Environment

Swachh Survekshan Awards 2024-25

Context: The President of India conferred Swachh Survekshan 2024-25 Awards at Vigyan Bhagwan, New Delhi hosted by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).

In total, 78 Awards were presented, recognising cities, cantonments, and institutions for their exemplary performance across a range of sanitation parameters.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Highlights of Swachh Survekshan 2024-25.

About Swachh Survekshan

Launched: 2016
Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA)
Instituted under Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban (SBM-U)
73 cities covered initially (2016), now covering 4589 Cities.
Assessment Criteria:
- Waste collection, segregation and processing
- Sanitation and public toilet coverage
- Citizen feedback and awareness campaigns
- Innovation in urban cleanliness

Key Highlights of Swachh Survekshan 2024-25:

Top Cleanest Cities (Population >10 Lakh)
- 1st: Ahmedabad
- 2nd: Bhopal
- 3rd: Lucknow
Top Cities (Population 3-10 Lakh)
- 1st: Mira Bhayandar
- 2nd: Bilaspur
- 3rd: Jamshedpur
Special Recognition : Super Swachh League:
- New elite category introduced to honour consistently top-performing cities over the past three years.
- Top 4 cities ( Population > 10 lakh): Indore, Surat, Navi Mumbai, Vijayawada.
- Top Cities (Population 3-10 Lakh Noida): Chandigarh, Mysuru, Ujjain, Gandhinagar.

Other Awards:

Best Ganga Town: Prayagraj.
Best Cantonment Board: Secunderabad Cantonment for its exemplary sanitation efforts.
Best SaifaiMitra Surakshit Shehar: GVMC Visakhapatnam, Jabalpur, and Gorakhpur for their outstanding commitment to the safety and dignity of sanitation workers.
A special award was given to Uttar Pradesh government and Prayagraj Municipal Corporation, for its exceptional urban waste management during the Mahakumbh.
Lucknow was honoured with the prestigious Presidential Award for becoming the first city in Uttar Pradesh to receive a 7-star Garbage Free City (GFC) rating.

Union Minister of Housing and Urban Affairs launched

Swachh City Partnership Initiative: All 78 top performing cities across all population categories will adopt & mentor 1 poor performing city each from the respective States.
Accelerated Dumpsite Remediation Program:
- 1-year special program starting from Aug 15, 2025.
- Aims to fast-track remediation of legacy waste dumpsites across urban areas and to push the scientific waste processing capacity.

Climate Change is fuelling Wildfires in Europe

Context: Wildfires are raging in several Mediterranean countries, including Spain and France, after the increased heat waves incidents in Europe.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Climate change: Key trends; Mediterranean Type of Climate.

Wildfires in Europe: Key Trends

Wildfires have burnt over 2.2 lakh hectares of land since January 2025 in Europe. This is more than double the average for this time of year over the past two decades.
The number of wildfire incidents have also surged. This has forced thousands of people to evacuate their homes.

Factors favorable for Wildfires:

Hot summer and strong winds: The Mediterranean region's hotter, drier summers put it at high risk of wildfires. Once fires start, plentiful dry vegetation and strong winds in the region can cause them to spread rapidly and burn out of control.
Climate change: As per the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), Europe has warmed at twice the global average since the 1980s. That warmer baseline means higher temperatures can be reached during heatwaves, which exacerbates the risk of wildfires.

Europe’s New Climate Reality:

Greenhouse gas emissions, mainly from burning coal, oil and gas, have heated the planet by about 1.3 degrees Celsius since pre-industrial times.

Europe is the fastest-warming continent as it is witnessing an average temperature rise of around 0.5 degrees Celsius per decade compared to 0.2 degrees Celsius globally. The continent is experiencing an increase in the frequency of heatwaves in recent years.

Reasons Include:

Europe’s proximity to the Arctic region- which is by far the fastest-warming part of Earth. As a result, the Arctic region contributes to the soaring temperatures in Europe, making it more vulnerable to heatwaves.
Feedback systems: In continental regions like Europe, rising temperatures increase evapotranspiration, causing rapid dried-out soil moisture. This leads to positive feedback- Dried-out soils send more sensible heat back into the atmosphere, which warms up and further aggravates aridity.
Changes in the behaviour of jet streams (rapid currents encircling the Earth from west to east at high altitudes). Recent studies show that Europe is increasingly becoming vulnerable to a phenomenon called double jet stream. This occurs when the main jet stream temporarily splits in two branches. This results in an area of weak winds and high-pressure air between the two branches that causes extreme heat. Double jet streams become more common when land mass heats up in early summer.

Mediterranean Type of Climate:

A Mediterranean climate, or dry summer climate is a major climate type described by Köppen classification.
The temperate climate occurs in the lower mid-latitudes (normally 30° and 45° latitude North and South of the Equator)
Such climates typically have hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters, with summer conditions being hot and winter conditions typically being mild (winter rain climate).
Mediterranean vegetation: Trees with hard, waxy leaves to reduce water loss; Evergreen shrubs, bushes etc.

Also Read: Forest Fire Incidents in India

Challenges in Forest Governance in India

Context: Recently, the Chhattisgarh Forest Department has designated itself as the nodal agency for implementing Community Forest Resource Rights under the Forest Rights Act, 2006. This has sparked backlash from Gram Sabhas and Tribal Rights Groups.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Forest Rights Act, 2006, Community Forest Resource Rights, National Working Plan Code (NWPC), Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan.

Mains: Issues in community based forest governance in India

The Forest Rights Act 2006

The Forest Rights Act 2006 was enacted in 2006 and came into force in 2008. Also known as Schedule Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers Act.
The Act recognises and grants legal rights over land and forest resources to Forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) who have been residing in such forests for generations.
A key component is the Community Forest Resource Rights (CFRR), which:
- Empowers Gram Sabhas to manage, protect, and conserve their customary forest areas. Gram Sabha is the nodal authority for initiating claims and managing community forests.
- Recognises traditional knowledge, practices, and sustainable forest use.
- Transfers authority from state-led forest departments to community-led governance.

Recent Controversy in Chhattisgarh:

Recently, the Chhattisgarh Forest Department attempted to designate itself as the nodal agency for CFRR implementation under the Forest Rights Act 2006. This action:

Contravenes the FRA which vests authority in Gram Sabhas.
Violates gram sabhas’ statutory authority to implement locally developed management plans in their community forest resource (CFR) areas by insisting on a model plan from the Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA), though not mandated by law.
Prohibits NGOs and other departments from assisting Gram Sabhas in Community Disaster Risk Reduction (CDRR) management planning.

Following grassroots resistance, the letter was withdrawn. However, it reflects a broader institutional reluctance to cede control to local communities.

Key Issues in Forest Management in India:

Colonial Legacy of Scientific Forestry: Forest management in India is still rooted in the colonial model of forestry focused on timber extraction, not ecosystem health or community welfare. Early working plans even recommended clear-felling natural forests and replacing them with monoculture plantations.
Top down Working Plans: Forest departments continue to rely on working plans guided by the National Working Plan Code (NWPC). These plans are bureaucratic, top-down, and often disregard local ecological and livelihood needs.
Resistance to Decentralisation: Despite FRA’s mandate, forest departments resist transferring control to Gram Sabhas. Over 10,000 Gram Sabhas have received CFRR titles, but fewer than 1,000 have prepared management plans. Forest departments often delay claims, revoke titles, deny funds, and refuse to recognise community plans- undermining decentralised forest governance.
Inadequate Adaptation to Ecological Realities: Forest working plans are rigid and linear, poorly suited to climate change and ecosystem complexity.

Way Forward

Uphold FRA Provisions: The Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA) must reaffirm that Gram Sabhas are the sole authority in CFR management.
Phase out NWPC (National Working Plan Code) for Community Forest Resource areas with contextual, adaptive, and locally prepared plans.
Capacity Building & Support: Forest departments should facilitate rather than obstruct; funding and training must be ensured.

Use Flexible Frameworks: Initiatives like the Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan should be scaled and improved.
Promote People-Centric forest management: Shift from timber extraction to community-led conservation and resilience.

India’s forest management needs to shift from timber-oriented bureaucracy to community-driven, ecologically sensitive governance. Recognising the Gram Sabha as the central planning authority, as per the FRA, is essential for sustainable and inclusive forest conservation.

Also Read: Guidelines for Management of Community Forest Resources (CFR) under Forest Rights Act (FRA)

Assessing India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme Targets

Context: The Indian government recently notified greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity targets for entities across key industrial sectors under the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme.

What is the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) ?

Launched in 2023 under the Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act 2022.
It is a market based mechanism designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by pricing carbon and facilitating trading of carbon credits.
CCTS introduces carbon pricing through two key mechanisms to ensure comprehensive carbon reduction efforts.
- Compliance Mechanism: Mandates energy-intensive industries to meet sector-specific GHG reduction targets. Entities that emit below their set intensity targets earn Carbon Credit Certificates (CCC); while those exceeding targets must purchase credits or face penalties.
- Offset Mechanism: Allows voluntary participation from entities outside the compliance framework to earn carbon credits by reducing emissions.
As of now, 8 heavy industrial sectors are included under the compliance mechanism of CCTS: Aluminium, Cement, Paper and Pulp, Chlor-Alkali, Iron and Steel, Textiles, Petrochemicals, Petroleum Refineries.
Administered by: multiple bodies like the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and the National Steering committee for the Indian carbon market.
Trading of Carbon Credit is expected to begin by October 2026.
The CCTS aims to help India achieve its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) target of reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels.

Assessment of India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme:

Lack of Ambitious Targets:

India’s overall energy emissions intensity is projected to decline by 3.44% per year from 2025 to 2030. The manufacturing sector should ideally reduce its emissions intensity by 2.53% per year.
But current CCTS targets for industries show only a 1.68% per year drop. This suggests the CCTS targets are not ambitious enough to achieve India's NDC targets and decarbonisation goals.

Limited Sectoral Coverage:

CCTS currently covers only 8 of the 9 heavy industrial sectors.
Several major emitters are excluded like- thermal power plants, transport, agriculture, and MSMEs, limiting the scope and impact of the scheme.

Sectoral vs. Economy-Wide Focus

The scheme largely focuses on sectoral/entity-specific targets rather than an integrated, economy-wide reduction strategy. This narrow focus on select industrial players may risk intra-sector credit trading without meaningful reduction in national-level emissions.

A robust carbon market should drive aggregate decarbonisation with participation of major sectors, and not just trading between a few large players.

Why must India recognise its Open Ecosystems?

Context: Deserts and other open ecosystems are often viewed as barren or degraded lands. Land degradation is now synonymously used with desertification.

However, a functioning desert with its intricate food webs, seasonal rhythms and cultural continuities also holds significance and is far more alive than a monoculture plantation.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Wastelands; Significance of Wastelands.

Desert and other Open Ecosystems

Deserts and other open ecosystems such as grasslands, savannas, scrublands, and open woodlands are often viewed as degraded lands or broken ecosystems which need to be fixed.
On official maps, millions of hectares of these ecosystems are classified as wastelands- a term inherited from colonial land-use categories.
In policy terms, a wasteland is seen as land waiting to be corrected usually by (i) planting trees, (ii) converting it into agriculture, (iii) paving it over for industrial use. This perception has led to large-scale efforts to “green” deserts through afforestation, irrigation schemes, and even climate engineering.
However, this narrow view ignores the deep ecological, historical and cultural significance of deserts and other open landscapes.

Significance of Desert Ecosystems:

Deserts occupy nearly one-third of the Earth’s terrestrial surface, and are home to uniquely adapted plants, animals, and human cultures.

India's deserts, grasslands and savannas are home to rare and endemic species like the Great Indian Bustard, caracal, and Indian wolf which are not found elsewhere.
These ecosystems store carbon deep in the soil.
Millions of pastoral groups such as the Dhangar, Rabari, Kuruba etc depend on these ecosystems for grazing.
These landscapes support rich indigenous knowledge systems related to animal husbandry, grazing cycles, and weather patterns.
Early civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley emerged in desert climates. The harsh desert conditions prompted humans to develop complex societies and technologies that could invent ingenious ways of irrigation to survive in otherwise inhospitable conditions.

Way Forward

We need policies that recognise ecosystem diversity, reward soil carbon storage, and support pastoralist land use.

Deserts, grasslands, and savannas should be recognised as distinct valuable ecosystems- not wastelands.
Shift from the term “desertification” to “land degradation” to avoid unjust vilification of deserts.
Reversing degradation in drylands requires careful restoration that respects native vegetation, focuses on soil and moisture conservation, and draws from indigenous knowledge of land management.
Recognize pastoral communities as biodiversity stewards and integrate their traditional knowledge into restoration policies.
Low-tech solutions like water harvesting, rotational grazing, and protecting natural regrowth in place of greenwashing projects that aim to plant millions of trees to “green” the desert.

Great Hornbill

Context: In a rare sighting, Great Hornbill was spotted in the coastal belt of Kannur, Kerala, far from its usual forested habitats. It is rarely seen in coastal areas; its unexpected presence is hailed as an ecological indicator and points to the broader ecological value of the region.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Great Hornbill.

About Great Hornbill

The great Indian Hornbill is one of the larger members of the Hornbill family.
Habitat: It occurs in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, typically found in the evergreen and moist deciduous forests.
India is home to nine species of hornbills of which:
- Great Hornbill, Malabar Pied Hornbill, Malabar Grey Hornbill and Indian Grey Hornbill are found in the Western Ghats.
- Great Hornbill, Rufous-necked Hornbill, Wreathed Hornbill, Oriental Pied Hornbill, and White-throated Brown Hornbill are found in North East India.
- Narcondam Hornbill (rare and endemic: IUCN- Endangered) is found only on Narcondam Island in Andaman Sea.
- Hornbills have also been sighted in Northern Himalayas (Uttarakhand).

Physical Characteristics and Behaviour:

It is predominantly frugivorous (feeds on fruit) but also preys on small mammals, reptiles and birds.
The most prominent feature of the hornbill is the bright yellow and black casque (helemet) on top of its massive bill.
Large bird- 95-130 cm long and weighs nearly 2-4 kg.
Females are smaller than males and have bluish-white instead of red eyes.
Hornbills are secondary-cavity nesters, i.e., they nest in tree cavities made by other birds. They tend to use the same nest year after year.

Threats:

Habitat loss due to deforestation.
Hunted for its meat, fat and body parts like- casque and tail feathers (used as adornments). Beaks and heads are used in charms, and the flesh is believed to be medicinal.

Conservation Status:

IUCN Status: Vulnerable
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule I
CITES: Appendix-I

EU’s New Climate Goal and Carbon Credits

Context: The European Union (EU) includes International CO2 credits in the climate goal for the first time.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Carbon credit and EU’s climate targets.

EU’s New Climate Goal and Carbon Credits

The European Union has proposed a legally-binding climate target to cut net greenhouse gas emissions by 90% by 2040 from 1990 levels.
This proposal introduces a notable flexibility to member states which will allow them to use carbon credits purchased from developing nations to meet a limited portion of their emissions offsetting target.
The EU is allowing up to 3% of its target to be met using carbon credits purchased from developing countries, via a UN-backed market from 2036 onwards.

The EU’s existing climate targets require countries to meet the goals entirely by cutting emissions at home.

This also raises questions over the effectiveness of carbon-credits: if they are a verifiable tool to drive global emission reductions, or do they risk becoming another form of greenwashing, allowing wealthier nations to offset rather than truly transform their domestic economies.

Bonn Climate Change Conference 2025

Context: The 62nd Bonn Climate Change Conference was held in Germany in June 2025. This mid-year meeting sets the stage for key negotiations ahead of COP30 in Belem, Brazil.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key highlights of Bonn Climate Change Conference.

About Bonn Climate Change Conference:

An annual mid-year meeting held under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The conference usually takes place in June every year.

The conference is formally known as the Sessions of the UNFCCC Subsidiary Bodies (SBs).
Along with the annual Conference of the Parties (COP), it is the only other regular climate summit hosted by the UNFCCC.

Objectives:

To discuss technical and scientific aspects of climate negotiations, and set the agenda for COP, which usually takes place in November.

The results of the negotiations in Bonn are highly influential on decisions made at the COP.

Key Highlights of the Bonn Climate Change Conference 2025:

Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA):

The Paris Agreement established GGA to reduce vulnerability to climate change, enhance adaptive capacity, and strengthen resilience. However, progress on the GGA has been slow, primarily due to the lack of measurable indicators to track implementation and effectiveness.
At Bonn 2025 :
- About 490 indicators were shortlisted, from 9,000 suggestions with the aim of consolidating them further to about 100 at COP 30. These indicators will be used to track adaptation actions under health, water, agriculture, and infrastructure etc.
- A set of global “headline indicators” will be created which will be complemented by region- or country-specific sub-indicators, ensuring contextual relevance.
- Disagreements persisted around finance and means of implementation.

Mitigation Work Programme (MWP)

It was created to scale up action to meet the 1.5°C target.
At Bonn 2025 it was agreed that:
- MWP will remain facilitative and non-punitive.
- No new commitments or obligations will be imposed on countries.
- It will support voluntary cooperation and dialogue among Parties.
- A proposal was made to develop a digital platform to share mitigation tools and experiences.

Loss and Damage Fund:

The conference noted that the Loss and Damage Fund remains underfunded.
Proposed to integrate L&D into NDCs and streamlining technical assistance.
Operational clarity on the Santiago Network could not be achieved.

Just Transition Work Programme:

Parties emphasised that just transition must be anchored in equity, development rights, and national contexts.
Social dialogue, labour rights, and meaningful stakeholder engagement, especially that of Indigenous Peoples, were highlighted as foundational to just transition.
Parties also flagged the economic impacts of unilateral measures, such as carbon border taxes (tariffs imposed on imported goods based on their carbon footprint) and trade barriers, and the role of critical minerals in energy transition.
Parties agreed to address these issues through linked agenda items, and this would remain a bone of contention at COP30.

Gender Action Plan:

A new Gender Action Plan was proposed to reflect evolving socio-economic and climate realities.
However disagreements emerged over key terminology, particularly use of terms like “gender diversity” and “intersectionality”.
Key thematic areas proposed for inclusion:Unpaid care work, Sexual and reproductive health and Gender-based violence.

Climate Finance:

There was no formal consensus or breakthrough on climate finance at the Bonn Climate Change Conference 2025, and key decisions were deferred to COP30 in Belém, Brazil.
The “Baku to Belém” Roadmap aimed at mobilising $1.3 trillion annually in climate finance was acknowledged as a consultation process, but no agreement was reached on its operational structure.

Fighting Antimicrobial Resistance with Insect-based Livestock Feed

Context: Studies show that the use of insect-based feed can be more cost-effective than traditional livestock feed.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Issues with traditional livestock production and benefits of insects based livestock feeds.

Recently, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture (CIBA) signed an MoU with Ultra Nutri India, Pvt. Ltd. to explore the possibility of using insect-based feed in aquaculture. This shift highlights the growing concerns around the environmental impact and health risks associated with traditional livestock feed systems.

Issues With Traditional Livestock Feed

Environmental issues:
- High Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Livestock is a major emitter of methane and other greenhouse gases.
- Land & Water Intensive: Vast amounts of land and water are required to raise animals and grow their feed.

Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR) Issue

Antimicrobial compounds are used to treat diseases as well as to boost growth in turn raising productivity. Animal husbandry accounts for more than half of all antibiotic use around the world and is expected to increase to 200,000 tonnes by 2030, up 53% from 2013.
The excessive or inappropriate use of antibiotics can lead to AMR, which endangers public health. Antibiotic residues in livestock guts create selective pressure, enabling bacteria to develop resistance genes. These genes spread into soil or water, raising the risk of human exposure, especially for agricultural workers.
It has been projected that the number of deaths worldwide from antibiotic-resistant infections will increase from 700,000 a year in 2014 to 10 million by 2050.
The use of such antibiotics is banned in developed countries and remains mostly unregulated in many countries, especially in Low and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs).
Some common antibiotics in use as feedstock in LMICs are: Chloramphenicol, tylosin, and TCN (a powdered mixture of oxytetracycline, chloramphenicol, and neomycin).
In humans, over-exposure to these drugs can eventually increase the risk of kidney disease, cancers, and aplastic anaemia.

These realities prompted researchers to explore the use of insect-based feed. As of today, 40 countries have accepted and issued regulations to use insect-based feed for animals.

Examples of such insects include :

Black soldier flies, house flies
Compost worm
Grasshoppers (Locusts)
Small mealworms
House crickets
Tropical crickets
Jamaican field crickets

Given the rising global protein demand, the FAO estimates that food production must increase by 70% by 2050- making sustainable alternatives like insect-based feed even more critical.

Pros of insect-based livestock Feed:

Nutritious: Insects are good sources of fats, proteins, fibres, and micronutrients like zinc, calcium, and iron.
Naturally acceptable feed: In their natural habitat, both aquatic and terrestrial animals eat insects.
Low greenhouse gas emissions: Rearing insects emits less greenhouse gases than rearing other sources of animal protein.
Waste to feed: Insects can be reared on organic waste, turning low-value biomass into high-quality animal feed.
Resource efficiency: Rearing insects requires fewer resources, especially land and water, compared to other livestock production enterprises.
High Benefit to cost ratio: Insects like crickets need 12 times less feed than cattle to produce the same amount of protein.
High Digestibility & Feed Efficiency: Insect-based feeds often provide more digestible proteins compared to fishmeal or soybean meal, making them more cost-effective.

Research has outlined the potential for insect-based feed to become a climate-smart alternative to conventional feed because of its ability to shrink the environmental footprint of livestock farming.

King Cobra

Context: The Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh is keen on reintroducing king cobras in the state as an antidote to spiralling snakebite deaths. He also wants snakes in the state counted in order to assess numbers of the venomous ones.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about King Cobra.

About King Cobra:

The king cobra is the world’s longest venomous snake, it can grow to 15 feet in length.
In India, its range include- Western Ghats, North Indian terai belt, Northeast India, mangrove coastlines of West Bengal and Odisha, Andaman and Nicobar, and parts of the Eastern Ghats.
Found across diverse habitats- from highland evergreen and semi-evergreen forests to estuarine mangroves with high rainfall.
It prefers humid, dark forests with thick undergrowth, cool swamps, and bamboo patches. There is no reliable historical record of its presence in the dry deciduous forests of central India.
It is the only snake species that builds nests for its eggs. It tends to stay away from human habitations. It does not breed well in captivity.

Threats and Conservation Status:

Threats: Deforestation, urban expansion, habitat encroachment, hunting for skin and meat.
IUCN status: Vulnerable
CITES: Appendix II
Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule-II. Regarded as the national reptile of India.

Distinct lineages of Cobras:

A study using genetic and morphometric data found that king cobras are not one species, but a complex of at least four distinct lineages:

Western Ghats Lineage - Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra.
Asian Mainland Lineage - Northern and Eastern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Thailand.
Malay Peninsula Lineage - Malaysia and parts of Southern Thailand.
Greater Sunda and Philippines Lineage - Indonesia, Philippines.

Concerns: Different lineages are genetically distinct, adapted to specific ecosystems. Transferring one to another area can cause hybridisation (mixing of genes), ecological disruption and loss of unique evolutionary identity.

Any captive breeding and reintroduction efforts must ensure that species are not allowed to hybridise, and that only the appropriate local species is released in any reintroduction programme.

Delhi Fuel Ban for Old Vehicles

Context: To curb vehicular emissions, Delhi government began denying fuel to overage petrol and diesel vehicles from July 1, 2025, as directed by the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM). However, faced with public outrage, the Delhi government has put on hold the order denying fuel to 'end of life' cars.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About End-of-Life Vehicle (ELV) Rules, Bharat Stage Emission Norm, VAHAN database and ANPR technology.

Mains: Pollution control measures.

What is Delhi’s ‘fuel ban’ for old vehicles?

From July 1, 2025, diesel vehicles older than 10 years and petrol vehicles older than 15 years are prohibited from refueling at Delhi fuel stations.
In April, the Commission for Air Quality and Management (CAQM) directed a phased denial of fuel to end-of- life vehicles (ELVs) at fuel stations in the Delhi from July 1, in high-density NCR districts from November 1, and in the rest of the NCR from April 1, 2026.
Delhi has installed Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) cameras at 498 fuel stations and three inter-state bus terminuses (ISBTs) to scan vehicle number plates and check them against the VAHAN database, India’s national vehicle registry, in real time.

Reasons behind Delhi fuel ban for older vehicles:

Older vehicles emit more air pollutants. E.g., BS-IV vehicles emit 4.5 to 5.5 times more particulate matter than BS-VI vehicles.
Transport emissions account for 28% of PM2.5, 41% of sulphur dioxide (SO2), and 78% of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions in the NCR.
Although legal mandates have existed since 2015, enforcement was delayed due to the absence of necessary technological infrastructure.
The liquidation of such (overage) vehicles can only be done by adopting strict steps like denying fuel.

What is the legal mandate for the CAQM’s fuel ban?

GT Order (2015): Banned diesel vehicles older than 10 years (heavy or light) from operating in Delhi NCR. Prohibited registration of Petrol vehicles which are more than 15 years old and diesel vehicles that are more than 10 years old in Delhi NCR.
Supreme Court Ruling (2018): The NGT’s directive was upheld and reinforced by the Supreme Court in 2018. It said that vehicles violating the order should be impounded.
Delhi Government Guidelines (2024): Issued under the Motor Vehicles Act and Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facilities (RVSF) Rules. Set procedures for identifying and scrapping End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs).
Environment Protection (End-of-Life Vehicles) Rules, 2025: Came into force on April 1, 2025. Mandates scrapping within 180 days of expiry of a vehicle’s registration.
Motor Vehicles Act, 1988: States that for non-transport vehicles, registration is valid for 15 years, and renewable thereafter.
Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1999: After the expiry of the registration certificate, the vehicle shall not be deemed validly registered.

Can measures such as these resolve Delhi’s bad air problem?

As per no single measure (like banning old vehicles) can comprehensively solve Delhi’s air pollution crisis.
As per the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) age-based bans are not scalable across India. Even newer vehicles can be gross polluters due to poor maintenance or technical faults.
A coordinated planning and action on multiple fronts, involving a wide range of stakeholders, is required.

Recommendations by Centre for Science and Environment (CSE):

Improve fuel quality and vehicle emission standards (E.g., BS-VI and beyond).
Enforce a stringent Pollution-under-Control (PUC) regime.
Invest in the massive expansion of public transport infrastructure to reduce private vehicle dependency.

Endocrine Disruptors in Plastic Waste

Context: Plastic pollution is no longer a distant environmental concern but has become a biological invasion with profound implications for human health. Infiltration of microplastics and plastic-derived endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) into our bodies is triggering hormonal disruption, reproductive dysfunction and chronic diseases.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Basics of Microplastics, EDCs, Plastic Waste Management Rules. Mains: Issues related to Plastic Pollution.

Impact of Microplastics on Human Health

Microplastics are plastic particles less than 5 millimeters in diameter. Once considered inert pollutants, microplastics are now recognised as biologically active.

Microplastics have been found in human lungs, hearts, placentas, breast milk, ovarian follicular fluid, and semen.
A 2024 study reported the presence of microplastics in nearly 89% of blood samples in India, with an average concentration of 4.2 particles per milliliter.
Animal studies (Food and Chemical Toxicology 2023) found:
- Low-dose polystyrene microplastics disrupted testosterone, impaired sperm, and damaged the blood-testis barrier.
- Similar effects in ovaries included- reduced anti-Müllerian hormone, oxidative stress, and cell death.
A 2025 study found microplastics in 14 of 18 follicular fluid samples from women undergoing fertility treatment in Italy, linking them to poor egg quality, menstrual irregularities, low estradiol levels, and higher miscarriage.

What are Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)?

EDCs are chemicals that interfere with our hormonal systems- damaging reproductive health and increasing our susceptibility to chronic diseases, including cancer.
EDCs are commonly used as additives in plastic manufacturing to enhance flexibility, durability, or heat resistance. Over time, these chemicals leach out of plastic products into food, water, air, and the human body.

Plastics contain EDCs such as:

Bisphenol A (BPA) and BPS used in water bottles, food containers, and thermal paper.
Phthalates (E.g., DEHP, DBP) used to soften plastics and found in cosmetics, toys and IV tubing.
PFAS (Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) found in food packaging and non-stick cookware.

Impact of EDCs on Human Health:

Disrupt Hormonal Function:
- These chemicals mimic or block natural hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, thyroid hormones, and cortisol.
- They interfere with receptor binding, disrupt gene expression in reproductive organs, and induce oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis (cell death).
- Exposure to BPA and phthalates has been associated with lower testosterone levels and elevated luteinizing hormone (LH) levels- both indicators of endocrine disruption.
Reproductive and Gynecological disorders: Epidemiological studies have also linked exposure to phthalates and BPA with conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis, and spontaneous abortions.
Carcinogenic potential: Studies from India have shown that women with elevated levels of DEHP in their urine face nearly a threefold increased risk of breast cancer. Exposure to BPA and phthalates has also been linked to higher incidences of prostate, uterine, and testicular cancers.
Chronic and Metabolic disorders: PFAS exposure has been associated with metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and thyroid dysfunction, as reported in a 2024 study. EDCs mimic cortisol, disrupt insulin sensitivity, and promote fat storage, contributing to obesity and type 2 diabetes.

India - Epicentre of Plastic Health Crisis:

India, now the world’s largest generator of plastic waste, stands at the epicentre of this escalating public health emergency.

India generates over 9.3 million tonnes of plastic waste each year. Of this, approximately 5.8 million tonnes are incinerated, releasing toxic gases, while 3.5 million tonnes end up polluting the environment.
Studies have shown that residents in cities like Mumbai are exposed to between 382 and 2,012 microplastic particles daily through air, food, and water.
Health burden associated with EDCs in India is staggering, costing over ₹25,000 crore annually due to increased healthcare spending and lost productivity.
Case study: In Nagpur, doctors are reporting an increase in cases of early puberty, respiratory problems, obesity, and learning disorders in children, conditions increasingly linked to plastic pollution.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) detected phthalate concentrations in drinking water samples from Delhi, Jabalpur, and Chennai that exceeded European Union safety limits.

Policy Gaps and Challenges:

Despite progressive policies like the Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016, updated in 2022 and 2024), enforcement remains inconsistent.
Current regulations do not account for low-dose effects or the complex interactions of EDCs, nor do they address the specific vulnerabilities of children and pregnant women.

Way Forward

Biomonitoring and surveillance are crucial for establishing national programmes that measure EDC levels in blood, urine, and breast milk.
Fund longitudinal studies to assess the health impacts of EDC exposure on fertility, neurodevelopment, and chronic diseases.
Spread public awareness and educate people on the risks of microwaving food in plastic containers and promoting the use of glass, stainless steel, and EDC-free alternatives.
Encourage antioxidant-rich diets to oxidative stress.
Enforce plastic segregation, recycling, and safe disposal, and invest in microplastic filtration systems for water treatment plants.
Incentivise the development of biodegradable, non-toxic materials.