g., Developing an organised maize-feed supply chain for ethanol. 
    • This risks food security as more area under the food grains can be diverted for growing food grains for ethanol production. 
  • GHG emissions from Ethanol feedstock: 
    • Diverting food crops towards fuel production increases greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the agriculture sector, counteracting the goal of reducing emissions in the transport sector. 
  • No Reduction in NOX Emissions: 
    • Use of Ethanol Blended Petrol reduces emissions of carbon monoxide. However, there is no reduction in the emission of nitrous oxides, which is one of the major environmental pollutants.

Conflicting Perspectives

  • Government and Industry view:
    • NITI Aayog reports that 20% ethanol blending reduces carbon monoxide emissions by 30% in four-wheelers and 50% in two-wheelers.
    • Industrialists argue that pollution control measures increase production costs, making compliance difficult.
  • Environmentalists' view:
    • While biofuels reduce vehicular emissions, ethanol production itself can be highly polluting.
    • If unchecked, the programme could harm agriculture, water availability, and public health.

Way Forward

  • Stronger pollution monitoring: Clearances must include emission impact assessments.
  • Sustainable water management: Strict groundwater usage regulations for ethanol plants.
  • Sustainable Biofuels produced from crop residues and other low-impact sources, have a lower water and GHG footprint. Global Biofuels Alliance initiative aims to develop these sustainable alternatives and promote ethanol use. 
  • Balancing Industrial growth and Environmental safety: Ensuring affordable pollution control measures for ethanol plants.

The EBP programme aims for a greener future, but its implementation must align with sustainability.

Environmental Impacts of Artificial Intelligence

Context: Artificial Intelligence (AI) encompasses technologies that simulate human thinking and decision-making. While basic forms of AI have existed since the 1950s, AI adoption has advanced rapidly in recent years. However, the rapid development of AI comes with environmental consequences. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Environmental consequences of Artificial Intelligence. 

Expansion of AI market

  • The global AI market is valued at $200 billion and is projected to contribute up to $15.7 trillion to the global economy by 2030. E.g., 
    • Announcement of the Stargate Project by the US, involving more than $500 billion in AI infrastructure investments over four years.
    • In India, Reliance is planning to build the world’s largest data centre in Jamnagar, in partnership with Nvidia. 
    • India has also announced plans to build its own LLM (large language model) to compete with DeepSeek and ChatGPT. 
  • However, rapid expansion of AI brings not only opportunities but also risks, particularly at environmental costs. 

Environmental impact of AI

  • High Energy Consumption and Carbon emission: 
    • Data centres (the backbone of AI operations) consume enormous electricity and contribute 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions. 
    • A simple search request made through ChatGPT (an AI-based virtual assistant) consumes 10 times the electricity of a Google Search, as reported by the International Energy Agency.
    • Training advanced AI models, such as GPT-3, can emit up to 552 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent — comparable to the annual emissions of dozens of cars. 
  • E-Waste Crisis and Environment Destruction: 
    • Rapid expansion of data centres is also fuelling a growing e-waste crisis, which often contains hazardous substances, like mercury and lead. 
    • Microchips that power AI need rare earth elements, which are often mined in environmentally destructive ways. 
  • Water Depletion:
    • Data centres use million litres of water during construction and, once operational, cool electrical components and maintain operational temperatures. 

To mitigate these environmental risks, governments and the private sector must proactively work towards embedding sustainability into AI ecosystem design.

Way Forward

  • Adopting standardised global procedures to measure the environmental impact of AI. 
  • Governments can develop regulations that require companies to disclose the direct environmental consequences of AI-based products and services. 
  • Tech companies can make AI algorithms more efficient, reducing their demand for energy, while recycling water and reusing components where feasible.
    • A study by Google has found that the carbon footprint of LLMs can be minimised by a factor of 100 to 1,000 through optimised algorithms, specialised hardware, and energy-efficient cloud data centres. 
    • Instead of collecting new data or training models from scratch, businesses can adapt pre-trained models to new tasks.
  • Using energy-efficient hardware and ensuring regular maintenance can also significantly minimise emissions. 
  • Encourage companies to green their data centres, including by using renewable energy and offsetting their carbon emissions.
    • Locating data centres in areas with abundant supply of renewable resources can help lower the carbon footprint. 
    • At COP29, the International Telecommunication Union emphasised the urgent need for greener AI practices. 

Sustainability needs to be incorporated into the very design of the AI ecosystem to balance innovation and environmental responsibility. This will harness the transformative potential of AI without compromising the Earth’s future. 

Glacier Melting & Sea level Rise

Context: A newly published study highlights that melting ice from glaciers worldwide has led to the sea level rising by almost 2 cm this century alone.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends regarding climate change. 

Major Highlights of the Study

  • Study: Community estimate of global glacier mass changes from 2000 to 2023. 
  • Contributors: Scientists from the University of Edinburgh (Scotland) and the University of Zurich (Switzerland)

Findings:

  • Melting ice has led to the sea level rising by almost 2 cm this century alone.
  • Glaciers have been losing 273 billion tonnes of ice each year, equivalent to water Earth’s entire population would consume over a period of 30 years.
image 181

Glacial Melting and Sea Rise

  • According to the US agency National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA):
    • The rate of glacial melting has doubled from 0.18 cm per year in 1993 to the current rate of 0.42 cm per year. 
    • The global sea level has risen by about 21-25 cm since 1880. 
  • As per the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), global sea levels have risen by more than 10 cm between 1993-2024.
  • According to a World Meteorological Organisation report, sea level is not rising uniformly around the world (owing to local changes in ocean heat content and salinity). For example- the southwestern Indian Ocean region is seeing sea level rise at a rate of 2.5 mm per year, faster than the global average.

Indian Scenario

Data from the Center for Study of Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP), Bengaluru. 

  • Mumbai has witnessed a rise of 4.44 cm between 1987 and 2021, the worst among Indian cities. 
  • West Bengal’s Haldia has witnessed a sea-level rise of 2.726 cm.
  • Andhra Pradesh’s Visakhapatnam has witnessed a sea-level rise of  2.381 cm.
  • Kerala’s Kochi has witnessed a sea-level rise of 2.213 cm.

Factors contributing to the Sea level Rise:  

Sea level rise is essentially the increase in the average height of the ocean’s surface, measured from the centre of the Earth.

  • Global Warming: This has resulted in increased melting of land-based ice, such as glaciers and ice sheets. According to the latest study, since 2000, glaciers have lost between 2% and 39% of their ice regionally, and about 5% globally.
  • Thermal expansion of seawater: With global temperatures rising, oceans are becoming warmer, and as a result, the volume of water is increasing as well. According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) thermal expansion of seawater is responsible for one-third to half of global sea level rise.

Concerns associated with the rising sea levels

As per the study “Every centimeter of sea level rise exposes another 2 million people to annual flooding somewhere on our planet”.

  • Flooding and erosion of coastal areas:
    • Sea level rise leads to more frequent and intense coastal flooding, which exacerbates coastal erosion. 
    • According to a 2018 report by the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), between 1990 and 2016, the West Bengal coast alone lost almost 99 sq km of land.
  • More severe geophysical phenomenon: 
    • The rise results in more intense storm surges, allowing more water inland during tropical storms. 
    • This in turn can impact coastal ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs and salt marshes, contaminate fresh water supplies etc.
  • Displacement of population: 
    • Submergence, erosion and intense climatic events may result in huge displacement of coastal populations, which in turn would adversely impact their livelihood and their age-old traditions. 
    • A 2024 study in the journal Scientific Reports found that 15% of the global; population lived merely 10 km away from water.
  • Changes in weather patterns: Addition of a considerable amount of freshwater into the ocean is concerning as this increase in freshwater has the potential to disturb the oceanic circulations, which is a crucial system of ocean currents responsible for shaping the Earth's climate and weather patterns.

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