Environment

Artificial Rain or Cloud seeding

Context: The Delhi government is considering artificial rain through cloud seeding to combat air pollution and has partnered with IIT Kanpur to explore the feasibility of the initiative.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Artificial Rain or Cloud seeding.

Brief about cloud formation

  • Clouds are made up of tiny water droplets or ice crystals that form when water vapor in the atmosphere cools and condenses around a tiny particle of dust or salt floating in the atmosphere. 
  • Without these particles, known as condensation or ice nuclei, raindrops or snowflakes cannot form, and precipitation will not occur.

Cloud Seeding

  • Cloud seeding is an artificial method used to increase rainfall by introducing certain substances into clouds.
  • During cloud seeding, chemicals like silver iodide, potassium iodide, and dry ice are released into the sky using airplanes and helicopters.
  • These chemicals attract water vapour, leading to the formation of rain clouds.
  • It usually takes about half an hour for this method to make it rain.
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Techniques of cloud Seeding

According to the ScienceDirect, cloud seeding techniques can be divided into two categories:

1. Hygroscopic cloud seeding aims to accelerate the coalescence of droplets in liquid clouds, resulting in the formation of larger droplets that lead to precipitation.

  • The seeding agents used in hygroscopic cloud seeding serve as efficient cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) or GCCN and play a crucial role in strengthening the condensation and collision–coalescence process, thereby widening the droplet size distribution (DSD) and increasing the precipitation efficiency.

2. Glaciogenic cloud seeding, focuses on inducing ice production in supercooled clouds, leading to precipitation. 

  • Glaciogenic cloud seeding involves dispersing efficient ice nuclei, such as silver iodide particles or dry ice, into the cloud, which enhances ice particle production and increases rain.

Utility of Cloud Seeding

That serves various purposes, including:

  • Reducing the impact of droughts
  • Preventing forest fires 
  • Increasing precipitation
  • Enhancing air quality.

Success story of cloud seeding

A cloud seeding experiment carried out in Solapur city, which falls on the leeward side of the Western Ghats and hence gets low rainfall, was able to achieve 18% relative enhancement in rainfall.

Fluoride Pollution

Context: Groundwater pollution is a growing concern in India. In the Sonabhadra district of Uttar Pradesh, rich deposits of granite have leached excess fluoride into the groundwater, making it unfit for consumption.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to fluoride pollution.

Mains: Groundwater pollution: Sources, Challenges and Prevention Strategies. 

Groundwater Pollution

  • Groundwater is a vital resource in India, supplying nearly 85% of rural and 50% of urban drinking water needs and supporting 60% of irrigation. Rapid industrialisation, urbanisation, and excessive agricultural activities have led to severe groundwater pollution, making it unsafe for consumption.
  • Common pollutants: Arsenic, fluoride, nitrates, heavy metals, pesticides, industrial waste etc.

Fluoride Pollution

  • Fluoride is an essential element for dental health in small quantities, excessive intake can cause severe health issues, including dental and skeletal fluorosis.
  • Permissible limit: World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends a fluoride concentration of 0.5 to 1.5 mg/L in drinking water. When fluoride levels exceed this limit, it leads to health and environmental hazards. 
  • India is one of the worst-affected countries in terms of fluoride contamination in groundwater. Over 200 districts across 23 states have reported fluoride levels beyond the safe limit. The most severely affected states include: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana.
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Sources of Fluoride

1. Natural Sources : 

  • Geological Factors: Many parts of India have fluoride-rich rock formations. When groundwater percolates through these rocks, it dissolves fluoride, increasing its concentration. E.g., in UP's Sonbhadra district, rich deposits of granite (an igneous rock), have leached “excess” fluoride into the groundwater, making it unfit for human consumption.
  • Hot and Arid Climates: In regions like Rajasthan and Gujarat, high temperatures and low rainfall lead to excessive evaporation, concentrating fluoride in groundwater.

2. Anthropogenic Sources : 

  • Industrial Discharges: Aluminum smelting, fertilizer production, glass, ceramics, and steel manufacturing release fluoride as waste.
  • Agricultural Practices: Excessive use of phosphate fertilizers contributes to fluoride accumulation in soil and water.
  • Burning of Coal: The combustion of high-fluoride coal releases fluoride into the air, which eventually settles into water sources.

Health Impacts of Fluoride Pollution

  • Fluorosis: Though not fatal, it can cause joint pain, stiffness, bone deformities, mobility issues, muscle weakness and fatigue. In children, the most common sign is yellow stains on the teeth.
  • Neurological Disorders: High fluoride exposure may impair brain function, particularly in children.
  • Kidney and Thyroid Issues: Chronic fluoride toxicity has been linked to kidney damage and thyroid dysfunction.
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Government Initiatives

National Programme for Prevention and Control of Fluorosis (2008):

  • It aims to prevent and control dental and skeletal fluorosis through early detection, treatment, and awareness campaigns.
  • Activities under NPPCF: Surveillance of fluorosis cases, Early diagnosis and management of affected individuals, Safe drinking water supply through defluoridation techniques, Health education programs to promote awareness.

National Rural Drinking Water Programme (2009):

  • Under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, NRDWP aimed to provide safe drinking water in rural areas, including fluoride-affected regions.
  • Key features: 
    • Promotion of surface water sources to reduce groundwater dependence.
    • Community water purification plants in fluoride-affected villages.
    • Encouragement of rainwater harvesting as an alternative to contaminated groundwater. In 2019, NRDWP was subsumed under the Jal Jeevan Mission.
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Jal Jeevan Mission (2019): 

  • It was launched to provide functional tap water connections to every rural household by 2024.
  • It focuses on reducing fluoride contamination by supplying treated surface water and promoting piped water supply schemes in affected areas.
  • Encourages village-level water testing labs to monitor fluoride levels. E.g., At the village level, Jal Sakhis, a group of five trained women, test water samples using the kits provided by the Jal Nigam and upload the results on a mobile application.  

Why does India need to clean its air?

Context: India has set a target to reduce PM 2.5 levels by 2026 to 40% of the levels in 2017. While ambitious, the target risks falling short, if it is not mindful of on-ground realities.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Limitations of current policies, and the need for a more structured and data-driven approach to combating air pollution. 

India’s Air Pollution Crisis

  • India’s Air Pollution crisis is a persistent, silent pandemic that chokes our lungs every winter and quietly lingers throughout the year.
  • While initiatives like the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), Bharat VI emission norms, Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY), and targeted efforts to phase out coal-burning industries (particularly in the National Capital Region) mark important progress, the national response remains fragmented and slow-moving.

Key Challenges:

  • Structural and Behavioural Issues: Air Pollution is a complex structural issue shaped by:
    • Lack of coordinated execution.
    • Demographic pressure due to rapid urbanisation.
    • Socio-economic disparity: inequality in access to cleaner alternatives.
    • Entrenched economic systems: heavy dependence on coal and outdated industrial practices.
    • Behavioral norms: reluctance to shift away from polluting fuels.
  • Lack of Capacity: Air quality is often treated as a secondary concern rather than a core municipal function. Municipal officers, planners, engineers, and community leaders operate within tight budgets, outdated infrastructure, and competing local demands.
    • India’s NCAP budget is just 1% of what China spent on air pollution reduction.
    • Between 2019-2023, only 60% of NCAP funds were utilised, highlighting administrative inefficiencies.
  • Local governments lack access to high-resolution, open-source data on emissions-generating activities. Without such data, air pollution remains an abstract issue, disconnected from daily governance. 

Way Forward: Strategy Needed

  • India needs a phased, data-driven approach.
    • Phase I: Build local emissions profiles to identify the biggest pollution sources.
    • Phase II: Link funding directly to targeted actions based on that data.
    • Phase III : Track reductions in emissions, not just pollution concentrations, to measure real progress.
  • Activity-based tracking (E.g., monitoring the number of old diesel vehicles; LPG stoves adopted) is needed for more accurate measurement. 
  • Effective utilisation of allocated funds. Better coordination between all levels of government.
  • Learning from global examples: India must do the same — innovate programmes tailored to its regional requirements.
    • China closed coal plants
    • Brazil used community-led waste systems
    • California reinvested pollution revenue in poor communities
    • London banned coal-use before launching sensors.

India’s clean air future will be shaped by people, partnerships, and purpose. Clean air must be a right for all, not a privilege for a few. Securing that right will take coordination, courage, and a commitment to act. 

Why is Naini Lake seeing Record-Low Water Levels?

Context: The Naini Lake, one of Nainital’s key attractions, has recorded a water level of 4.7 feet in 2025 — marking a five-year low.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of the Lake; Factors responsible for deterioration of health of a wetland. 

Naini Lake

  • The Naini Lake is a natural kidney-shaped lake in the heart of Nainital, surrounded by seven hills. 
  • Location: Nainital, Uttarakhand
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Naini Lake Crisis

  • With the record depletion of water level, there are concerns that the lake could go below the zero level.
    • This does not mean that the lake will dry up, but that its water level will go below the normal gauge level, which is set for each lake based on historical data.
    • With its deepest point at 89 feet, the Naini Lake has a gauge level of 12 feet.
  • There are concerns over drinking water scarcity ahead of the summer season. 10 million litres is extracted everyday from the lake to supply drinking water to the city. Over 75% of the Nainital city’s water demand (in 2024) was met alone by the Naini Lake. 

Reasons for deteriorating health of the Lake:

  • Decrease in snowfall and rainfall in the winter months, compounded by long-term issues surrounding the lake’s upkeep. Annual mean temperatures in Uttarakhand have increased by nearly 1.5 degrees Celsius between 1970 and 2022. The warming is affecting rainfall and snowfall.
  • Man-made manipulations have led to the degradation of recharge zones.
    • Encroachments and illegal construction coming up near the lake have reduced the catchment area.
    • Also, construction of concrete structures causes low rainwater infiltration, worsened by the low rainfall in some years.
    • Enhancing siltation and dumping debris in Sukhatal Lake (major aquifer recharge area for Naini lake) is causing the lake to shrink from its two-hectare area. 
    • Pollution from discharge of untreated wastewater, solid waste, and inadequate sewer systems, which ultimately discharge into the Lake.
  • Pressure from increasing population, the increase in tourist activity, and commercialisation of nearby areas have impacted the health of the lake.

Several petitions have been filed in the Supreme Court and the state High Court to stop concretisation of the lake bed, revamp Sukhatal Lake, and ban commercial complexes in Nainital. However, there has been no concrete step to restore the health of the lake and its aquifers. 

Asbestos

Context: The Ministry of Education has banned the use of asbestos in construction or refurbishment of Kendriya Vidyalayas (KVs) and Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs). 

Relevance of the topic : Prelims: Key facts related to Asbestos.  

Asbestos:

  • Asbestos is a group of six-naturally occurring silicate minerals composed of long, thin fibres.
  • Chemically, asbestos contains atoms of silicon and oxygen in their molecular structure. The main form in current use is chrysotile (white asbestos). 
  • It has a widespread commercial use owing to its material properties - durability, resistance to heat, and insulating properties.
image 112

Uses of Asbestos: 

  • Due to its heat and corrosion resistance, asbestos is widely used in Construction, textiles, automotive parts etc.  
  • Despite a ban on asbestos mining in 1993, India continues to import and use chrysotile (a type of asbestos) primarily for asbestos-cement roofing and other applications. 
  • India imports Asbestos mainly from Russia, Kazakhstan and China. 
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Issues related with use of Asbestos

  • Exposure to asbestos causes chronic respiratory diseases such as asbestosis (fibrosis of the lungs), and other adverse effects on the lungs.
    • If products containing asbestos are disturbed, tiny asbestos fibers are released into the air. 
    • Asbestos fibers may get trapped in the lungs. Over time, these fibers can accumulate and cause lung scarring and inflammation. 
  • All six main forms of asbestos have been assessed by WHO as being carcinogenic to humans. It causes cancer of the lung, larynx and ovaries, and mesothelioma (a cancer of the pleural and peritoneal linings).
  • Continuous exposure to asbestos can cause damage to DNA.  

Aviation Turbine Fuel & Sustainable Aviation Fuel

Context: The Civil Aviation Ministry pointed out that high value-added tax (VAT) rates on aviation turbine fuel (ATF) imposed by certain states in India contribute significantly to increased airfare.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF); Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF). 

Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF)

  • ATF is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircrafts and jet engines.
  • Constituents: Jet fuel is a mixture of a variety of hydrocarbons. The most common ATF is Kerosene-type jet fuel. 

Concerns: 

  • Price-sensitive: The price of ATF is a major component of the operating cost of airlines, and the tax on ATF significantly contributes to the ATF price. The Ministry of Civil Aviation has long advocated for bringing ATF under GST (Goods and Services Tax) to eliminate tax disadvantages faced by domestic airlines compared to foreign carriers.
  • Environmental pollution: ATF combustion in aircraft engines releases various pollutants like Nitrogen oxides, Carbon monoxide, Particulate matter etc. leading to ozone layer depletion and global warming. 
image 109

Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)

  • SAF is a biofuel alternative to conventional jet fuel with a smaller carbon footprint. 
  • It can be blended with conventional jet fuel (with blending limits ranging 1%-50%). 
  • Sources of SAF:
    • Oil seeds, other fats, oils, and greases
    • Residues- agricultural, forestry residues, wood mill waste
    • Wastes- municipal solid waste, sludge and wet waste
    • Produced synthetically by capturing carbon directly from the air. 

Advantages:

  • Engine compatibility: can be used in existing aircraft and infrastructure.
  • Fewer emissions: 100% (pure) SAF has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 94% depending on feedstock and technology pathway.
  • Sustainable: SAF feedstock does not compete with food crops, neither causes forest degradation.

Challenge: 

  • Expensive: SAF is about four times more expensive than petroleum jet fuel. 
image 111

SAF indicative blending Target:

  • In 2022, members of the International Civil Aviation Organisation had agreed to a long-term aspirational goal of net-zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from aviation by 2050, and SAF has long been seen as the industry's fastest way to reduce emissions.
  • In 2023, Indian government has set the following initial indicative blending percentages of SAF in ATF:
    • 1% SAF indicative blending target in 2027 (Initially for International flights).
    • 2% SAF blending target in 2028 (Initially for International flights )
    • 5% by 2030. 

The success of SAF will require using a greater diversity of feedstock and production methods. This includes areas such as investing in carbon offset programmes and the diversification of SAF feedstocks. 

669 Asiatic Lions died in past 5 years

Context: As per the latest government data, 669 Asiatic lions have died in the last five years (2020-2024). The Gir forest in Gujarat is the only remaining natural habitat of Asiatic lions. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Asiatic lions; Project Lion; Big Cat Alliance; CDV. 

Key Data on Asiatic Lions

  • The maximum deaths of Asiatic lions occurred in the year 2024. Reasons for death include: Old age, illness, injuries from fights, cub mortality, falling into open wells, electrocution, accidents etc. No incidents of poaching led to lion deaths during these years.
  • Latest Estimate (2020): Asiatic lion population in Gujarat is 674 in 2020, up from 523 in 2015. A fresh population estimation will be conducted in May 2025.
image 106

Concerns: 

  • Geographical isolation: Experts have called for the translocation of lions in India, as the big cats remain geographically isolated in Gir. A second habitat would help protect them from extinction in case of an epidemic, a sharp decline in prey or natural disasters. 
  • Increased deaths due to disease outbreak: E.g., In 2018, 27 lions in Gir died due to canine distemper virus (CDV). 
  • Possibility of man-wildlife conflict: As per a 2022 report, 48% of the then lion population of 674 had moved outside protected areas, covering nine districts and 13 forest administrative divisions.

Canine Distemper Virus:

  • CDV is a highly contagious viral disease that affects a wide range of carnivores. It is caused by a single-stranded RNA virus. 
  • Impacts: Several body systems, including the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, the spinal cord, and the brain.
  • Symptoms: Dullness, lacrimation, cough, diarrhea, and seizures; 2 of the 87 captive lions showed lacrimation and respiratory distress. It has a high mortality rate.
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Asiatic Lions

  • The Asiatic lion is a big cat of the subspecies Panthera leo. 
  • Range: Gir forest, a dry deciduous forest ecosystem in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat, is the abode of the last surviving population.
  • The total distribution range of lions in this region is estimated to be around 9000 sq. km. majorly of which GIR National Park, GIR Wildlife Sanctuary, Paniya Wildlife Sanctuary and Mitiyal Wildlife Sanctuary account. 
  • Conservation Status: 
    • IUCN Status: Endangered
    • CITES: Appendix I
    • Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I
  • Conservation Initiatives:
    • Project Lion (2020): Infrastructure development for protection and security of Indian lions, especially health infrastructure. Focus on conflict mitigation, habitat improvement, radio-collar monitoring,  and camera traps, and addressing human-wildlife conflict.
    • International Big Cats Alliance (2023): Foster international cooperation among 97 range countries for conservation of big cats. 

Wildlife Institute of India has identified the Barda Wildlife Sanctuary, about 100 km from the Gir National Park, as a potential site where a population of 40 adult and sub-adult lions could be accommodated within the larger landscape of Barda-Alech hills and coastal forests through natural dispersal. 

Role of Communities in Conserving Water

Context: On March 22, World Water Day, the Ministry of Jal Shakti has launched the Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch the Rain 2025, emphasising the importance of community participation in water conservation.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Issues in rural water policies and Role of communities in water conservation.  

Key Issues in Rural Water Policies

1. Limited community participation and decision-making power: 

  • Existing water policies provide for the participation of indigenous and local communities, but it is limited to the management of water sources. The real decision-making powers remain with the state authorities. E.g., Water User Associations (WUAs), statutory bodies created since the 1990s, involve farmers in managing irrigation sources, but they have no say in policy decisions. 
  • As a result, policies impose uniform, formalised water governance structures, ignoring local ecological knowledge and traditional conservation practices. 

Examples of Indigenous Water Conservation Practices: 

  • Khadins (Rajasthan): Earthen embankments to store rainwater for agriculture.
  • Johads (Haryana, Rajasthan): Small ponds to recharge groundwater.
  • Orans and Sacred Groves (Western India): Forested areas that protect water sources.
  • Eri System (Tamil Nadu): Traditional tanks that regulate irrigation and groundwater levels

(b) Fragmentation of Water Management: Different parts of the ecosystem, such as forests, water, land, and biodiversity, are regulated by different policies and authorities. This fragmented approach fails to consider the interdependence of these constituents.

(c) Social Inequality in Water Access and Management:

  • Marginalised groups (Dalits, Adivasis, landless laborers) are disproportionately vulnerable to water shortages and environmental crises. Current policies fail to ensure equal participation and benefits for these groups. While schemes promote community involvement, they do not address social barriers that limit their access to water resources. 

(d) Ignoring Ecological Rights of Nature:

  • Water policies focus solely on human needs, neglecting the intrinsic value of natural ecosystems. Judicial interventions have recognised the rights of nature, but policies fail to implement this perspective in water conservation strategies.
  • In contrast, some local communities prioritise water availability for animals and ecosystems, showing a more-than-human approach that policies overlook.

(e) Lack of Climate-Resilient Water Management: Climate change is widening India’s water gap, yet current policies do not integrate climate adaptation strategies. A 2024 Nature journal report warns that rising global temperatures will worsen India’s water crisis, but water policies remain reactive rather than pro-active.

Way Forward

  • Decentralised decision-making and local participation: Empower communities by giving them real authority over water resource management. Recognise and integrate traditional ecological knowledge into formal policies.
  • Integrated water governance: Link water policies with forests, biodiversity, and land-use management to ensure sustainable conservation. Adopt models like orans (sacred forests), which combine water conservation with ecological protection.
  • Equity and Inclusion in water access: Address social barriers preventing marginalised communities from accessing water resources.
  • Recognition of ecosystem rights in water policies: Shift focus from human-centric water policies to an ecosystem-based approach.Protect and restore natural water bodies and their ecological functions.
  • Climate-Resilient water management: Implement policies that focus on climate adaptation, such as:
    • In-situ rainwater harvesting
    • Increasing forest and grass cover to reduce runoff
    • Improving water retention in rural landscapes. 

Therefore, rural water policies should facilitate active engagement with communities. This means moving beyond the existing rhetoric of engagement, centering communities’ voices in the decision-making process in water governance and by capacity building.   

United Nations World Water Development Report 2025

Context: The ‘United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 – Mountains and glaciers: Water towers’ was released to mark the first-ever World Day for Glaciers on March 21. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Impact of global warming on mountain ecosystems and its consequences. 

United Nations World Water Development Report (WWDR)

  • WWDR is a global report that provides a comprehensive assessment of the world’s freshwater resources. 
  • It is produced annually by the UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme, and published by UNESCO.

Major Highlights of the UNESCO’s Report

1. Glacial Melting:

  • Glaciers are disappearing faster than ever. Since 1975, glaciers (which do not include the Greenland and Antarctica ice sheets) have lost >9,000 billion tonnes of mass. 450 gigatons of mass was lost in 2024 alone.
  • Reasons for accelerating glacier melting:
    • Warmer temperatures
    • More frequent and intense wildfires
    • Dust storms lead to more deposition of black carbon and other particulate matter on glacier surfaces, leading to greater absorption of solar radiation (decreased Albedo).  
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2. Accelerating Permafrost Thaw: In high-altitude regions, permafrost is any ground that stays frozen — 0 degrees Celsius or lower — for at least two years straight. Rising temperatures are melting permafrost in these regions rapidly. 

3. Decline in Snow Cover: Reduction in snow cover in nearly all mountain regions, especially in spring and summer. Snow cover is the total of all the snow and ice on the ground. It includes new snow and previous snow and ice that have not melted. Earlier, a 2024 study found a 7.79% decline in global snow cover between 1979-2022.

4. Erratic Snowfall Patterns: Due to atmospheric warming, the rain-snow transition zone is shifting upwards, i.e., mountain ranges are receiving a greater fraction of precipitation falling as rain rather than snow. Snow duration has reduced, snow-melt is taking place earlier than usual. 

Implications of the Changing Climatic Patterns: 

  • Consequences of permafrost thawing:  
    • Release of organic carbon into the atmosphere, exacerbating climate change. Permafrost contains a vast amount of organic carbon (4.5% of the global soil organic carbon) and other nutrients.
    • Mountain slopes become more vulnerable to erosion, increasing the risk of landslides and other hazards.
  • Consequences of increased glacial melting:
    • Increased glacial lake formation and higher risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). 
    • Rise in the sea level: Melted glacier ice contributes 25-30% of global sea-level rise. Between 2006 and 2016, the global mass loss of glacier ice amounted to 335 billion tonnes of lost ice per year, which corresponded to an increase in sea levels of almost 1 mm per year. 
  • Shorter snow duration: affects ecosystems, water supply, and agriculture. Earlier snowmelt means water is available too early in the season, causing shortages later. 

Food Waste Crisis 

Context: Food Waste Index Report (FWIR) 2024 published by United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP) highlights food wastage trends for the year 2022. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Food Waste Index Report. 

Key Highlights of Food Waste Index Report

  • Food worth $1 trillion is wasted globally every year, even as 783 million people suffer from hunger. Over 1 billion tonnes of food was wasted globally, accounting for 20% of all available food. 
  • Households contribute the majority of (60%) total food waste, followed by the food service sector and retail.
  • India ranks second globally in food wastage, after China. With an average of 55 kg food waste generated per capita annually by households, the total food waste generated is over 78 million tonnes in India. 
  • Food waste forms 10%-12% of total municipal solid waste, significantly contributing to methane emissions from landfills.

What is Food Waste? How is it different from Food Loss?

  • Food Waste: Food and the associated inedible parts removed from the human food supply chain. Food discarded at retail and consumer levels. 
  • Food Loss: Loss of edible crops and livestock products before they reach retail. Occurs earlier in the supply chain, mainly during production, harvesting, storage, transportation, and processing. 

Impacts of Food Waste: 

  • Environmental Impact:
    • Resource wastage: Land, water, and energy used in food production go to waste.
    • The UN Climate Change (2024) reports that food loss and waste generate 8%-10% of annual greenhouse gas emissions globally. In terms of country, food waste globally is the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases, after China and the US.
    • In India, food waste accounts for 10%-12% of total municipal waste, contributing significantly to methane emissions from landfills. . 
  • Social Impact: 
    • Widespread wastage prevents food from reaching those who need it most, hindering progress toward Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 12.3 (reduce food waste at retail and consumer levels).

Way Forward- Actions to Reduce Food Waste

  • Individual & Household Level: smart meal planning; efficient food storage; composting; donating surplus food. 
  • Increased Investment in building more cold storage and transportation infrastructure.
  • Businesses should adopt sustainable practices such as redistributing unsold food.
  • Policymakers should subsidise innovative solutions such as food redistribution networks (Applications) and improved cold storage (providing subsidies for farmers to invest in refrigeration).
  • Raising awareness about responsible consumption. E.g., India’s “Save Food Share Food” programme. 

India stands at a critical juncture, addressing food waste is essential for tackling carbon footprint, ensuring food security and reducing social inequality. 

Permafrost Melting in the Kashmir Himalayas

Context: Permafrost melting is emerging as a unique environmental threat in the Kashmir Himalaya. A new study has found that thawing permafrost could affect infrastructure projects (roads, households, hydropower projects) and alpine lakes in the mountainous region.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims:  Permafrost melting- Key Facts. 

What is Permafrost?

  • Permafrost is a layer of ground (soil, sediment, or rock) that remains frozen continuously for at least two consecutive years. 
  • It is mostly found in polar and high-altitude regions.
    • Present in Alaska, Canada, Russia, Tibet, and the Himalayas.
    • In India: Found extensively in the Kashmir Himalayas, Ladakh, and parts of Uttarakhand and Sikkim.
  • Composition: Stores vast amounts of organic carbon locked for thousands of years.
  • Significance: Crucial role in regulating water flows, maintaining ecosystem stability, and acting as a carbon sink. 

Highlights of the Study

  • Study by: Researchers from the University of Kashmir and IIT-Bombay.
  • As per the study, permafrost covers 64.8% of the total geographic area of Jammu & Kashmir (J&K) and Ladakh.
    • It is dominated by continuous permafrost (most of the soil remains frozen year-round), followed by discontinuous (more than half of the soil is frozen), and sporadic (intermittent patches of frozen soil) permafrost. 
  • 87% of Ladakh has permafrost, while the foothill plains of Jammu, Shigar Valley, and Siwaliks do not host any permafrost.

Factors causing Permafrost degradation: 

  • Global Warming: Surface temperatures are rising due to climate change, leading to faster thawing. Data from 2002-2023 shows a steady increase in permafrost melting.
  • Human Activities: 
    • Deforestation & Land-use change: Loss of vegetation reduces insulation, exposing permafrost to direct sunlight.
    • Tourism & Infrastructure development contribute to permafrost degradation.
  • Natural Disasters:
    • Earthquakes & Glacial Movements: Seismic-activity leads to permafrost breakdown. Rock-ice avalanches, like the Chamoli disaster (2021), are intensified due to permafrost degradation.
    • Wildfires: Burn vegetation cover, exposing the permafrost to solar radiation and higher temperatures.

Consequences of Permafrost Thawing: 

  • Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Permafrost contains huge amounts of carbon and methane, which releases on thawing, exacerbating global warming.
  • Positive Feedback Loop: More thawing → More methane emissions → Faster global warming → Increased thawing.
  • Formation of Proglacial Lakes: 332 proglacial lakes identified in J&K, with 65 at risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs).
  • Disruptions in River flow: Permafrost stores water, and slowly releases it into rivers. Thawing disrupts the water regulation system and affects groundwater recharge and river flows.
  • Landslides & Slope Failures: Permafrost degradation leads to weak soil stability and increases the risk of landslides.
  • Road & Infrastructure Damage (roads, households, hydropower projects). Military Installations in Ladakh face risks posing national security challenges.

Way Forward

  • Permafrost Mapping & Environment Impact Assessments (EIA) before construction.
  • Use of Satellite Remote Sensing to track temperature variations & permafrost loss.
  • Deploying Ground-based sensors to improve real-time data collection for accurate predictions.
  • Afforestation & Ecosystem Restoration- insulates permafrost from direct sunlight.
  • Implement resilient infrastructure designs to withstand permafrost thaw.
  • Enhanced Disaster Preparedness and early warning systems for landslides, GLOFs, and floods. 

Rising Heatwaves in India

Context: In the backdrop of rising temperatures pointing towards a new climate normal, India must develop a comprehensive national heat strategy and embed it within its National Adaptation Plan ahead of the 30th UN Climate Change Conference (COP30) in Brazil in November 2025.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Heatwaves- Facts

Mains: Heatwaves- Causes, Steps taken, Challenges, Way forward

What are Heatwaves?  

  • Heat waves are prolonged periods of excessively hot weather that can cause adverse impacts on human health, the environment, and the economy.
  • Definition: In India, IMD defines heatwave based on the following criteria:
    • Physiography of regions:
      • Plains: The maximum temperature recorded at a station is 40 degrees Celsius or more.
      • Coasts: The maximum temperature recorded at a station is 37 degrees Celsius or more.
      • Hills: The maximum temperature recorded at a station is 30 degrees Celsius or more.
    • Based on departure from Normal Temperature:
      • Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
      • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C
    • Based on actual Maximum Temperature:
      • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C 
      • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C
  • Heat Wave is declared if above criteria are met in at least 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days.

Status of Heatwaves in India

  • Early onset of Summer and rising Temperatures:
    • February, classified as ‘winter’ by the India Meteorological Department (IMD), recorded unusually high temperatures. E.g., Heatwaves were officially reported in Goa and Maharashtra by late February. Odisha, Telangana, and Maharashtra recorded temperatures exceeding 40°C.
    • 31 States and Union Territories experienced night temperatures at least 1°C above normal, while 22 States and UTs reported night temperatures 3°C to 5°C above normal. These anomalies indicate shifting climate patterns and rising global temperatures.
  • Growing threat of Heatwaves:
    • Scientists have warned that global warming will lead to more frequent and intense heatwaves. According to IMD, between 1981 and 1990 there were 413 heatwave days in India. However, the heatwave days have increased to 600 days between 2011 and 2020.
    • Heatwaves also pose significant risks to public health, economy, and infrastructure. The number of deaths from heat-related causes increased from 5,457 between 1981 and 1990 to 11,555 between 2011 and 2020.

Factors behind the increase in Heatwaves in India

1. Natural Causes:

  • High Atmospheric Pressure systems: Heatwaves occur when high-pressure systems stall over a region. These systems trap warm air near the Earth’s surface and prevent the normal movement of air masses, leading to prolonged periods of hot weather.
  • Natural climate variations, such as El Nino and La Nina events, influence weather patterns and increase the likelihood of heatwaves. E.g., during El Nino events, warmer ocean waters in the tropical Pacific lead to changes in atmospheric circulation and weather patterns.
  • Prolonged periods of drought and lack of precipitation reduces the overall moisture of the soil, causing the land to heat up more quickly during heat waves.
  • Shifts in wind patterns transports hot air from one region to another which intensifies heat waves in areas that are not typically prone to such extreme temperatures.
  • Geographic features and topographical conditions also contribute to the development of heat waves. For example, landlocked valleys and regions surrounded by mountains trap hot air and lead to temperature spikes.

2. Human-Induced Factors:

  • Global Warming: The long-term increase in Earth’s average temperature, primarily driven by human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, contributes to the frequency and intensity of heat waves.
  • Urban Heat Island Effect: Urban areas with high population density, extensive concrete and asphalt surfaces, and limited vegetation tend to absorb and retain more heat, and have created localised zones of higher temperatures.

Steps taken by government to address Heatwaves: 

  • Heat Action Plans: Government has updated Heat Action Plans across 23 states, aiming to strategically combat and manage heatwaves.
  • Public Health Preparedness: Union Health Ministry reviews the preparedness for managing Heat-Related Illnesses (HRIs) periodically indicating a proactive approach to address the health impacts of heatwaves.
  • Focus on Vulnerable Groups: Government initiatives prioritize protecting high-risk groups like children, pregnant women, the elderly, and people with chronic diseases.
  • Awareness Campaigns: About 100 districts have initiated campaigns to raise awareness about heatwave risks and precautions.

Bottlenecks in Heatwave Strategies: 

  • Inadequate Preparedness for Heatwaves: A study by the Sustainable Futures Collaborative analyzed heat preparedness in nine Indian cities and found:
    • No long-term heat adaptation strategies.
    • Reliance on short-term emergency responses such as:
      • Providing drinking water stations.
      • Adjusting work hours during peak heat.
      • Boosting hospital capacity for heat-related illnesses.
    • Lack of long-term interventions to protect vulnerable populations.
  • Key Gaps in Heatwave Preparedness:
    • Limited access to cooling solutions for low-income and vulnerable groups.
    • No income protection for workers affected by extreme heat.
    • Inadequate fire management and electricity grid upgrades to handle increased cooling demands.
    • Poor urban heat monitoring and lack of heat island mapping.
    • Green cover and solar cooling efforts exist but are not targeted at high-risk populations.

Need for a National Heat Strategy: 

  • India must develop a comprehensive National Heat Strategy as part of its National Adaptation Plan.
  • This strategy should focus on:
    • Expanding weather monitoring systems.
    • Developing urban heat action plans.
    • Green infrastructure and sustainable cooling methods.
    • Ensuring social and financial safety nets for workers in heat-prone sectors.
  • India should present a well-structured plan ahead of the 30th UN Climate Change Conference (COP30) in Brazil (November 2025).