Environment

Offshore Mining Controversy in Kerala

Context: The recent decision of the Union Government to auction offshore mining blocks including three off the Kollam coast in Kerala has triggered widespread protests. The Kerala government and fishing communities oppose the move, citing environmental and livelihood concerns.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Offshore Mining; Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and Regulation) Act 2002; Impacts of Offshore mining.

What is Offshore Mining?

Offshore mining is the process of retrieving mineral deposits from the deep seabed at a depth of more than 200 metres.
In the process, poly-metallic nodules, including precipitated iron oxy-hydroxides and manganese oxides (onto which metals such as nickel, cobalt, copper, titanium and rare earth elements gather) are retrieved and unwanted sediments are flushed back into the sea.

Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and Regulation) Act 2002:

The OAMDR Act, 2002 regulates mineral development in India’s maritime zones. As per the OMDR Act, offshore area means the territorial waters, continental shelf, exclusive economic zone and other maritime zones of India.
Amendment in 2023 introduced:
- Private sector participation in deep-sea mineral exploration and mining.
- Competitive e-auction process for awarding production leases for offshore minerals.
- 50-year lease period for mining blocks.
Implications:
- Encourages private investment in resource extraction. Increases mineral availability for construction and industrial use.
- Raises concerns over environmental degradation and coastal ecosystem destruction.
- Challenges the rights of coastal communities dependent on fishing.

Offshore Mining in Kerala:

A study by Geological Survey of India (GSI) found 745 million tonnes of construction sand off Kerala’s coast. Three mining blocks off Kollam contain 300 million tonnes of sand at depths of 48m–62m.
Centre’s stand:
- Under the OMDR Act, the Central government has the right to control mines and minerals in offshore areas.
- Fishing and related developmental activities up to 12 nautical miles in the sea is a State subject, as per the seventh schedule of the Constitution. State control applies only up to 12 nautical miles.
Kerala’s opposition:
- Kerala Legislative Assembly passed a unanimous resolution against offshore mining.
- Claims mining will irreversibly damage marine biodiversity and fisheries.
  Questions the Centre’s complete control over offshore mineral wealth, as States receive no direct royalty.

Impacts of Offshore Mining:

Impact on Fisheries and Livelihoods: Kerala’s fishing industry supports 11 lakh fishermen across 222 coastal villages. Kollam parappu (Quilon Bank) is one of India’s richest fishing zones. The impacts include:
- Toxic substances released into the sea can harm aquatic ecosystems. Decline in marine catch due to habitat destruction.
- Sediment plumes from seabed excavation disrupt photosynthesis by blocking sunlight.
- Mining vessels pose risks to traditional fishing activities.
Ecological Risks:
- Clouding of water affects the euphotic zone limits photosynthesis and plankton growth.
- Spread of sediment plumes beyond mining zones causes large-scale ecological damage.
- Disturbance of marine biodiversity affects entire food chains.

Union Government’s Justification & Response:

Exclusion of Marine Protected Areas: The government has ensured that 130 marine protected sites across coastal states are not included in the offshore mining zones.
Identification of Biodiversity Hotspots: 106 Important Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Areas (ICMBAs) have been identified to safeguard ecologically sensitive regions.
Formation of Offshore Areas Mineral Trust. The trust includes coastal states as stakeholders with funds allocated for mitigating environmental damage and supporting affected communities.
Commitment to sustainable mining practices: The Centre asserts that mining will be conducted with appropriate safeguards to minimise ecological harm.

Way Forward

Comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) before mining approvals.
Stakeholder consultations with coastal communities and state governments.
Revenue-sharing mechanisms to ensure coastal states benefit from offshore mining.
Strict environmental regulations to prevent damage to marine biodiversity.
Exploring sustainable alternatives like deep-sea mining technology with minimal disruption.

National Wildlife Health Policy

Context: Five years after Covid-19 was declared a pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus that likely jumped from bats to humans, the central government is reviewing an interim draft of a National Wildlife Health Policy (NWHP).

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: National Wildlife Health Policy; National One Health Mission.

Key Components of the National Wildlife Health Policy

NWHP proposes a comprehensive surveillance system to monitor wildlife health across terrestrial, marine, and avian ecosystems.
The policy would be aligned with the National One Health Mission to coordinate efforts for pandemic preparedness and integrated disease control.
National Referral Centre for Wildlife (NRC-W) will act as a referral centre to investigate wildlife mortalities and outbreak events. It will facilitate disease diagnostics, treatments, and could be one of the nodal authorities for surveillance.
National Wildlife Health Database can act as a centralised repository of real-time or near-time surveillance data, historical data along with databases from animal husbandry and human health.
Wildlife Health Information System has been proposed to streamline disease surveillance, facility-level reporting and spatial-temporal data.
Establishment of Satellite Diagnostic laboratories near critical forest habitats will enhance timely disease detection.
Improving vaccination among livestock near National Parks to mitigate zoonotic disease risks through community engagement.

Need of National Wildlife Health Policy:

Over 60% of emerging infectious diseases impacting humans are getting transmitted from animals to humans.
As per government data, India has a network of 1,014 protected areas which includes 106 national parks, 573 wildlife sanctuaries, 115 conservation reserves and 220 community reserves spread over 5.32% of its geographical area. Wildlife acts as a reservoir of pathogens and thus monitoring their health, in the wild and in captivity, has become an imperative.

Challenges in the Current Framework:

Fragmented disease surveillance: Wildlife health monitoring is spread across multiple ministries (Environment, Agriculture, and Animal Husbandry), leading to poor coordination and data exchange.
Lack of centralised wildlife health database: No unified system exists to track real-time disease outbreaks, making early detection and response difficult.
Limited diagnostic infrastructure: India lacks specialised wildlife disease labs, delaying diagnosis and treatment of emerging infections.
Inadequate capacity: Forest officials and veterinarians in wildlife areas often lack training and resources for disease detection and management.
Zoonotic spillover risk: Unchecked human-wildlife interactions (livestock grazing near forests, illegal wildlife trade) increase the risk of zoonotic diseases like Covid-19.
Regulatory gaps: No specific legal framework for wildlife health management; existing laws (Wildlife Protection Act) focus more on conservation than disease prevention.
Limited community involvement: Lack of awareness and participation from local communities in disease prevention, such as vaccinating livestock near protected areas.

National One Health Mission:

Launched in 2022.
Aim: To coordinate across Ministries in achieving overall pandemic preparedness and integrated disease control against priority diseases of both human and animal sectors.
The mission will help in institutionalising the 'One Health' approach. One Health recognises that the health of people is closely connected to the health of animals and shared environment.
Human and animal pandemic preparedness is a key pillar of the One Health Mission which relies on effective surveillance strategies, boosting research, innovation community engagement and data integration across sectors.
One of the key goal is Creation of a network of BSL 3/4 labs:
- This network will play a critical role in preventing, detecting, and responding promptly to disease outbreaks across human, livestock and wildlife sectors.
- Currently there are 22 labs in this Network.
This mission involves 13 ministries and departments, including the Department of Science and Technology, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) etc.
National Institute for One Health in Nagpur will act as the coordinating body for national and international activities in the field of One Health.

Impact of Climate Change on Wheat Production

Context: India's wheat production, primarily concentrated in the northwestern Indo-Gangetic plains, is under significant threat due to climate change.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Major crops, cropping patterns; Impact of Climate change.

Wheat

Wheat is a rabi (winter) crop in India.
Sown between October and December and harvested between February and April.
Requirements:
- Optimum temperature: 15.5 degree Celsius. Warm and moist during the early stage, dry and sunny during late stage and harvest. Very sensitive to frost, requires frost free period.
- Moisture: between 45-65 cm. A light shower just before the harvest swells the grains and results in a good harvest. Excess of moisture can be detrimental to wheat. Cannot grow in areas of very low rainfall or with prolonged drought conditions.
- Soils: Light clay, heavy loam. Peaty soils are least suitable.
Primarily grown in north-western parts of Indo-Gangetic plains.
Primary producers: Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh.

Impact of Climate Change on Wheat Production:

1. Indian Ocean warming and monsoon variability:

The Indian Ocean is experiencing rapid warming, leading to alterations in monsoon patterns. This warming is associated with a reduction in summer rainfall over central-east India by about 10–20% over the past century.
Delayed or erratic monsoon can postpone the kharif harvest, subsequently delaying the sowing of wheat. If its sowing starts late, the later stages of plant growth will coincide with early heat waves in India.

2. Rising temperatures and Yield reduction:

India recorded its warmest February in 124 years in 2025. These conditions coincide with the wheat harvest season, where optimal temperatures should not exceed 30°C.
High temperatures cause early flowering and faster ripening, shortening the grain-filling period. This results in lighter grains with lower starch accumulation, reducing the total wheat output.

3. High Input Cost and Economic losses:

Low crop yield also tends to make farmers desperate and result in overuse of fertilisers, fungicides, etc.
Extreme heat makes the wheat grain harder and affects the milling quality. Farmers may face lower market prices due to reduced grain weight and quality issues.

Way Forward

Breeding heat-tolerant wheat varieties. Studies have shown that advanced breeding lines exhibit a smaller yield decline (3.6% per 1°C warming) compared to traditional varieties (5.5% decline), indicating superior climate resilience.
Modifying sowing schedules to earlier dates can help wheat crops avoid late-season heat stress. This strategy requires region-specific research to optimise planting times in anticipation of climate variability.
Enhancing irrigation efficiency, adopting conservation tillage, and implementing integrated pest management. These practices improve soil health and moisture retention, making crops more resilient to temperature fluctuations.
Immediate policy support to farmers in the form of compensation. However, long term solutions (farmer education, R&D in heat-tolerant varieties, technology adoption, crop insurance) need to be incorporated into agricultural practices.

Climate change poses a significant threat to India's wheat production through altered monsoon patterns and rising temperatures. Ensuring food security necessitates proactive adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Impact of Air Pollution on Solar Power Generation in India

Context: A study by IIT Delhi highlights how air pollution and climate change will reduce India's solar power generation capacity. The study focuses on the impact of solar radiation, temperature rise, and air pollution on solar panel efficiency in India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Factors Affecting Solar Energy Efficiency; India's RE Target.

India's Installed Solar Capacity and Targets

As of 2024, India is the third-largest solar power producer globally, after China and the US.
India aims to generate 50% of its electricity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, and install 500 GW of renewable energy capacity, with solar energy playing a key role.

Factors affecting Solar Energy Efficiency:

Solar Radiation is the primary factor affecting solar cell performance.
- Solar radiation at the earth’s surface undergoes significant long-term variations due to atmospheric variables such as clouds, aerosols or particulate matter, water vapour, and radiatively active gas molecules such as ozone.
Clouds reflect and aerosols either scatter or absorb incoming solar radiation reaching the surface. On a cloudy or hazy day, due to particulate matter pollution, less solar radiation will impinge on the solar panel and reduce solar generation.
Air pollution blocks solar radiation from reaching solar panels, resulting in less power produced. India has 300 sunny days a year but their quality is declining due to air pollution.
Rising temperatures due to climate change also lower the efficiency of solar cells. Solar panels are designed to operate efficiently at a specific temperature range, typically around 25°C. The efficiency of solar panels tends to decrease as temperatures rise above 25°C.
Wind speed and airflow also affect cooling, but have a lower impact than other factors.

Major Highlights of the Study

Research Methodology: Used 1985-2014 data to project 2041-2050 scenarios based on NASA’s CERES project and IMD data.
Two scenarios studied :
- Moderate climate action, weak pollution control → Greater efficiency loss.
- Weak climate action, strong pollution control → Lesser efficiency loss (2.3% drop).
Estimated power loss of at least 840 gigawatt-hours per year due to efficiency drop.
Regional variations in solar potential were highlighted, with Northeast India and Kerala expected to have higher solar energy output due to reduced cloud cover.

Significance of the study:

It provides valuable insights for policymakers and the solar industry to select better sites for future projects.
It highlights the need for strong climate action and air pollution control measures.

Way Forward

To mitigate the impact of air pollution and climate change on India's solar energy generation, the following policy measures can be adopted :

Enforce stringent emission norms for industries and vehicles, and implement dust control measures in urban and industrial areas.
Expand real-time air pollution monitoring networks to track and mitigate sources of pollution affecting solar efficiency.
Invest in R&D for heat-resistant photovoltaic (PV) cells, self-cleaning panels with better cooling mechanisms, and hybrid solar-wind solutions.
Diversification of Solar Installations in cleaner air regions like the Northeast and coastal areas.
Promote floating solar installations on reservoirs and lakes to reduce dust accumulation and improve efficiency.
Implement large-scale tree plantation drives to absorb pollutants and regulate temperatures.
Strengthen participation in global initiatives like the Paris Agreement and the International Solar Alliance (ISA) for funding and technology support.

Cutting greenhouse gas emissions and improving air quality are essential for maximising solar power generation.

Renewable Energy Expansion in India

Context: As of the latest data from the Central Electricity Authority, India's renewable energy (RE) sector is witnessing a significant expansion, with a substantial portion of RE capacity under construction.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Renewable Energy: Key Trends; India’s RE Target.

Key Highlights of Renewable Energy Expansion

Total Installed Capacity: India currently has over 167 GW (1,67,709 MW) of installed RE capacity, including (including about 12,000 MW non-wind and non-solar sources such as biomass and small hydro).
Under-construction RE capacity of over 142 GW (1,42,667 MW) of RE, with the highest share from solar energy (over 82 GW), followed by solar-wind hybrid and wind energy projects.
Gujarat, with over 46 GW of RE capacities under construction, leads the way in India’s RE development.

India’s RE Target

India has set a target to achieve at least 500 GW (gigawatts) of non-fossil power capacity by 2030, up from its current 165 GW (2024).

Central Public Sector’s Role in Renewable Energy Development:

Four central public sector companies (CPSEs) under the Ministry of Power are involved in the construction of renewable energy plants, contributing to 8% of the total under-construction capacity.
NTPC’s leadership: NTPC is at the forefront with 5,417 MW of renewable energy projects under development, followed by SJVN and NHPC.

High concentration of renewable energy projects in a specific region (Gujarat and Rajasthan) may pose infrastructure challenges, particularly for energy distribution and grid management. Effective management of energy distribution across the regions is crucial to ensure grid stability.

National Board for Wildlife

Context: Recently, the Prime Minister of India chaired his first-ever meeting of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) at Gujarat’s Gir National Park. This was the first full-body NBWL meeting since 2012.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: National Board for Wildlife

Mains: National Board for Wildlife- Criticisms

National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)

Established in 2003 after amending the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
NBWL replaced the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) of 1952.
It is the apex advisory body for wildlife conservation and policy formulation.
Key responsibilities:
- Formulating wildlife conservation policies.
- Recommending the establishment of new National Parks and Sanctuaries.
- Overseeing the implementation of the Wild Life Protection Act.
Composition: Total 47 members
- Chaired by: Prime Minister
- Vice-Chairperson: Union Environment Minister
- Other Members:
  - Chief of Army Staff.
  - Secretaries from key ministries (Defence, Tribal Affairs, Information & Broadcasting, Finance)
  - Three Lok Sabha MPs and one Rajya Sabha MP.
  - Director General of Forests.
  - Ten eminent conservationists, ecologists, and environmentalists.
  - Five representatives from the non-governmental sector.
- Standing Committee: appraises projects on forest land, protected areas, and eco-sensitive zones.

Criticism faced by NBWL

Clearance of development projects: Several projects approved despite environmental concerns, such as:
- Ken-Betwa River Linking Project: Submerging 100 sq km of Panna Tiger Reserve.
- Vedanta Oil Exploration in Assam: Threatening Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary.
- Denotification of Galathea Bay Sanctuary (2021): Impacting leatherback sea turtle nesting sites.
Alleged dilution of powers:
- After 2014, reconstitution reduced the number of independent conservation experts.
- Increased influence of government-affiliated institutions like Gujarat Ecological Education and Research Foundation (GEER).
Lack of Regular full-body meetings:
- Before the 2025 meeting, the last full-body meeting of NBWL was held in 2012.

Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL)

Established in 1952 as the Central Board for Wildlife.
Objective: Address the decline in wildlife populations.
Notable Initiatives:
- Declared peacock as the National Bird in 1961.
- Supported Indira Gandhi government’s initiatives for wildlife conservation, leading to:
  - Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.
  - Project Tiger (1973).
  - Gir National Park establishment.
Transition to NBWL: 2003 amendment of the Wild Life Protection Act replaced IBWL with NBWL.

Great Nicobar Infrastructure Project

Context: Concerns over the Great Nicobar Infrastructure Project were raised in Rajya Sabha. The project faces criticism from environmentalists and tribal rights activists over potential displacement and ecological damage in the Great Nicobar Island.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about the Great Nicobar Infrastructure Project.

Mains: Development vs. Conservation Debate, Biodiversity loss, inadequate EIA etc.

About Great Nicobar Infrastructure Project:

Strategic development initiative aimed at transforming Great Nicobar Island into a key economic and security hub.
Spearheaded by: NITI Aayog and Andaman & Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation (ANIIDCO).
The project includes: Transshipment port, an airport, a power plant, and a township, aligning with India’s vision for economic growth, regional connectivity, and national security in Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

Location and Strategic Importance:

Great Nicobar Island is the southernmost island of the Andaman & Nicobar group.
Lies close to the Malacca Strait, a critical global trade route.
Enhances India’s maritime presence amid rising Chinese influence in the Indo-Pacific.

Economic & Geopolitical Significance of the Project:

Strengthens Blue Economy, promoting shipping, tourism, and fisheries.

Enhances National Security by ensuring naval dominance in the Indian Ocean.
Boosts India’s Act East Policy by improving connectivity with ASEAN countries.

Environmental & Tribal Concerns of the Project:

Ecological Impact: Great Nicobar Islands hosts the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, recognised by UNESCO in 2013. The infrastructure project entails felling of over 1 million trees and poses risks to endemic species (E.g., Nicobar megapode, leatherback turtles).
Tribal Rights: Affects Shompen (PVTG) and Nicobarese tribes by disrupting their traditional lifestyle and exposing them to external influence and diseases. Requires compliance with the Forest Rights Act, 2006.

While the project strengthens India's maritime influence and economic resilience, balancing development with ecological and tribal concerns is essential.

World Air Quality Report 2024

Context: The World Air Quality Report 2024 by IQAir, a Swiss air quality technology company, highlights severe air pollution levels globally.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about World Air Quality Report 2024.

Key Findings of World Air Quality Report 2024

1. Most Polluted Countries (PM2.5 levels in µg/m³)

India ranks as the 5th most polluted country, with 13 of the 20 most polluted cities located in India.
India’s PM2.5 concentration in 2024 was 50.6 µg/m³, a 7% decrease from 2023 (54.4 µg/m³).
Only 12 countries worldwide met WHO’s PM2.5 guideline of 5 µg/m³.

2. Most Polluted Cities in the World

Byrnihat (Assam-Meghalaya border; a regional industrial hub) is the most polluted city globally, with a PM2.5 level of 128.2 µg/m³.
Delhi is the most polluted capital city globally for the sixth consecutive year (PM2.5: 108.3 µg/m³ in 2024).
Six Indian cities are in the top 10 most polluted cities worldwide.

Causes of Air Pollution in India

Anthropogenic Factors:

Crop Stubble Burning:
- Major source in Punjab, Haryana, UP, and Delhi NCR.
- 60% contribution to PM2.5 levels during peak pollution periods.
Vehicular Emissions:
- Rapid urbanisation and increase in automobiles.
- Use of diesel and older vehicles worsens pollution.
Industrial Discharges: Thermal power plants, cement, and steel industries emit SO₂, NO₂, and PM.
Construction & Demolition Dust: Metro projects, real estate boom, lack of dust control measures.
Firecrackers: Diwali and winter festivals aggravate pollution levels.

Natural & Meteorological Factors:

Winter Temperature Inversion: Cold air traps pollutants, worsening air quality.
Low Wind Speeds: Stagnant air prevents dispersal of pollutants.
Geographical Factors: The Indo-Gangetic Plain traps pollutants due to Himalayan barrier effect.

Impacts of Air Pollution:

(A) Health Effects

Respiratory diseases (asthma, lung infections, COPD).
Cardiovascular issues (stroke, heart attacks).
Chronic illnesses (kidney disease, cancer).
Reduced life expectancy.

(B) Economic Impact

Increased healthcare costs.
Loss of workforce productivity.
Impact on agriculture (pollutants affect crop yield).

(C) Environmental Impact

Smog formation affecting visibility.
Acid rain affecting soil and water bodies.
Impact on biodiversity.

Government Measures to Control Air Pollution:

(A) Policy & Action Plans:

National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) (2019): Targets 40% reduction in PM2.5 & PM10 levels by 2026 in non-attainment cities.
Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) (2017): Temporary measures in Delhi-NCR based on AQI levels.
Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) (2021): Permanent body to coordinate air pollution control in Delhi-NCR.
State-Specific Action Plans: Punjab & Haryana promoting Happy Seeder machines & Pusa bio-decomposers for stubble management.

(B) Technological & Infrastructural Measures:

1. BS-VI Fuel Standards (2020): Stricter emission norms for vehicles

2. Faster Adoption of Electric Vehicles (FAME-II): Encouraging EVs & public transport

3. Odd-Even Scheme (Delhi): Reducing vehicular congestion

(C) Judicial & Legislative Interventions:

1. Supreme Court Ban on Firecrackers: Promoting green firecrackers.

2. NGT & EPCA Regulations: Ban on diesel generators in Delhi.

Challenges & Way Forward:

Challenges:

Poor enforcement of environmental laws.
Dependence on crop residue burning in agriculture.
Limited public transport & clean energy alternatives.

Way Forward:

Strict implementation of NCAP & GRAP.
Investment in public transport, metro networks & EVs.
Use of alternative stubble disposal methods.
Cross-state coordination for pollution control.

Satkosia Tiger Reserve

Context: As per the latest Tiger Census (2022), the Satkosia Tiger Reserve (STR) in Odisha does not have a single tiger. The state government of Odisha is keen on resuming its tiger reintroduction programme in STR.

However, this poses a looming threat of relocation for indigenous populations settled in the core, buffer and impact zone of the tiger reserve.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Satkosia Tiger Reserve; Tiger Reserve.

Satkosia Tiger Reserve:

In 2007, the Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary and Baisipali Sanctuary were combined to form the Satkosia Tiger Reserve (STR).
- Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary, established in 1976, covers over 795 sq. km spanning four districts of Odisha (Angul, Cuttack, Boudh, and Nayagarh).
- Baisipali Sanctuary was notified in the southern part of Nayagarh district in 1981.
STR covers 1,136.70 sq. km with a core zone of 523.61 sq. km.
Key features:
- STR has a unique biodiversity, as it is located at the meeting point of two biogeographic regions, the Deccan Peninsula and the Eastern Ghats. Covered with marshes and evergreen forests.
- It has a 22.5 km long Satkosia gorge created by the Mahanadi river. It is designated a Ramsar site (wetland of international importance). It has over 400 plant species, 183 fish species and more than 200 species of birds.
In 2007, the State government census recorded 12 tigers in STR, but by 2018-19, only one remained. The 2022 census found no tigers in STR.

Efforts to restore Tiger population in STR:

To restore the tiger population, India’s first inter-State tiger relocation programme was launched in 2018.
- A male tiger was brought from the Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh and a tigress from the Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve, MP.
- However, the effort of restoration did not succeed.
Challenges:
- Prevalence of poaching.
- Resistance of villagers against:
  - Potential rehabilitation (Four villages are located in the forest core, 131 villages in the buffer, and 234 villages in the impact zone of STR).
  - Deforestation
  - Threat of man-wildlife conflict.

The tiger reintroduction project must secure consent from locals and public representatives, with voluntary relocation of villages and proper financial compensation as per the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) norms.

Madhav National Park becomes India’s 58th Tiger Reserve

Context: India has added the Madhav National Park in Madhya Pradesh as the country’s 58th Tiger Reserve. It is the ninth tiger reserve in the state after Kanha, Satpura, Bandhavgarh, Pench, Sanjay Dubri, Panna, Veerangana Durgavati and Ratapani.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Madhav Tiger Reserve; Tiger Reserve; key facts about Tiger.

About Madhav Tiger Reserve:

Location: Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh
Key geographical features:
- Vegetation: dry deciduous forests, semi-evergreen forests and grasslands.
- Sakhya Sagar, a man-made reservoir within the park, has been designated as a Ramsar site since 2022.
Key fauna: Tiger, leopard, jackals, nilgai, sambar, wild boar etc.
Historical significance:
- Earlier Shivpuri National Park, was renamed Madhav National Park after Madho Rao Scindia, the Maharaja of Gwalior belonging to the Scindia dynasty of the Marathas.
- The dense forests of the National Park were the former hunting grounds of Mughals and Scindia rulers.
- The tiger reserve has George Castle inside the reserve, built by Scindias in anticipation of British King George V’s visit in 1911.

What are Tiger Reserves?

Tiger reserves are legally declared protected areas designated to conserve tigers and their habitats.
The tiger reserves were set up as a part of Project Tiger initiated in 1973.
They are administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
The tiger reserves are constituted on a core/buffer strategy to promote tiger conservation.
- The core areas have the legal status of a National Park or a Sanctuary.
- The buffer or peripheral areas are a mix of forest and non-forest land, managed as a multiple use area.

Who notifies Tiger Reserves?

Tiger Reserves are notified by State Governments as per provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 on advice of the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
The following steps are involved in the notification:
1. The State Government identifies potential areas and submits a proposal to NTCA.
2. NTCA reviews the proposal. After thorough evaluation, NTCA recommends the proposal.
3. The State Government notifies the area as a Tiger Reserve.
With the formation of the tiger reserve, NTCA provides funds for the management of Tiger Reserve.

Key Facts about Tiger

Tiger is an umbrella species. Its conservation automatically ensures the conversation of a large number of flora and fauna and entire ecosystems.
India is home to 75% of the global tiger population.
- The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts a tiger census across India every 4 years.
- As per the latest Tiger Census Report (2022), India has 3682 tigers. (2967 in 2018)
- Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers (785) in India, followed by Karnataka (563) and Uttarakhand (560).
Conservation status:
- IUCN Red List: Endangered
- Wildlife Protection Act: Schedule 1
- CITES: Appendix 1

Read More: List of Tiger Reserves in India

US exits UN Climate Damage Fund

Context: The US President Donald Trump has withdrawn from the recently created United Nations Climate Damage Fund (Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage- FRLD) which is aimed at providing financial support to countries ravaged by climate change disasters.

It is noteworthy that the US has already pulled out of the Paris Agreement, stopped the participation of its scientists in a meeting of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and cancelled previously committed money for the Green Climate Fund.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about United Nations Climate Damage Fund.

About UN Climate Damage Fund (Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage- FRLD):

1. Background:

It was established under COP 27 (2022) in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt and further operationalised at COP 28 (2023) in Dubai, UAE.
It is created in response to long-standing demands from low income developing nations for climate justice and financial assistance.
It recognises the disproportionate impact of climate change on developing and vulnerable nations, particularly Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries (LDCs).
It forms part of the broader climate finance architecture under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement.

2. Objectives and Purpose:

The fund aims to:

Addressing Loss & Damage: Provide financial support to countries suffering from climate-induced disasters (E.g., cyclones, wildfires, droughts).
Support Recovery & Rehabilitation: Assist in rebuilding communities and infrastructure affected by climate change impacts.
Aid in Non-Economic Losses: Support responses to cultural, social, and environmental losses (E.g., displacement, biodiversity loss, damage to heritage sites).
Enhance Climate Resilience: Help vulnerable countries develop risk management strategies for climate adaptation.

3. Structure and Governance:

The Fund operates as an entity under the Financial Mechanism of the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement.
It is accountable to and functions under the guidance of both the Conference of the Parties (COP) and the CMA (Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement).
The fund is expected to work in coordination with other international climate finance mechanisms, including:
- Green Climate Fund (GCF)
- Adaptation Fund
- Global Environment Facility (GEF)

4. Funding Sources and Contributions:

Developed countries are expected to contribute to the fund as part of their commitments under the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement.
Multilateral and private-sector contributions may also be encouraged.
Innovative financing mechanisms (E.g., levies on fossil fuel companies, climate taxes) can also be explored in future.

5. Challenges:

Sufficient Funding: Developing countries which are affected the most argue that contributions should be grants-based rather than loans.
Who Pays? While developed nations acknowledge the need for funding, discussions continue on how much they should contribute.
Coordination with Existing Funds: Avoiding duplication with other climate finance mechanisms.
US Withdrawal: The US, which is historically the largest emitter, has withdrawn from the fund, raising doubts about the future of the fund.

SC seeks Uttarakhand response on ‘misuse’ of Afforestation Funds

Context: The Supreme Court has sought a response from Uttarakhand state government on a Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) report that alleges misuse of Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) funds by the Forest department to buy gadgets, like iPhones and laptops.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016.

About Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016

The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016 aims to compensate for the loss of ecosystem and forest land due to diversion of forest land for non-forest use.
The CAMPA funds are utilised for compensating the loss of forest land and ecosystem services by:
- compensatory afforestation
- improving quality of forests through assisted natural regeneration
- enrichment of biodiversity
- improvement of wildlife habitat
- control of forest fire
- forest protection and soil and water conservation measures.

Key Provisions

A company diverting forest land must provide alternative land to take up compensatory afforestation.
For afforestation, the company should pay to plant new trees in the alternative land provided to the state.
The Act establishes two interest-bearing, non-lapsable funds, namely:
- National Compensatory Afforestation Fund (National Fund) under the Public Account of India
- State Compensatory Afforestation Fund (State Fund) under Public Accounts of 33 States/UTs.
Fund Allocation:
- National Fund receives 10% of collected funds.
- State Funds receive the remaining 90%.
These Funds receive payments for (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest (NPV), and (iii) other project-specific payments.
These funds are non-lapsable and earn annual interest as per the rate declared by the Central Government on a year-to-year basis.
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) manages funds collected from the forest land diversion.
CAF Act, 2016 provides for audit of the accounts of both National and States/UTs CAMPA Authorities by the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India (CAG).