Environment

India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park to be set in Delhi 

Context: The Delhi government has announced plans to develop India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park at Holambi Kalan in north-west Delhi. A global tender (RFQ-cum-RFP) would soon be floated to attract leading green technology partners.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about integrated E-Waste Eco Park; e-waste. 

India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park

  • Location: Holambi Kalan in north-west Delhi.
  • Spread across 11.4 acres, the state-of-the-art facility will be built under a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model.
  • Expected to process up to 51,000 metric tonnes of e-waste annually. 
  • The park will be developed by the Delhi State Industrial and Infrastructure Development Corporation (DSIIDC) under the Design, Build, Finance, Operate and Transfer model. 
  • The project is estimated to cost Rs 150 crore expenditure and Rs 325 crore in operational costs, and is expected to generate over Rs 350 crore in revenue. Construction of the park is expected to be completed within 18 months.
  • It aims to position Delhi as a national leader in e-waste management, green jobs and resource recovery.
  • Apart from recycling e-waste, the park will include zones for dismantling, refurbishing, component testing, plastic recovery, and a second-hand electronics market.
  • It will also host training centres to upskill informal sector workers engaged in unsafe e-waste handling. 

What is E-Waste?

  • As per the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, e-waste is defined as: electrical and electronic equipment, including solar photovoltaic modules or panels or cells, whole or in part, discarded or rejected from manufacturing, refurbishment and repair processes.
  • Examples: Large household appliances like Refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines ; Consumer electronics like Televisions, computers, laptops, smartphones etc. 
  • E-waste can contain material of economic benefit such as plastics, iron, glass, aluminum, copper, silver, gold, platinum, palladium, lithium, indium etc. and rare earth elements.
  • E-Waste contains hazardous substances such as Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Hexavalent Chromium, Polychlorinated Bi-phenyls (PCBs), Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR), etc. 
  • Management of E-Waste in India is regulated under E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 under the Environment Protection Act, 1986. 

India's E-Waste Emergency: 

  • India stands as the third-largest producer of e-waste in the world after China and the US. In FY24, the country generated 1.7 million tonnes of e-waste. Delhi contributes nearly 9.5% of that staggering total. 
  • Unfortunately, only 17% of global e-waste is recycled in a scientifically sound manner. Presently, only 43% of the country's e-waste is recycled. Further, at least 80% of the sector comprises informal scrap dealers. 
  • Toxins from crude e-waste handling contaminate air, soil, and water and pose serious health risks, especially to vulnerable groups like children.

Significance: 

  • By encouraging the safe and scientific recovery of essential materials, it will reduce pollution and conserve resources.
  • Bring order to the informal sector, create thousands of green jobs and empower local dismantlers, recyclers, and refurbishers. 

Delhi's E-Waste Eco Park is the first of four such facilities planned across the country and a step towards sustainable development and a circular economy. 

New AC Temperature Control Guidelines

Context: The Union Ministry of Power is planning to mandate a fixed temperature range (20°C to 28°C) for air conditioners in India to reduce energy consumption and promote public health.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: WHO Housing and Health Guidelines (2018), Rationale for New AC guidelines from the Centre; Common refrigerants used in ACs. 

New AC guidelines from the Centre: 

  • The new directive will cap the operational temperature range of all new air conditioners (ACs) in India between 20°C and 28°C, whether in homes or commercial settings. 
  • Currently, many air conditioners available in the market allow temperatures as low as 16°C or 18°C, and heating settings going up to 30°C. 
  • Rationale: To reduce energy consumption and mitigate health risks associated with excessive cooling.

Why is this being proposed?

To Save Electricity: 

  • A study by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) predicted that by 2030, India’s total AC load could reach 200 GW, putting stress on energy supply.
  • According to the Power Minister, every 1°C increase in an AC’s temperature setting can save 6% of the electricity it uses.
  • Mandating optimal temperature off AC to 24°C, the country could save 20 billion units of electricity per year.

To Improve Public Health: 

  • Many people set their ACs at very low temperatures (like 18-21°C), but this is not only uncomfortable for most, it is also unhealthy.
  • Low indoor temperatures are linked to:
    • Increased blood pressure due to vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels and stress on the heart).
    • Higher risk of hypertension and respiratory issues like asthma and infections.
    • Poor sleep, especially in children and the elderly.
    • Reduce lung function in children.
    • Mental health issues like anxiety and depression, especially in persistently cold homes.
  • WHO’s 2018 Housing and Health Guidelines recommend using 18 degrees Celsius as the minimum safe living-room temperature in temperate or cooler climates because cardiovascular and respiratory admissions were found to climb steeply below that threshold.
  • A longitudinal study found that 16% of individuals over the age of 50, living in environments cooled to below 18°C, experienced higher blood pressure, lower vitamin D levels and reduced lung function.
  • Standards like ASHRAE-55 and ISO 7730 recommend maintaining minimum indoor temperatures for comfort and safety. A lightly clothed person can comfortably release body heat at 20-24°C.

How do Air Conditioners Work?

  • An AC works by removing heat from inside a room and dumping it outside.
  • It uses a refrigerant that evaporates and absorbs heat, then gets compressed (which uses most of the power), and finally releases the heat through a condenser.
  • The colder the temperature one sets, the harder the AC has to work and the more electricity it uses.
  • ACs are most efficient when operating in a temperature range suited to their refrigerant, typically 20°C to 28°C.

What is a refrigerant?

  • A refrigerant or coolant used in ACs takes out the heat of a room and throws it outside into the atmosphere. 
  • A refrigerant has to undergo phase changes to absorb and compress the heat to distribute cold fresh air into the room. It changes from a liquid to gas when it absorbs a room’s heat and then again gets back to its liquid form when the compressor compresses it. 
  • The ideal refrigerant can be selected considering certain factors like -- favourable thermodynamic properties, non-corrosive nature and safety features like its toxicity and inflammability. 

Common refrigerants used in ACs:

  • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): phased out due to Ozone depletion. 
  • Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): less harmful but still risks Ozone depletion. Indian government plans to phase out the HCFC refrigerants by 2030.
  • Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): Ozone-safe but have high global warning potential. 
  • Hydrocarbons (Propane and Iso-Butane): ozone-friendly, completely halogen-free and have the least global warming potential but flammable. 

Thus, the case for moving towards a fixed temperature range on ACs is clear-  supported by public health benefits as well as energy savings.

FRA Cells to speed up Forest Rights Implementation

Context: The Central government has sanctioned over 300 FRA Cells to facilitate the implementation of the Forest Rights Act, 2006 across 18 states and UTs. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Features of FRA Cells, FRA 2006, DAJGUA.

Pending Forest Rights Claims

  • According to the March 2025 progress report, about 14.45% of the 51.11 lakh forest rights claims filed under the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 across 21 States/UTs still remain pending. 
  • Even among the 43 lakh disposed claims, over 42% have been rejected indicating serious issues in the implementation process.

To address these long-standing delays and rejections, the Union government has sanctioned over 300 FRA Cells across 18 states & UTs. 

About Forest Right Act 2006

  • Also known as Schedule Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers Act.
  • The act recognises and vests the forest rights and occupation in Forest land in Forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) who have been residing in such forests for generations.

The Act identifies Four Types of Rights: 

  • Title rights: Gives FDST and OTFD, the right to ownership of land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers subject to a maximum of 4 hectares. Ownership is only for land that is being cultivated by the concerned family and no new lands will be granted. It also provides for Community rights over minor forest produce and other resources.
  • Use rights: The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas, pastoralist routes, etc.
  • Relief and development rights: To rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement and to basic amenities, subject to restrictions for forest protection.
  • Forest management rights: It includes the right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource  which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.

Key Facts: 

  • The Act recognises both individuals and community rights. 
  • The decision and declaration of Habitat rights under FRA is in the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
  • The claim needs to be approved by the Gram Sabha. The decision of the Gram Sabha to reject or allow the claim can be appealed before court.

About FRA Cells

  • FRA Cells are created in districts and states to assist in implementing the Forest Rights Act, 2006, law meant to give forest rights to Scheduled Tribes and forest-dwelling communities.
  • This is being done under a new scheme called Dharti Aba Janjati Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA ). 

Key details about FRA Cells: 

  • Until now, implementation of the FRA, has been the domain of State and Union Territory governments who were supposed to form local committees like Gram Sabhas, Sub-Divisional Level Committees (SDLCs), District Level Committees (DLCs), etc., to process land claims.
  • Now, under DAJGUA, 324 district-level FRA cells and 17 state-level FRA cells have been approved. The rules governing the operation of these cells flow from the DAJGUA programme and not the principal legislation of the FRA. 
  • FRA Cells are meant to help tribal people and Gram Sabhas prepare documents, manage data, and push pending claims, not to interfere in decision-making. 
  • The highest number of district FRA cells are sanctioned in Madhya Pradesh (55), followed by Chhattisgarh (30), Telangana, Maharashtra, Assam, and Jharkhand. 
  • Though FRA cells function under state machinery as per DAJGUA rules, they are centrally funded through Grants-in-Aid General, as seen in sanction orders for states like Assam, Himachal Pradesh, and Odisha. The guidelines provide a budget of ₹8.67 lakh for each FRA cell at the district level, and ₹25.85 lakh for each State-level FRA cell.

Dharti Aba Janjati Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA): 

  • A central sector scheme launched in October 2024. 
  • Purpose: To Improve tribal welfare across 68,000 tribal-dominated villages by bringing together 25 interventions of 17 line ministries. 
  • One component of the DAJGUA programme is to speed up FRA implementation.

Concerns: Forest rights activists and experts have raised concerns of FRA Cells being a parallel FRA mechanism outside of FRA’s purview and that it could weaken community control.

Why is the health of Tiger dependent on its prey?

Context: The population of species like spotted deer, sambar, and gaur, which are the prey base for Tigers, are declining in certain states like Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh. This decline in their population is a matter of concern for tigers and for wildlife conservation as a whole.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Tiger.

Mains: Conservation of keystone species: Significance and challenges. 

Recent assessment report by NTCA: Key Issues:

The National Tiger Conservation Authority and the Wildlife Institute of India has recently prepared the assessment report, which shows: 

  • Declining prey base: For the first time, a detailed assessment of the status of ungulates (hoofed mammals), including deer, pigs, antelopes, and bison, has estimated their abundance across India. However, their populations are declining in east-central India in Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh. 
  • Uneven distribution of prey-base: The core tiger prey species are abundant, especially within tiger reserves and national parks, but not so much in sanctuaries that receive a comparatively lower level of protection, and even less in forest divisions.
  • Habitat fragmentation & inbreeding: Small and isolated populations of species such as barasingha, wild buffalo, pygmy hog, and hog deer, specially in Himalayan states, poses bottlenecks in their genetic diversity as habitat fragmentation prevents the intermixing of different animals.
  • Decline in species due to habitat destruction: Species with narrow ecological preferences like, populations of hog deer which live in grasslands and floodplains, have significantly declined due to the destruction and fragmentation of their preferred wetlands and swamp habitats. Their current distribution is confined to isolated patches in Terai grasslands and floodplains of Ganga and Brahmaputra. 

The signs of prey decline and low density of ungulates are due to severe habitat degradation, infrastructure development projects and mining that fragments forests, left-wing extremism (central India), and subsistence hunting by residents.

Consequences of the fall in population of Ungulates:

  • Impacts health of Tigers: Ungulates form the core prey base of tigers and other large predators. The lack of prey base is a double whammy for tigers, impacting the existing tiger occupancy and forcing them to kill livestock and smaller species.
  • Disrupts ecological balance: The animals help regulate forests and soil health with their feeding habits. A fall in their numbers affects the ecological balance of forests both inside and outside tiger reserves.
  • Increase in Man-Wildlife conflict: Due to the fallout of the prey base, tigers move beyond the reserves to hunt livestock, putting them in closer contact with humans, who kill tigers in retaliation for livestock depredation. 

The report prescribes augmenting prey populations through on-site breeding in enclosures to protect them from predators.

Also Read: Translocation of African Cheetahs: Neither Ecologically Sustainable nor Ethical 

Key Facts about Tiger

  • Tiger is an umbrella species. Its conservation automatically ensures the conversation of a large number of flora and fauna and entire ecosystems.
  • India is home to 75% of the global tiger population. 
    • The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts a tiger census across India every 4 years.
    • As per the latest Tiger Census Report (2022), India has 3682 tigers. (2967 in 2018)
    • Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers (785) in India, followed by Karnataka (563) and Uttarakhand (560). 
  • Conservation status: 
    • IUCN Red List: Endangered
    • Wildlife Protection Act: Schedule 1
    • CITES: Appendix 1

Read More: List of Tiger Reserves in India 

Air Pollution can increase the risk of Premature Birth

Context: A study by the US researchers finds first molecular level evidence of how exposure to PM2.5 pollutants by pregnant women could lead to higher risk of premature deliveries.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Health implications of Pollution. 

Link between Air Pollution and Premature Birth: 

  • Exposure to pollutants like fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide during pregnancy can lead to an increased risk of complications such as preterm birth, low birth weight, and developmental issues.
  • A recent study has identified that two biological molecules- 'cortexolone' and 'lysoPE(20:3)', show altered levels in women exposed to air pollution.
    • Cortexolone is a glucocorticoid crucial to regulating metabolism, inflammation, and the immune response.
    • lysoPE(20:3) is a lipid present in cells and important for cell function. 
  • Deregulation of these molecules cause disruptions in protein digestion and absorption which are crucial to foetal development.  

Previous studies have shown that these pollutants can penetrate the placental barrier, potentially affecting fetal growth and development.  

Also Read: Air Pollution in India: Major Pollutants

Stratospheric Aerosol Injection

Context: A recent study presents a novel approach to Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) as a potential means to directly cool the Earth.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept and Mechanism of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection Method.

What is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)?

  • SAI is a proposed method of cooling the planet and reducing the impacts of climate change by adding a layer of tiny reflective particles (aerosols) to the high atmosphere. 
  • Aerosols reflect sunlight back into space, increasing Earth’s albedo and lowering surface temperatures by reducing the amount of sunlight reaching the earth.
  • The method was inspired by volcanic eruptions, which have been known to have a cooling effect on the planet by spewing aerosols into the air.
  • How well SAI works depends on the type of material injected, the timing of the injection, and the location. 

Key Findings: 

  • Injecting 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide every year at an altitude of 13 km in the local spring and summer seasons of each hemisphere could cool the planet by approximately 0.6 degrees Celsius. 
  • To achieve 1°C cooling, 21 million tonnes/year of sulphur dioxide would be required.
  • If the particles were injected at an even higher altitude in the subtropics, only 7.6 million tonnes would be required annually.
  • Higher altitude injection is more effective because particles stay for longer. At lower altitudes particles are more likely to be caught in clouds and washed out by rain. Despite this, researchers are exploring low-altitude spraying because it is technically less challenging.

While there are some benefits to this method, using three times the usual amount of aerosols carries greater risk.

Risks and Side effects of SAI 

  • Social and geopolitical risks: If one country injects aerosols into the stratosphere, all countries will be affected, it could affect global climate patterns, leading to conflicts.
  • Delayed recovery of the ozone hole and increased risk of acid rain.
  • Cooling could mask warming on the ground and make countries complacent about curtailing emissions.

Flue Gas Desulphurisation

Context: A high-powered committee of experts, led by Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) has recommended that India should scrap its policy of mandating coal-fired thermal power plants (TPPs) to install Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units. FGD units are fitted in TPPs to cut harmful sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions. 

92% of India’s 600 TPPs have not yet installed FGD units. Instead, the committee recommends limiting FGD unit requirement to plants that use imported or high-sulphur (>0.5%) coal, as these contribute more significantly to SO₂ pollution.

Instead, the study recommends limiting this requirement to plants using imported or high-sulphur (>0.5%) coal, as these contribute more significantly to SO₂ pollution.

Relevance of the Topic:  Prelims: Key facts related to Desulphurisation.  

Rationale behind the Suggestions

  • The rationale underlying the analysis is that 92% of the coal used in Indian plants has low sulphur content (0.3%-0.5%).
    • SO2 levels in ambient air across the country are around 10-20 micrograms/cubic metre, well below India’s air quality norms of 80 micrograms/cubic metre. 
    • SO2 levels in cities near plants with operational FGD units do not differ significantly from those without these units.
    • Particulate Matter samples in urban areas show low levels of elemental sulphur (max 8 micrograms/cubic metre) which is not a significant concern. Thus, FGD units may offer limited benefits in reducing PM pollution. 
  • Norms mandated by the Central Pollution Control Board that require stack heights (exhaust columns) in the thermal power plants be a minimum 220 metres, coupled with Indian climatic conditions, ensure that SO2 emissions do not threaten local air quality.
  • A study by IIT-Delhi in 2024 found that acid rain, the most visible consequence of high SO2 emissions, was not a significant issue in India.
  • Installing FGD in all coal plants would increase power consumption as well as freshwater consumption in the plants, resulting in an additional 69 million tonnes of CO2 (2025-30), while reducing SO2 emissions by 17 million tonnes.
  • Unintended benefit of Sulphate Aerosols: When SO₂ is released into the atmosphere, it reacts with water vapour and other compounds to form sulphate aerosols. These aerosols reflect incoming solar radiation (shortwave radiation) back into space, which results in radiative cooling of the Earth's surface. This cooling effect masks or offsets part of the warming caused by greenhouse gases. 

Flue Gas Desulphurisation

  • Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) is a clean technology system that separates the sulphur dioxide from the exhaust flue gas of coal-fired thermal power plants. 
  • FGD systems utilise various methods, including wet scrubbing with limestone slurry or dry scrubbing with a dry sorbent, to absorb SO2 from the flue gas. 
image 59

How FGD Works?

  • Flue Gas Collection: Flue gas, containing SO2 and other pollutants, is collected from the power plant's boiler or other combustion sources. 
  • SO2 Removal: The collected flue gas is then passed through an FGD system.
    • In wet scrubbing, the gas is sprayed with a limestone slurry. The SO2 reacts with the limestone, forming a calcium sulfite or sulfate, which can be removed as a by-product or waste. 
    • In dry scrubbing, a dry sorbent, like lime or activated carbon, is introduced to the flue gas, where it absorbs the SO2. 
  • Waste Product Handling: The by-products or waste generated during FGD, such as gypsum or a dry waste product, are collected and either disposed of or utilized in other applications. 
  • Cleaned Flue Gas, now with reduced SO2 levels, is discharged into the atmosphere through the stack. 

Aravalli Green Wall Project 

Context: On the World Environment Day 2025, the Prime Minister of India planted the first sapling (Sindoor/Vermillion tree) in Delhi's Ridge to officially launch the Aravalli Green Wall Project to restore the Aravalli mountain range. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Aravalli Green Wall Project; United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD); National Action Plan to Combat Desertification and Land Degradation. 

Aravalli Green Wall Project

  • Aim: Restore the 700-km Aravalli mountain range’s ecology through reforestation and conservation efforts across Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
  • To create a 1400 km-long, 5 km-wide green belt inspired by Africa's Great Green Wall. 
  • The project will use innovative plantation techniques, and that all plantation activities will be geo-tagged and monitored via the Meri LiFE portal to ensure transparency and effectiveness.

Key initiatives under the Project: 

  • Plant native species, revive 75 water bodies, and bolster soil conservation targeting 1.1 million hectares by 2027.
  • Expand green cover in a 5-km buffer zone along the Aravalli range
  • Develop around 1,000 nurseries to support continuous plantation drives and engage local communities.
  • Transform the region into a thriving hub for eco-tourism and sustainable travel. 

Significance: 

  • Green barriers would prevent eastward expansion of the Thar Desert, prevent soil erosion, desertification and dust storms. 
  • Enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services by planting native tree species, providing habitat for wildlife and improving water quality and quantity.
  • Help in carbon sequestration and mitigating climate change.
  • Promote sustainable development and livelihood opportunities by involving local communities in afforestation, agro-forestry and water conservation activities.
  • Contribute to India's commitments under various international conventions such as:
    • UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification)
    • CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity)
    • UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change).
  • Enhance India's image as a global leader in environmental protection and green development.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD):

  • Established in 1994, UNCCD is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management.
  • The convention addresses specifically the arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, known as the drylands.
  • UNCCD is committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating desertification and land degradation.
  • The member parties work together to improve the living conditions for people in drylands, to maintain and restore land and soil productivity, and to mitigate the effects of drought.
  • UNCCD collaborates closely with the other two Rio Conventions: UNCBD and UNFCCC to meet these complex challenges with an integrated approach and the best possible use of natural resources.

National Action Plan to Combat Desertification and Land Degradation:

  • The National Action Plan to Combat Desertification 2023 takes due consideration of India’s commitments for:
    • Restoration of 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
    • Generating an additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030 through additional forest and tree cover.
    • Initiative for enhanced South-South Cooperation to share experiences on Sustainable Land Management (SLM) strategies. 
  • India is a party to the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

Aravalli Mountain Range

  • Oldest mountain ranges (fold mountains) in the world having its origin in the Proterozoic era.
  • It runs approximately 700 kms from north-east to south-west direction, in western India. 
  • Range States: Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat
  • Divided into two sections: Sambhar-Sirohi ranges and Sambhar-Khetri ranges.
  • Highest Peak: Guru Shikhar on Mount Abu.
image 13

Threats: 

  • Decades of deforestation, mining, livestock grazing, and human encroachment have severely degraded the range. 
  • Of the total degraded area, 81% is in Rajasthan alone, followed by Gujarat, Haryana and Delhi.
  • It has led to drying lakes, damaged aquifers, reduced biodiversity, and increasing desertification risks.

Significance of Aravalli Mountain Range:

  • Vital ecological barrier that prevents the eastward expansion of the Thar desert and protects cities such as Delhi, Jaipur and Gurugram from desertification.
  • Gives rise to several rivers including Banas & Sahibi (Tributaries of Yamuna), Luni (flows into Rann of Kutch), Chambal, Sakhi, and Sabarmati.
  • Performs the role of an aquifer with its highly fractured and weathered quality rocks allowing water to percolate and recharge the groundwater.
  • Its forests, grasslands and wetlands support endangered plant and animal species.
  • Rich in natural resources including minerals such as rock phosphate, lead-zinc-silver, talc, pyrophyllite, asbestos, etc. 

India's Energy Sector: Rise and Reforms 

Context: Recently, India overtook Japan to become the world’s fourth largest economy with a GDP of over $4.18 trillion. A key pillar behind this growth story is the transformation of India’s energy sector over the past decade.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims and Mains: State of India's Energy sectors and key reforms.

Key Stats in the Energy Sector in India

  • India is the third largest energy and oil consumer. India is the fourth-largest refiner, and fourth-largest LNG importer globally. 
  • Coal has consistently accounted for over 70% of India's total energy generation. Despite increased domestic production, coal import dependence remains high (26%).
  • Crude oil’s share is ~6% in FY24. Natural gas was 7% of the total energy produced in FY24.
  • Renewable energy sources (hydro, solar, nuclear) stand at 7% in FY24. The highest potential for energy generation from renewable resources comes from wind (55%), followed by solar energy, and large hydro. India’s total renewable energy-based electricity generation capacity: 203 GW (2024). India’s target: 500 GW from non-fossil sources by 2030. 

With energy demand expected to grow two and a half times by 2047 and 25% of incremental global demand is set to come from India, energy security is now viewed as development security.

Indian government’s energy strategy

Indian government’s energy strategy addresses the energy trilemma of- availability, affordability, and sustainability through a four-pronged approach: 

  • Diversification of energy security sources and suppliers
  • Expansion of domestic production of oil and gas 
  • Transition to renewables like Biofuels, green hydrogen etc 
  • Affordability (affordable energy access for all sections of society)

Reforms in the Energy Sector: 

1. Upstream Oil & Gas Reforms: 

  • In the upstream oil and gas sector, India’s exploration acreage has doubled from 8% in 2021 to 16% in 2025.
  • With a goal of covering one million square kilometres by 2030, the government aims to unlock 42 billion tonnes of oil and oil-equivalent gas. 

2. Policy Reforms: 

  • This expansion has been enabled by landmark reforms such as the reduction of ‘No-Go’ areas by 99%, streamlined licensing through Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP) rounds, and attractive pricing incentives for new gas wells.
  • The revised gas pricing mechanism, linking prices to 10% of the Indian crude basket and offering a 20% premium for new wells, has enhanced gas availability for city gas networks and industrial usage.
  • To reduce costs and accelerate monetisation, new revenue-sharing contracts allow shared infrastructure among Exploration and Production (E&P) players. 

3. Technological and geophysical efforts have complemented policy reforms: 

  • National Seismic Programme, Mission Anveshan, airborne gravity gradiometry (AGG) surveys, and continental shelf mapping have expanded data and exploration confidence, especially in frontier basins such as the Andamans, the Mahanadi, and the Cauvery.
  • ONGC and Oil India have together made over 25 hydrocarbon discoveries across the Mumbai Offshore, Cambay, Mahanadi, and Assam basins in the last four years. Noteworthy among these are- Suryamani and Vajramani wells on the west coast offshore and the Utkal and Konark fields on the east coast deep waters. 
  • These discoveries add over 75 MMtoe (million metric tonnes of oil equivalent) and 2,700 MMSCM (million metric standard cubic metres) of gas to India’s reserves.

4. Downstream infrastructure has seen parallel expansion: 

  • India now operates 24,000 kilometres of product pipelines, nearly 96,000 retail outlets, and has significantly strengthened its strategic reserves and LPG storage. 
  • Over 67 million people visit petrol pumps daily, which is testimony to the scale and efficiency of India’s fuel supply ecosystem.
  • India’s city gas network has grown from 55 geographic areas in 2014 to 307 in 2025, with piped natural gas (PNG) connections up from 25 lakh to 1.5 crore and over 7,500 compressed natural gas (CNG) stations in operation. 
  • Unified pipeline tariffs and city gas expansions have ensured affordable access even in distant States.

Transition to Renewables

1. Biofuels and Ethanol: 

  • Biofuels have emerged as a cornerstone of India’s green strategy.
  • Ethanol blending in petrol has surged from 1.5% in 2013 to 19.7% in 2025. Blending quantities have expanded from 38 crore litres to 484 crore litres. 

This has saved 1.26 lakh crore in foreign exchange, reduced emissions by 643 lakh MT, and paid ₹1.79 lakh crore to distillers and over ₹1 lakh crore to farmers. Feedstock diversification ranging from molasses to maize has created a robust ethanol ecosystem.

2. Compressed Biogas:

  • Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) initiative commissioned over 100 compressed biogas (CBG) plants and aims for a 5% CBG blending mandate by 2028.
  • Central support for biomass procurement and CBG-pipeline connectivity is accelerating circular energy adoption. 

3. Green Hydrogen: 

  • Green hydrogen has been given a massive thrust with 8.62 lakh tonnes of production and 3,000 MW of electrolyser tenders awarded. 
  • Oil public sector undertakings are leading from the front- Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. recently awarded a landmark 10 kilo-tonnes per annum (KTPA) green hydrogen tender to L&T. Numaligarh Refinery Limited (NRL)’s green hydrogen unit in Assam is poised to become a first in the northeast.

4. Natural Gas: 

  • India’s natural gas pipeline network now spans over 25,000 km; it targets 33,000 km by 2030.
  • Strategic pricing reforms and inclusion of gas in the ‘No Cut’ category for transport and domestic segments are ensuring supply stability.
  • Gas production has increased steadily from 28.7 billion cubic metre (BCM) in 2020-21 to 36.4 BCM in 2023-24, with further growth projected.
  • Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Amendment Act 2024 has enabled hybrid leases, allowing renewables alongside hydrocarbons.
  • Discovered small fields (DSF) fields now operate under simplified contracts with minimal compliance burdens, unlocking marginal fields across basins. These sweeping policy reforms show that we are ready to tweak and do more to make India’s upstream sector as competitive as any in the world. 
  • Through the PM Gati Shakti, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has digitally mapped over one lakh assets and pipelines. Integration with the National Master Plan ensures real-time project visibility and synergy across ministries. Key projects such as the Indo-Nepal pipeline and Samruddhi Utility Corridor have benefited from route optimisation and cost savings of over ₹169 crore. 

Affordability Reforms: 

  • Despite global LPG prices rising by 58%, Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) beneficiaries pay ₹553 per cylinder, supported by targeted subsidies and compensation to oil companies.
  • Fuel prices in India have been kept stable through excise cuts, insulating citizens from volatility seen in neighbouring countries.

Going Beyond AQI: Why Toxicity Matters in Measuring Air Pollution

Context: A study has found that the toxicity of air pollution changes with the concentration levels of PM2.5 in Indian cities, bringing attention to a critical gap in current air quality standards.

Relevance of the Topic:  Prelims: PM2.5, Air Quality Index (AQI), Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), Oxidative Stress, Pollution Sources.

What is PM2.5?

  • PM2.5 refers to fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometres, small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and bloodstream. 
  • It originates from sources- biomass and solid waste burning, vehicular emissions, industrial activities, construction dust etc. 
  • Due to its size and chemical composition, PM2.5 is associated with respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurological disorders.
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  • A recent study by Indian researchers has highlighted how toxicity of air pollution changes with concentration levels of PM 2.5 in Indian cities.

Key Highlights of the Study:

The study- “Contrasting features of winter-time PM2.5 pollution and PM2.5-toxicity based on oxidative potential” (2016-2023), conducted in Kolkata, found the following:

  • Pollution is damaging even at lower concentrations, but itsability to cause damage to cells increases sharply after the concentration level crosses a certain threshold value.
    • When PM2.5 concentration level exceeds about 70 µg/m³, its potential to create oxidative stress in the body increases steeply, and continues to rise until the concentration reaches about 130 µg/m³. 
    • Toxicity stabilises after that, and further increase in concentration do not lead to an appreciable rise in damage potential.
  • The threshold level is expected to vary from city to city. E.g., This threshold value is about 70 micrograms per cubic metre (µg/m³) for Kolkata. 
  • Threshold level of toxicity varies due to differences in the composition of air pollutants. E.g., pollutants from biomass and solid waste burning contribute more significantly to toxicity than those from vehicular emissions.

Why does toxicity increase after a point?

At lower concentrations the body can manage pollutant effects, but beyond a threshold the defences of the body are overwhelmed.

  • When pollutants are inhaled, the body’s immune system fights back through the release of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), which are chemicals used by immune cells to neutralise foreign substances. When larger concentrations of pollutants are inhaled, greater amounts of ROS are released.
  • The problem is ROS is damaging for the body’s cells as well. Therefore, as a natural counter-defence mechanism, the body produces another set of chemicals called antioxidants, that protect the cells against ROS.
  • However, antioxidants are present in small quantities, and take time to build up. So, while they are able to effectively deal with smaller amounts of ROS, they are helpless when ROS is produced in large amounts. This leads to an imbalance in the body, a situation called oxidative stress, which leaves the internal cells prone to damage from excess ROS.

Current Air Quality Standards: 

  • Air quality standards are framed in terms of their concentration, not toxicity. E.g., in India, a PM2.5 concentration level of 40 µg/m³ averaged over a year is considered safe. On a daily basis, a concentration of 60 µg/m³ is considered safe.
  • However, the harmful impacts of air pollution on human health depend not just on concentration, but also on toxicity, which takes into account factors like chemical composition of pollutants.

Way Forward

The study underlines a crucial gap in how we currently assess and respond to air pollution. It calls for a nuanced, city-specific and health-focused approach to pollution control. 

  • Incorporate toxicity into AQI systems: AQI should reflect not only PM2.5 concentration but also its oxidative potential, giving a more accurate picture of health risks.
  • Develop city-specific toxicity thresholds: Since pollutant composition varies by location, region-specific toxicity thresholds must be established for effective local interventions.
  • Revise Air Quality Standards: National standards must evolve to include toxicity measures.

World likely to breach 1.5°C limit in next five years: WMO

Context: A recent report by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) has sounded an alarm on climate change, warning that there is a 70% chance of global temperatures exceeding the 1.5°Celsius threshold above pre-industrial levels between 2025 and 2029.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends related to climate change; Paris Climate deal; India’s climate commitments. 

Major Highlights of forecasts by WMO

  • Global mean near-surface temperature for each year between 2025 and 2029 will be between 1.2°C and 1.9°C above the pre-industrial average. There is a 70% chance that average warming will exceed 1.5°C, if the current warming trend continues.
    • In 2024, WMO estimated that the average global temperature was between 1.34°C and 1.41°C higher than pre-industrial levels (1850-1900).
    • WMO now projects the 20-year average warming for 2015-2034 to reach around 1.44°C above pre-industrial levels.
  • Average Arctic temperature over the next five winters (2025-2029) is expected to be 2.4°C warmer than the 1991-2020 average. Sea ice is expected to keep shrinking, particularly in the Barents, Bering, and Okhotsk Sea. This will contribute to rising sea levels and disrupted weather patterns worldwide.

About Paris Climate Agreement

  • Adopted in 2015 by 196 Parties during the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at Paris, France.
  • Aim: To limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels.
  • Key Features of the Climate deal: 
    • Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each country sets its own emission reduction targets, with updates every five years to enhance ambition.
    • Global Stocktake: A periodic review of the progress on climate action at global level (not the national level) and identify overall gaps, conducted every five years.
    • Climate Finance: Developed countries pledged to mobilise $100 billion annually by 2020 to support climate action in developing nations, with plans for scaling this amount post-2025.
    • Adaptation and Resilience: Focuses on helping countries adapt to climate impacts and build resilience against future challenges.
  • Significance: First universal, legally binding, global climate deal. It emphasises global cooperation, fairness, and a commitment to sustainable development while recognising the individual capacities of nations.
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India’s Panchamrit (nectar elements) of climate action: 

The Government of India at the COP26 to the UNFCCC held in Glasgow, United Kingdom 2021 made the following commitments. The five elements of India’s climate action:

i. Reach 500 GW Non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.

ii. Meet 50% of the total energy requirement from renewable energy by 2030.

iii. Reduction of total projected carbon emissions by one billion tons from now to 2030.

iv. Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels.

v. Achieve the target of net zero emissions by 2070.

Concerns: 180 of the 195 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) countries are yet to submit their next round of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) or climate plans for 2031-35 before the 30th Conference of the Parties (COP30). Climate plans are crucial to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C.

A growing number of climate scientists now hold the 1.5-degree target to be impossible to achieve due to the increasing levels of CO2 emissions.

Marine Pollution: MSC ELSA 3 sinks off Kerala coast

Context: Recently, a Liberian container ship 'MSC ELSA 3' sank off the Kerala coast near Alappuzha with hazardous cargo on board. This has exaggerated the risk of oil spill, plastic pollution (due to nurdles/plastic pellets), and spread of hazardous chemicals. 

The state government of Kerala has declared the wreckage as a state-specific disaster considering the potentially serious environmental, social and economic impact. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Oil spill remediation techniques; Legal avenues for India in Marine Spills. 

Oil Spill

  • Oil spill is the accidental release of petroleum or its products into the sea or coastal waters. 
  • Oil spills are dangerous as oil floats on water, forming a slick that spreads quickly with wind and currents. Some components can stay suspended causing long-term harm.
  • Impacts: 
    • Severely damage marine ecosystems- result in death of fish and other organisms.
    • Destroy mangroves and coral reefs. 
    • Oil can coat the feathers of birds- may lose their insulation abilities, leading to hypothermia and drowning.
    • Bioaccumulation of toxic substances in the food chain.
    • Affect livelihood of fishermen and disrupt local economy.

Methods used to clean up Oil Spills

Oil spreads quickly and rough seas and strong currents complicate cleanup efforts. Oils vary in properties, with some sinking or emulsifying with water and making separation tough. Some of the methods used for oil spill clean up are skimming, in situ burning and releasing chemical dispersants.

  • Skimming: It involves removing oil from the sea surface before it can reach sensitive areas along the coastline. E.g., Using pillows made of oleophilic (oil-attracting) materials which act like a sponge and absorb oil from the surface. 
  • In situ burning: It means burning a particular patch of oil after it has concentrated in an area.
  • Releasing chemical dispersants: It helps break down oil into smaller droplets, making it easier for microbes to consume and further break it down into less harmful compounds.

The methods can have some drawbacks, such as- chemical dispersants can harm marine life. Additionally, manual cleanup is labour-intensive and often ineffective in remote areas.

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Flags of Convenience: 

  • Mediterranean Shipping Company (MSC) is one of the world’s largest container shipping companies, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. 
  • ELSA 3 is registered in Liberia, a flag state widely known for its lax regulatory oversight. This practice of registering vessels under so-called “Flags of Convenience” or “Open Registers” is common in the global shipping industry. 
  • This allows shipowners to sidestep the stricter safety, labour, tax, and environmental regulations enforced by traditional maritime nations.

Legal avenues for India in Kerala Ship Spill: 

1. MARPOL and SOLAS Conventions: 

  • India is signatory to MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) and SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea). 
  • MARPOL Annex III deals with pollution from harmful substances. The primary liability for pollution damage is with the shipowner and the flag state, which can extend to covering the cost of cleanup and other damages to the environment.
  • International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code under SOLAS requires strict controls for transportation of hazardous cargo like calcium carbide. Improper stowage or labelling of dangerous cargo may violate these rules. 
  • Under the SOLAS, India is obligated to investigate whether the vessel met seaworthiness, stability, and hazardous cargo handling standards under the IMDG Code. 

2. Merchant Shipping Act, 1958:

  • India’s Director General of Shipping (DGS) has the territorial jurisdiction to investigate the marine accident under provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958. 
  • DGS can demand the records, vessel’s safety certificates and maintenance logs to inspect compliance about its structural integrity, maintenance and compliance with safety standards. 
  • DGS can assess compliance with IMDG Code standards for hazardous cargo and verify the vessel’s seaworthiness certification. 

3. Environment Protection Act 1986: 

  • The ‘Polluter Pays’ principle upheld by the National Green Tribunal can be invoked to claim compensation for ecological harm. 
  • India may also seek criminal liability under the Indian Penal Code and environmental laws, and claim additional costs for public health impacts and tourism losses.

India needs to respond swiftly to contain the pollution, investigate the causes of the accident and cooperate with international agencies for the strict enforcement of the liabilities of both the shipowner and the flag state.