Art & Culture

Mahabodhi Temple

Context: All India Buddhist Forum (AIBF) has led large scale demonstrations across India advocating for Buddhist control over the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, Bihar. Buddhists want the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA), under which the temple is currently governed.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Mahabodhi Temple.

Historical Background

According to popular legend, a wandering Shaivite monk named Mahant Ghamandi Giri arrived in Gaya around 1590, and established the temple as the Bodh Gaya Math, a Hindu monastery. Giri’s descendants continue to control the Mahabodhi temple as a Hindu site, considering Lord Buddha as the ninth reincarnation of Lord Vishnu.
Calls to transfer the Mahabodhi Temple to Buddhist control began in the late 19th century, led by Sri Lankan monk Anagarika Dhammapala, who even took Hindu priests to court. His efforts led to the passage of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA) by the Bihar Assembly in 1949, 16 years after his death.

Why is BGTA Controversial?

The Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA) provided for the creation of a Committee to run the Mahabodhi temple.
The Committee shall consist of a Chairman and eight members nominated by the state government, of whom four shall be Buddhists and four shall be Hindus including the Mahanth.
The District Magistrate of Gaya shall be the ex-officio Chairman of the Committee. The state government shall nominate a Hindu as Chairman of the Committee for the period during which the District Magistrate of Gaya is non-Hindu.
While the Act gave Buddhists a stake in the management of the shrine, control effectively remained with Hindus. The Buddhist side claims that Hindu rituals have gained predominance in the temple over the years.
The Buddhists' case is further complicated by the Places of Worship Act, 1991. The Act provides for the maintenance of the religious character of any place of worship as it existed on August 15, 1947. Hence, the act blocked any legal attempts by the Buddhists to regain control of the temple.

Mahabodhi Temple

The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is one of the four holy sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha, and particularly to the attainment of Enlightenment.
Other three holy sites are:
- Lumbini in Nepal: Birthplace of Buddha
- Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh: Death of Buddha (Mahaparinirvana)
- Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh: The site where Buddha delivered his first sermon.
Location: Bodh Gaya, Bihar, on the banks of the Niranjana River.
In the 3rd century BCE, Emperor Ashoka built a simple shrine at the site, of which only the Vajrasana (Diamond Throne), a stone slab under the Bodhi tree, remains. It is the first temple built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century B.C
During the Shunga period (2nd–1st century BCE), additional structures were added.
In the late Gupta period (5th–6th century CE), the temple was entirely reconstructed in brick, forming the structure that largely survives today.
The Palas (8th-12th century CE) were the last major royal patrons of the Mahabodhi temple.
The shrine was largely abandoned between the 13th and 19th centuries. The temple was in a state of disrepair when Alexander Cunningham (founder of the Archaeological Survey of India) began its restoration in the 1880s.
The temple was recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2002.

Ugadi Festival

Context: Recently, the auspicious festival of Ugadi, which represents the beginning of the New Year, was celebrated.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Ugadi; Traditional News Year Festivals.

About Ugadi festival

Ugadi/Yugadi, also known as Samvatsaradi (beginning of the year), is New Year's Day.
Celebrated in: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka.
Locally known as Souramana Ugadi or Mesha Sankranti (by followers of Souramana calendar system) in Karnataka.
- Souramana (solar year) is a way of measuring time using the movement of the sun.
- Chandramana (lunar year) is a way of keeping track of the year with the moon's movement.
It is observed in these regions on the first day of the Hindu lunisolar calendar month of Chaitra (falling in late March or early April as per the Gregorian calendar).
Traditions and rituals:
- Drawing colourful patterns on the floor called Muggulu.
- Mango leaf decorations on doors called Torana.
- Preparing and sharing a special food called Pachadi.
- It has been an historic festival of the Hindus, with medieval texts and inscriptions recording major charitable donations to Hindu temples on this day.

Traditional News Year Festivals in India

S.NO.	Festival	Information
1.	Puthandu	- Tamil Nadu - First day of year on the Tamil calendar - The festival date is set with the solar cycle of the solar Hindu calendar. References about the festival: - In Netunalvatai, by a Sangam period author, Nakkirar -Silappadikaaram by Illango Adigal - Manimekalai by Seethalai Satanar
2.	Jude Sheetal/Maithili New Year	- Bihar; Jharkhand - Celebrated by the Maithilis in Bihar, Jharkhand and even Nepal.
3.	Novruz	- Novruz is the Iranian New Year - In India, it is celebrated by the Parsi community. - In 2009, it was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
4.	Vishu	- Kerala - The festival starts with Vishu Kani: arranging harvest's fruits, vegetables and seasonal flowers in front of a mirror. -Devotees visit Sabarimala Ayyappan Temple and Guruvayur Krishna temple for prayers.
5.	Navreh/Kashmiri New Year	- Celebrated by Kashmiri Pandits - Dedicated to their Goddess Sharika. - On the eve of the Navreh, the priest of the family provides a Nechipatra, a collection of the important events and a scroll, Kreel-Pach of the Goddess.
6.	Gudi Padwa/Marathi New Year	- Maharashtra and parts of Goa. - People hoist Gudi dhwaja (a decorated flag to symbolise victory) outside their homes. - Some believe that the festival marks the victory of Shivaji over Mughal dominance in the Maharashtra region.
7.	Shigmo/Shishirotsava	- By Konkani speaking communities in Goa and parts of Karnataka. - Two variants: Dhakto Shigmo (small Shigmo) and Vhadlo Shigmo (big Shigmo). - Dhakto Shigmo: celebrated by the farmers, labor class, and the rural population; - VhadloShigmo: celebrated on a major scale and everyone takes part.
8.	Cheti Chand	- Celebrated by the Sindhi community. - Marks the arrival of spring and harvest - In the Sindhi community, it also marks the birth of Uderolal in 1007. He, as Jhulelal, became the saviour of the Sindhi Hindus.
9.	Losoong	- Also known as Namsoong - Sikkimese New Year, also observed in Darjeeling (West Bengal) - Communities: Lepchas and Bhutias. - Several religious dances (known as Chaams) are performed mostly in the famous monasteries.
10.	Ashadhi Beej	- Celebrated by the Kutchi community in Gujarat - Associated with the beginning of rains in the Kutch region.
11.	Sajibu Cheiraoba/Nongma Panba	- Manipur - Celebrated by Meiteis, an ethnic group who follow Sanamahism (traditional Meitei religion). - Observed on first day of Manipuri lunar month Shajibu (month of April every year)
12.	Pana Sankranti/Vishuva Sankranti	- Celebrated in Odisha - An earthen pot is filled with a sweet drink which is known as Pana and hung over a Basil (Tulsi) tree.

Sarhul Tribal Festival

Context: The Adivasis in Jharkhand and the larger Chhota Nagpur region welcome the new year and the spring season with the Sarhul festival. Sarhul is celebrated on the third day of the Chaitra month (Hindu calendar), which usually falls in April.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Sarhul tribal festival.

About Sarhul Festival

Sarhul, literally "worship of the Sal tree", is among the most revered Adivasi festivals.
Tribes celebrating the festival include: Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho.
Origin: In the 1960s, Adivasi leader Baba Karthik Oraon, who advocated for social justice and the preservation of tribal culture, began a Sarhul procession from Hatma to the Siram Toli Sarna Sthal in Ranchi.
It is rooted in nature worship and celebrates the symbolic union of the Sun and the Earth. A male priest from the village (pahan) plays the role of the Sun, while his wife (pahen) becomes the earth.
Sal trees are seen as the abode of Sarna Maa, the deity protecting the village from inclement natural forces.
On the first day of Sarhul, the village's pahan, who observes a rigorous fast, fetches water for the ceremonies, houses and Sarna Sthals are cleaned, and Sal flowers gathered for rituals.
On the second day, the deity is presented with Sal flowers, and a rooster is sacrificed.

The final day is marked by a grand community feast, in which people share handia (rice beer) and enjoy a variety of delicacies.

Vikramshila Mahavihar

Context: The state government of Bihar has recently identified 202 acres of land at Antichak village, Bhagalpur district to establish a Central University, a few kilometers away from the site of ancient Vikramshila Mahavihar.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Vikramshila Mahavihar

Vikramshila Mahavihar:

Vikramashila was a Buddhist monastery situated in Bhagalpur district, Bihar. One of the three most important Buddhist Mahaviharas of its time in India, along with Nalanda and Odantapuri.
Founded by: King Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty in the late 8th to early 9 Century AD. Thrived during the Pala Period (8th to 12th century). Vikramshila Mahavihar existed and flourished at the time of Nalanda.
Practised Tantrayana: Tantric practices and rituals (one of the three great vehicles of Indian Buddhism after Hinayana and Mahayana).
- Only university that specialised in tantric and occult studies.
- Other subjects such as theology, philosophy, grammar, metaphysics and logic were also taught.
Eminent scholar: Atisa Dipankara played a key role in the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet.
Factors for decline (13th century): Combination of factors, including- invasion of Bakhtiyar Khalji around 1193 AD, and rising Hinduism and the decline of Buddhism.
Major artifacts found: carved limestone sculpture that depicts the eight major events of Buddha’s life; sculptures of Buddhist and Hindu deities such as Avalokiteshvara, Loknath, Ganesh, Surya, Vishnu, etc.
The university also had a vast library and a dedicated air-conditioned system (cooling system) possibly for preserving precious manuscripts.

Read More: Nalanda University

Lapis Lazauli

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: About lapis lazuli; Use in ancient civilisations (Indus Valley, Egyptian, European Renaissance).

About Lapis Lazuli

Deep blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious gemstone.
Valued for its colour and ornamental properties for over 6,000 years.

Geological Composition

Lapis lazuli is primarily composed of lazurite (25-40%), a feldspathoid silicate mineral that gives the rock its characteristic deep blue color.
Its blueness depends on the amount and structure of sulphur within lazurite.

Prevalence

Found in many countries so far, including Chile, Russia, and the US.
The highest quality rock comes from Afghanistan’s Badakhshan province, where it has been mined for more than 6,000 years.

Historical Significance and Uses

In ancient times, traders in India imported lapis lazuli from Badakhshan, perhaps as long ago as 1000 BC.
Ornamental lapis lazuli ornaments have been found in the remains of Indus Civilisation sites including Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.
Ancient Egyptians used lapis lazuli in jewellery, amulets, and as powdered eye makeup.
In the Renaissance period, artistes in Europe ground lapis lazuli down into ultramarine, an expensive pigment they used in their paintings.

Jnanpith Award

Context: Eminent Hindi writer Vinod Kumar Shukla was bestowed the 59th Jnanpith Award for the year 2024. The 88-year-old short story writer, poet and essayist, is one of the greatest contemporary writers in Hindu language.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Jnanpith Award.

About Jnanpith Award

The Jnanpith Award is the oldest and the highest Indian literary award.
It is presented annually by the Bharatiya Jnanpith to an author for their outstanding contribution towards literature.
It is bestowed only on Indian writers writing in Indian languages included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India, and English.
Details of the Award: Citation plaque, a cash prize of ₹11 lakh, and a bronze replica of goddess Saraswati. There is no posthumous conferral of the award.

Eighth Schedule to Indian Constitution

The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of 22 languages: (1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Konkani, (8) Malayalam, (9) Manipuri, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit, (15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu (19) Bodo, (20) Santhali, (21) Maithili and (22) Dogri.
Of these languages, 14 were initially included in the Constitution. Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were the latest additions in 2004.

Navroz: Parsi New Year

Context: Navroz or Parsi New Year was celebrated on March 21 to mark the beginning of spring.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Navroz: Parsi New Year.

About Navroz

Navroz (Jamshed-i-Navroz) is the Parsi New Year which is believed to mark the beginning of spring.
The festival is named after the Persian king Jamshed, who is believed to have created the Persian calendar.
Indian Parsis celebrate the festival twice every year:
- the date of the festival as per the Iranian Fasli calendar (around March 21)
- the date according to the Shahenshahi (Zoroastrian) calendar, widely used by Indian Parsis (around July or August).
The day is celebrated by decorating homes, engaging in prayers and enjoying special dishes.
Navroz has been added to the UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions.
It is founded on the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster and the sacred text Avesta.
Originating in ancient Iran, it centers on the worship of Ahura Mazda, the uncreated and benevolent deity of wisdom.
The religion presents a dualistic view of the world, depicting an ongoing battle between good and evil, with the expectation that good will ultimately prevail.
Despite its decline after the Muslim conquest of Persia, it continues to be practiced today, primarily in India and Iran.

Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs

Context: Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs in Narayanpet district, Telangana have been added to India’s Tentative List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. If granted full UNESCO status, it would be Telangana’s second such site after the Ramappa Temple, which was inscribed in 2021.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Menhirs.

What are Menhirs?

A menhir is a large, upright standing stone, usually tapered at the top and manually placed by humans.
The term Menhir is derived from the Brittonic words "Maen" (stone), "Hîr" (long).
The Grand Menhir Brisé (Great Broken Menhir) in Brittany, France, is the largest Menhir, originally 20.6 m tall.
Pop Culture Reference: Featured in the Asterix comic series – Obelix is often seen carrying menhirs.

Age and Purpose of Menhirs:

1. European Menhirs:

Linked to the Beaker Culture (Late Neolithic – Early Bronze Age).
Oldest European menhirs date back 7,000 BP.

2. Indian Menhirs (Mudumal):

They are the oldest known menhirs in India, dating back to 3,500–4,000 BP (Before Present).
Spread across 80 acres, there are close to 80 towering menhirs, some reaching heights of 10 to 14 feet, along with nearly 3,000 smaller alignment stones.
They are believed to be part of a megalithic astronomical observatory.

Purpose of Menhirs :

Often part of megalithic complexes (large prehistoric stone structures).
Likely used for ceremonial, funerary, or astronomical purposes. Some functioned as grave markers, others aligned with celestial events.
Mudumal Menhirs align with the summer and winter solstices, suggesting their role as an ancient observatory. One particular menhir is worshipped as Goddess Yellamma by locals.

Why do Menhirs Deserve UNESCO Recognition?

The Mehirs showcase ancient ingenuity, prehistoric engineering, astronomy, and societal structures.
They help in reconstructing the belief systems, rituals, and societal structures of pre-historic humans.

Their UNESCO recognition will enhance global awareness and conservation efforts for India’s ancient heritage.

Aurangzeb Tomb

Context: The demand for the demolition of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb’s tomb has risen in Maharashtra.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Aurangzeb; Aurangzeb’s Tomb.

About Aurangzeb Tomb

Location: Khuldabad, near Ellora Caves, Maharashtra.
Architectural Style: Simple and unadorned, in line with Aurangzeb’s wish for a modest burial.

Historical Significance

Aurangzeb died in 1707 in Ahmednagar and was buried in Khuldabad, also known as the Valley of Saints.
The tomb follows the Chishti Sufi tradition, similar to Sheikh Salim Chishti’s tomb in Fatehpur Sikri.
It was later expanded by Lord Curzon (British Viceroy of India).

About Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb (Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir) was the sixth Mughal Emperor of India. Under his rule, the Mughal Empire reached its zenith and became the single largest empire in India.
Reign: 1658-1707 (Longest-reigning Mughal emperor)
Father: Shah Jahan; Mother: Mumtaz Mahal
Coronation: Took the throne after defeating Dara Shikoh in the Battle of Samugarh (1658).
Death: Died in 1707 in Ahmednagar, buried in Khuldabad, Maharashtra

Major Policies & Administration

Religious Policies:
- Reimposed Jizya tax (1679) on non-Muslims.
- Destroyed some Hindu temples but also gave land grants to certain Hindu temples.
Deccan Policy:
- Annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687), expanding Mughal rule in South India.
- Faced stiff resistance from the Marathas, especially from Shivaji and Sambhaji.
Rajput Policy:
- Conflicts with Rajputs, especially Mewar and Marwar, led to a decline in Mughal-Rajput relations
Sikh Policy:
- Executed Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675), leading to opposition from Sikhs.
- Faced resistance from Guru Gobind Singh and later Banda Singh Bahadur.

Aurangzeb’s reign marked the greatest territorial expansion of the Mughal Empire, but his religious orthodoxy, economic mismanagement, and prolonged Deccan campaigns weakened the empire. His policies contributed to the rise of regional powers like the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats, accelerating Mughal decline after his death in 1707.

Talkatora Stadium

Context: Talkatora Indoor Stadium, a prominent venue for sports and cultural events in Delhi, could soon undergo a name change. To celebrate the author of the Ramayana, the stadium may be renamed after Maharishi Valmiki.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Talkatora Stadium.

About Talkatora Stadium

Talkatora Stadium is Delhi’s oldest indoor sports facility, known for hosting some of the biggest sports, cultural, and political events.
The stadium is owned and managed by New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC).
Built in 1974, the stadium is named after a Mughal-era garden adjacent to it. During the medieval era, the site featured a reservoir (Talkatora) to collect the water pouring down from the streams of the South-Central Ridge Forest.
Garden Architecture: Built with Mughal design elements. Symmetrical layout with a four-tier stepwell, fountains, and waterways.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq likely built the embankment inside Talkatora Garden for water management in the 14th century. The garden was used by Tughlaq rulers for hunting.
The garden was a battlefield during multiple conflicts.
- In 1737-38, the Marathas advanced into Delhi and fought near the garden in their attempt to raid the Mughal capital.
- In 1803, British forces led by General Gerard Lake clashed with the Marathas in the same location, ultimately leading to British control over Delhi.
- It was also a site for resistance during the 1857 uprising against British rule.

No new Construction and Renovation works in Mehrauli Park: SC

Context: The Supreme Court stayed new construction and renovation of the centuries-old religious structures inside the Mehrauli Archaeological Park in New Delhi to avoid any planned demolition in the archaeologically sensitive area.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Mehrauli Archaeological Park; Various Structures in Mehrauli.

About Mehrauli Archaeological Park

Mehrauli is one of the seven medieval cities that make up the present union territory of Delhi, apart from Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Deenpanah and Shahjahanabad.
The Lal Kot fort was constructed by the Tomar chief Anangpal I around 731 AD and expanded by Anangpal II in the 11th century,who shifted his capital to Lal Kot from Kannauj.
The Chauhans defeated the Tomars in the 12th century.
Prithviraj Chauhan further expanded the fort, which is now Qila Rai Pithora. He was defeated and killed in 1192 by Mohammed Ghori, who put his general Qutb-ud-din Aybak in charge and returned to Afghanistan.
In 1206, after the death of Mohammed Ghori, Qutubuddin enthroned himself as the first Sultan of Delhi.
Thus, Delhi became the capital of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi (Slave dynasty), the first dynasty of Muslim sultans to rule over northern India.
Mehrauli remained the capital of the Mamluk dynasty which ruled until 1290.
During the Khilji dynasty, the capital shifted to Siri.
In 12th-century Jain scriptures, the location is also mentioned as Yogninipura, now noticeable by the presence of the ‘Yogmaya Temple’, near the Qutub Minar complex.
It was also the execution place of Banda Singh Bahadur after he sacked the regional Mughal capital of Samana.

Various Structures in Mehrauli

There are a number of tombs of prominent people from the Delhi Sultanate (1206 to 1526 AD) and Mughal (1526 to 1857 AD) era. These tombs are usually placed near the dargahs of saints. Tombs of the later Mughals are near the dargah of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Mehrauli or Humayun’s tomb near Nizamuddin Auliya’s dargah.

16th Century tomb of Adham Khan and his mother Maham Anaga:
- Reminder of Akbar’s wrath on Adham for murdering his general and prime minister Atgah Khan.
- Built in an octagonal shape with low towers at corners.
- Consists of Lodhi-style domed octagonal chambers with ‘Verandahs’ on each side.
Zafar Mahal or Lal Mahal built in red sandstone:
- Zafar Mahal was the summer palace of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
- The building has two components, namely, the Mahal, which was built first by Akbar Shah II in the 18th century, and the entrance gate that was reconstructed in the 19th century by the last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
- Bahadur Shah Zafar II wished to be buried in the precincts of the Zafar Mahal. However, after the first war of Independence (1857), he was deported by Major William Hudson in 1858 to Rangoon (Burma/Myanmar), where he died of old age.
- This palace is also known for the Phoolwalon Ki Sair pass. This festival was started in 1812 by Akbar Shah II’s wife Mumtaz Mahal, after her son Mirza Jahangir was exiled to Allahabad by the British Resident Sir Archibald Seton.
Jamali Kamali Tomb and Mosque:
- Contain the tombs of Sufi saint Jamali or Shaikh Fazlu’llah and his disciple.
- Jamali was a well-known court poet who enjoyed the patronage of the Lodhi dynasty and that of Babur and Humayun as well.
Tombs of Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87 AD) and his son, Shahid Khan:
- Shahid had died fighting against the Mongols near Multan during Balban’s reign.
- Balban of the Mamluk dynasty is remembered for taking strong steps to control dacoity and robbery on the Delhi roads in the 13th Century.
- Balban’s tomb is housed in the building Dar-ul Amaan (Haven of Safety) and as the name suggests, it served as a haven from debt collectors.
- It is the first site where the true arch and dome, a prominent feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, introduced by the Turks, made its appearance.
A baoli or stepwell known as Rajon Ki Baoli:
- It was constructed in 1506 AD during Sikandar Lodhi's reign.
- It was used to store water.
- It was commissioned by Daulat Khan in 1506 AD, an administrator of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
- The enclosure of Rajon Ki Baoli includes a mosque and a tomb.
- The name Rajon Ki Baoli is derived from the 'Rajbirs' or 'Mistris', the term used for masons.
- A courtyard surrounded by a verandah with many beautiful pillars and the arches in the verandah are made in the typical north Indian fashion of that time.
Qutb Complex, close to the North-West of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque:
- Tomb of Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 AD):
  - Built by Iltutmish himself in 1235 AD, a year before his death.
  - Made in white marble, surrounded by carved arched entrances on the three sides.

Sufi Music and Amir Khusrau

Context: Indian Prime Minister recently attended Sufi festival Jahan-e-Khusrau Festival and underscored the role of Sufi tradition in sustaining the country’s pluralistic culture.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Important facts about Sufi Music; Hindustani Classical Music; Amir Khusrau.

About Sufi Music (Sub-part of Hindustani Music)

Sufi Music is a devotional music of the Sufis, inspired by the works of Sufi poets like Rumi, Hafiz, Bulleh Shah, Amir Khusrau, and Khwaja Ghulam Farid.
Delhi Sultanate, 13th Century onwards, witnessed the rise of Sufi music, which later began to spread across the north Indian subcontinent.
The ancient spiritual practice of Sufism incorporates all kinds of activities to achieve a state in which the practitioner loses the ego and experiences God through singing, chanting, reciting, whirling and music.

Qawwali

Qawwali (way of rendering Sufi verses) is the best-known form of Sufi music and is most commonly found in the Sufi culture in South Asia. It was popularised by Amir Khusrau ( a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya). So, it is of Indian origin.
The term Qawawali comes from the Qawwal who is a singer singing the verses of a Sufi saint.
The singer is often accompanied by harmoniums, tabla, and dholak. The lyrics typically draw from Sufi poetry, expressing devotion, love for God, and spiritual yearning.
Tempo (pace of singing) is a bit faster in Qawwali and rhythmic clapping throughout the song is important.

Ghazal

It originated in the Arabic world and later came to India under Persian influence.
Ghazal may be a poetry (unsung) or a song.
It is a poetic form that consists of rhyming couplets (not more than 12) and a refrain, with each line sharing the same meter.
Most of the ghazals are now sung in styles that are not limited to khyal, thumri and other classical and light classical genres.
Each couplet can stand alone as a complete thought, but they are usually connected by a common emotional thread.
Some of the famous persons associated with Ghazal are Muhammad Iqbal, Mirza Ghalib, Rumi (13th century), Hafez (14th century), Kazi Nazrul Islam, etc.
The tempo of a Ghazal is slow.

About Hindustani Classical Music

Hindustani Classical Music draws inspiration from Rigveda, Yajurvedic chants and Natya Shastra (gives information on scales, melodic forms, tala and musical instruments).
Key texts in Hindustani Music:
- Brihaddesi by Matanga compiled between 8th-9th century AD.
- Sangeeta Ratankara written by Sarangadeva (13^th century AD)
Tala System: Tala is the cyclic arrangement of time units which is central to Hindustani Classical Music.
Two broad categories of Musical forms:
- Anibaddha Sangeet: Free-flowing music, not restricted by meaningful words and tala. Its finest form is the alap.
- Nibaddha Sangeet: Structured compositions with tala and lyrics, such as Dhrupad and Khayal. Prabhandha is a specific type of Nibaddha.
  - Of all known prabandhas, Jayadeva’s (12th century) compositions are best known. His significant work was Gita Govinda, and his songs are ashtapadis (each song has eight couplets).

Main styles of singing in Hindustani Music:

There are 10 main styles of singing in Hindustani music like the Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasagar, Tarana, Sargam and Thumri.

Dhrupad: Oldest surviving classical style of Hindustani vocal music. It refers to both the poetry's verse structure and the manner in which it is sung. In the mediaeval era, dhrupad rose to prominence as the primary singing style.
- Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas, and Tansen (who was regarded as one of the Navaratna or nine gems of the Mughal court) were supported by Akbar.
- Man Singh Tomar, the Maharaja of Gwalior was responsible for the enormous vogue of Dhrupad. Bean and Pakhwaj were associated with Dhrupad.
Khyal: It means the idea or imagination is a Persian term. As it allows for more improvisation, this style is well-liked by artists. It is built on a collection of brief songs with two to eight lines. Khyal composition is typically also referred to as a Bandish.
- The origin of this style was accredited to Amir Khusaru (13th century). It attained its maturity at the hands of Niyamat Khan Sadarang and Adarang of the 18th century.
  - Amir Khusrau is believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is said to have introduced new ragas.
  - There are Gharanas in Khayal which are schools of singing founded or developed by various individuals or patrons such as king or nobility.
  - Important gharanas are Gwalior gharana (oldest), Agra gharana (founded by Khuda Baksh) and Jaipur gharana (directly took off from Dhrupad), Rampur Saheswan gharana (Uttar Pradesh).
Thumri and Tappa: Thumri is a love song whereas Tappa consists of the song uttered in a fast note pattern.
Tarana Style: In this style, the rhythm plays a very crucial role and uses many words that are sung at a fast tempo. The origin of this style was also accredited to Amir Khusaru.

About Amir Khusrau

Early Life & Background

Born in 1253 CE in Patiyali (modern-day Uttar Pradesh, India) in a Turkish family.
His father, Amir Saifuddin Mahmud, was a Turkish officer in the army of Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish.
His mother was of Indian origin, which influenced his appreciation of Indian culture.
He was highly talented in literature and music from a young age.

Career & Association with Delhi Sultanate

Served in the royal courts of multiple Delhi Sultans, including:
- Balban (1266–1287)
- Khilji rulers: Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji & Alauddin Khilji (1296–1316)
- Tughlaq rulers: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq & Muhammad bin Tughlaq
He was a court poet, chronicler, and musician, composing many historical and literary works.
A disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, with whom he shared a deep spiritual bond.

Contributions to Literature

Wrote in Persian, Arabic, and Hindavi (early Hindi-Urdu dialects).
His poetry reflected themes of Sufism, love, devotion, and patriotism.
Famous works include:
- "Tuhfat-us-Sighr" (The Gift of Childhood) – his first collection of poems.
- "Qiran-us-Sa’dain" – a historical work describing the meeting of Sultan Kaiqubad and his father Nasiruddin Bughra Khan.
- "Khazain-ul-Futuh" (Treasure of Victories) – chronicling Alauddin Khilji's reign.
- "Nuh Sipihr" (Nine Skies) – describing India’s beauty and diversity.
- "Masnavi Duval Rani Khizr Khan" – a romantic poem.
- "Ghazals and Qasidas" – lyrical and devotional poetry, many of which are still recited.

Musical Contributions

Credited with the invention of Qawwali, a Sufi devotional music genre.
Contributed to the evolution of Hindustani classical music, particularly in Khyal and Tarana styles.
Often credited (though debated) with the invention of Sitar and introduction of Persian elements into Indian music.

Influence on Indian Culture

Often called "Tuti-e-Hind" (Parrot of India) for his eloquence in poetry.
Promoted Hindavi (early Hindi-Urdu) as a literary language.
His works laid the foundation for later Urdu poetry and Indo-Persian traditions.

Death & Legacy

He died in 1325 CE in Delhi, soon after his spiritual mentor Nizamuddin Auliya.
Buried near Nizamuddin Auliya's Dargah in Delhi.
His poetry, music, and literary style continue to inspire artists, poets, and musicians in India, Pakistan, and beyond.