Art & Culture

C. Sankaran Nair

Context: The recent film Kesari Chapter 2: The Untold Story of Jallianwala Bagh is based on Sir C. Sankaran Nair.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: About C Sankaran Nair and his key Contributions.

About C. Sankaran Nair

Born in the year 1857 in Malabar, Kerala.
He was a liberal constitutionalist, social reformer, and a fierce critic of both British imperialism and reactionary elements within Indian society.
He was a staunch advocate of universal liberty and equality.
He was a brilliant jurist, being appointed as Advocate General of the Madras Presidency and later a judge of the Madras High Court.
Author of book “Gandhi and Anarchy” (1922)- a critique of Gandhi’s political methods, especially non-cooperation and Khilafat movement. Despite his disagreements with Gandhi, Nair acknowledged his global stature.
Nair firmly believed in constitutional methods and rejected political fanaticism. This conviction led him to oppose Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement as well as the Khilafat agitation.
Critic of extreme nationalism, religious mobilisations, and political fanaticism.

Key Achievements:

He was the first Malayali and the only Keralite to preside over the Indian National Congress (Amaravati Session, 1897).
Nair was among the first Indian members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council, overseeing portfolios like education and health.
He was a member of London’s National Liberal Club.

Key Contributions:

Vision of Secular India:
- At the 1897 Amravati Congress, Nair advanced a vision of secular India, advocating education for lower castes, upliftment of women, and the dismantling of caste-based barriers.
- He opposed the creation of sectarian institutions like Banaras Hindu University, fearing they would breed communalism.
Resignation over Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: He resigned from Viceroy Executive Council in protest against the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Champion of Social Reforms:
- He campaigned for the abolition of caste, equality of women, and reform of the matrilineal system among the Nairs of Kerala.
- He was associated with the Social Reform Conference and believed political freedom was meaningless without social emancipation.
- He resisted the Village Cess Bill in the Madras Legislative Council, which threatened traditional self-governing village systems.
Protector of Free Speech and Education:
- As a Viceroy’s Council member, he refused to allow a church prayer supporting Allied victory during WWI, stating : “Christ does not take sides in war.”
- He advocated English education as a means of women’s empowerment, political awakening, and rational public discourse.He envisioned an India where reason triumphed over dogma.
Political Realism: For Nair, India was not a romantic ideal but a land bound by social evils. He remarked: “India was a land of millions- ignorant, illiterate, half-starved, superstitious, and shackled by caste.” He did not glorify a mystical past, unlike many contemporaries. Instead, he offered a rational, reformist blueprint for a modern India.

Context: The Nalanda University was established under the Nalanda University Act 2010, by the Ministry of External Affairs. The new campus of Nalanda University was inaugurated in 2024 and is located close to the ruins of the ancient university in Bihar’s Rajgir town. The University now has over 1200 students.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Nalanda University.

About Nalanda Mahavihara:

Introduction:

Nalanda Mahavihara, the 5th-12th Century AD (in ancient and medieval Magadha) university is considered to be one of the greatest centres of learning in ancient India.
The ruins of ancient Nalanda University in Bihar was declared as the World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2016.
The details of the university can be found in the writings of the famous Chinese traveller Huang Tsang. According to him, there were 10,000 monks and 2000 teachers at Nalanda at that time.

Foundation of the Mahavihara:

Nalanda was established during the Gupta Empire period (3rd–6th century CE), and was supported by numerous Indian and Javanese patrons, both Buddhists and non-Buddhists.
The numismatic evidence discovered at Nalanda suggests that Kumaragupta I was the founder patron of Nalanda.
Kumaragupta’s successors, Budhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, and Vajra, later extended and expanded the institution by building additional monasteries and temples. Nalanda, thus flourished through the 5th and 6th centuries under the Guptas.
It was also patronized by King Harshavardhana of Kannauj (7th century CE) and the Pala rulers (8^th-12th century CE).
After the fall of the Palas, the monks of Nalanda were patronised by the Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya.

Curriculum and associated scholars:

The curriculum at Nalanda was a skill full of secular and religious knowledge, of the theoretical and the practical.
Curriculum of Nalanda included major Buddhist philosophies like Mahayana, Madhyamaka, Yogachara, Sarvastivada, Hinayana, Samkhya
The curriculum also included other subjects like the Vedas, Sanskrit grammar, medicine, logic, mathematics, astronomy, arts, medicine and even metal casting technique.
The mahavihara had a renowned library that was a key source for the Sanskrit texts that were transmitted to East Asia by pilgrims like Huang Tsang.
Many texts composed at Nalanda played an important role in the development of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
- Examples: Works of Dharmakirti, the Bodhisattvacharyavatara of Shantideva and the Mahavairocana Tantra.
One of the things that set Nalanda apart from other schools of the time was that it took international students from countries like Korea, Japan, China, Tibet and other parts of Asia.
Part of Nalanda’s mission was to bring Buddhism to the world.
- Nalanda was famed for its learned professors, or Upajjhaya (Upadhaya).
Famous scholars associated with the Mahavihara: Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Vasubandhu, and Asanga.
In the 1190s, the university was destroyed by a marauding troop of invaders led by Turko-Afghan military general Bakhtiyar Khilji, who sought to extinguish the Buddhist centre of knowledge during his conquest of northern and eastern India.

Daojali Hading: Neolithic Site in Assam yields evidence of Early Metallurgy

Context: Recently, a Neolithic habitation site with evidence of early metallurgy has been unearthed in Assam.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Neolithic site Daojali Hading.

Daojali Hading: Neolithic Site in Assam

Archaeological findings at Daojali Hading have confirmed it as a major Neolithic site dating back over 2700 years.
Location: It is situated in the Langting-Mupa Reserve Forest, Dima Hasao district, Assam.
The site was uncovered during the construction of the Lumding-Haflong Road in the 1960s, leading to systematic excavations. These investigations have revealed polished double shouldered celts, cordmarked pottery, mortars and pestles, besides jadeite stone.
The discovery of a furnace and iron slag indicate metallurgical activities. This has provided substantial support for earlier hypotheses that Daojali Hading was a major prehistoric settlement in the northeastern part of India.
The unearthed artefacts linked the site with the broader Eastern and Southeastern Asian Neolithic cultural complex.

Read More: Neolithic Age

International Booker Prize 2025

Context: Writer, activist, and lawyer Banu Mushtaq won the International Booker Prize 2025 for her short story collection Hridaya Deepa (Heart Lamp).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about International Booker Prize; International Booker Prize 2025.

About Hridaya Deepa (Heart Lamp):

Hridaya Deepa (Heart Lamp) is a collection of twelve short stories written in Kannada by Banu Mushtaq. It is translated from Kannada to English by Deepa Bhasthi.
Heart Lamp narrates the everyday lives of Muslim women moved by their lived experiences of pain and suffering in a patriarchal society.
It became the first Kannada work of literature to be bestowed with the International Booker Prize.

International Booker Prize

International Booker Prize (formerly Man Booker International Prize) is an international literary award hosted in the United Kingdom.
It is awarded annually to:
- single work of fiction or collection of short stories translated into English (originally written in a language other than English) and published in the United Kingdom or Ireland.
The £50,000 prize for the winning title is shared equally between author and translator. It promotes international literature in the English language.

Shirui Lily Festival

Context: The Shirui Lily Festival commenced in Shirui Village, Ukhrul district, Manipur after a two-years pause due to the long-drawn ethnic conflict in the state.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Shirui Lily Festival.

About Shirui Lily Festival

Annual cultural state festival of Manipur organised by the Manipur Tourism Department.
Initially, the festival was celebrated by the locals of Shirui village to pay tribute to the state flower Shirui Lily. Since 2017, it has been declared as a state festival by the state government of Manipur.
It is designed as an eco-tourism festival to raise awareness about the Shirui Lily and to promote tourism to the hills of Ukhrul.
The festival includes cultural performances, music concerts, beauty pageant, trash collection marathon etc.

Shirui Lily

The Shirui Lily is a rare endemic species found only on the upper reaches of the Shirui Hill range in Manipur.
IUCN status: Endangered.
Threats: Changing climatic conditions, human encroachment and exploitation of natural resources, habitat invasion by the dense root system of a wild dwarf bamboo species.

Also Read: What Manipur Needs?

Controversy surrounding Digha Jagannath Temple

Context: Servitors of the Jagannath Temple in Puri have warned members of their community against participating in any rituals that are held at the Digh temple, West Bengal, a new replica of the 12th century shrine.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Digha Temple; Lord Jagannath Temple.

Digha Temple, West Bengal

Recently consecrated in April 2025.
Location: Purba Medinipur district, West Bengal, about 350 km from Puri, Odisha.
Dedicated to: Lord Jagannath, Lord Balabhadra, Goddess Subhadra and Goddess Mahalaxmi.
The 213 foot high temple is a replica of the world famous Puri Temple.
Built in sandstone in the Kalingan architectural style.
Non-Hindus and foreigners would be allowed to enter the Digha shrine – a break from the centuries-old practice of allowing only Hindus in Puri.

Controversy associated with Digha Temple:

Use of the word ‘Dham’ (seat) and a picture of the Nilachakra (metal wheel atop the Puri Temple) for the Digha temple have been questioned. There are only four dham in Hinduism – Badrinath, Dwarka, Puri and Rameswaram.
Stone Idols: The idols at the Digha temple are made of stone, which cannot be the case with Lord Jagannath. Lord Jagannath is Daru (wood) Brahma, and he is never made of stone. The idols in Puri are made of neem wood.
Replica of Puri Temple: Performing the same rituals in Digha – and at other Jagannath temples in the country – would dilute the significance of the Puri Temple. The temple could emerge as a competitor to Puri for Bengali tourists and devotees.

About Jagannath temple

Ancient Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu.
The present temple was rebuilt by the king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman Chodaganga, in the 10th century CE.
Location: Puri, Odisha (eastern coast of India).
Deities worshipped: Jagannath, Subhadra and Balabhadra
The idol of Lord Jagannath is made of wood (neem wood, known as Daru) and is ceremoniously replaced every 12 or 19 years by an exact replica.
The temple is built in the Kalinga Architecture. The temple has distinct sectional structures: Deula, Vimana or Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum).
Ratha Yatra or chariot festival is a magnificent Hindu celebration held annually in the city of Puri, Odisha, India. During the Ratha Yatra, the three deities are ceremoniously pulled in massive wooden chariots from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple.

Also Read: Jagannath Temple Corridor

Veerashaiva-Lingayats to seek separate Religion Code in upcoming Census

Context: Veerashaiva-Lingayats are demanding a separate religion code for the community in the upcoming National Census that will likely commence in 2026.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Veerashaiva-Lingayats.

Basava & Lingayats

Basava, a 12th century philosopher and social reformer, was the founder of the Shaivite sect called Lingayats. He was the Prime Minister during the reign of Kalachuri dynasty King Bijjala (I) of the Kalachuri dynasty in the 12th century Karnataka.
Veerashaivas are a sub-sect of Lingayats and ardent followers of Lord Shiva. They preceded Basavanna, the founder of Lingayatism. Veerashaivism has its roots in the Vedas and Agamas, and they only worship Lord Shiva.
Basava advocated equality of all human beings, irrespective of caste and that all forms of manual labour are equally important.
He rejected temple worship and rituals led by Brahmins and replaced it with personalised direct worship of Shiva through practices such as individually worn icons and symbols like a small linga (known as Ishtalinga).
His poetry was known as Vachanaas and primarily focused on socio-cultural reforms. He rejected gender or social discrimination, superstitions, and rituals.

Key concepts in Lingayatism

Anubhav Mantapa: Considered to be the first parliament in the history of mankind. Proceedings of Anubhav Mantapa are recorded in the form of Vachana Literature.
Kaayaka (Manual labour): Working for survival with a divine mindset which is mandatory to every individual. Without Kaayaka nobody has the right to live.
Daasooha (Charity): Part of the earnings from Kaayaka must be spent on the welfare of the poor called Dasooha. It is a voluntary contribution from one’s own earned wealth.
Sharanas: Sharanas are common followers of Lingayat beliefs.

Political and Social Background: Veerashaiva-Lingayats

The Veerashaiva Mahasabha in 1940 had passed a resolution seeking a separate religion tag for Veerashaiva-Lingayats and petitioned the then British government.
Ahead of the 2011 census too, the Veerashaiva Mahasabha had petitioned the Centre seeking the religion code. But after being denied the same, the community members, through a “jana jagruthi jatha” were asked to write “Veerashaiva-Lingayat” in the column meant for “others” instead of identifying as Hindus.
- In 2011, separate codes were assigned to Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Jainism, and Buddhism. There was a separate column for “other religions and persuasions”.
Veerashaiva-Lingayats are the dominant land-owning community in north and central Karnataka, and seen as politically powerful too. They are a part of backward classes Category in the current OBC classification in the state.
Their population in Karnataka is about 66.3 lakh or about 11% of the State population. Veerashaiva-Lingayat community is also spread across in neighbouring Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

Raghuji Bhonsle I

Context: The state government of Maharashtra has reclaimed the famous "Raghuji Sword" of the 18th century Maratha general Raghuji Bhonsle I for Rs 47.15 lakh at an auction in London, United Kingdom.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Raghuji Bhonsle.

About Raghuji Bhonsle I

Raghuji Bhonsle I (reign 1739–1755) was a distinguished Maratha general under Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.
He was the founder of the Nagpur-based Bhosale dynasty, which became a significant power center within the Maratha Confederacy.
He led pivotal military campaigns in Bengal in 1745 and 1755, greatly expanding the Maratha Empire’s territory into Bengal and Odisha.
His influence also extended to regions in Central India such as Chanda, Chhattisgarh and Sambalpur.
His successful campaigns in South India resulted in the defeat of the Nawabs of Kurnool and Cuddapah, and further solidified Maratha dominance in the region.
He was honoured with the title ‘Senasaheb Subha’ by Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, impressed by his bravery and military acumen.

Raghuji Sword

The sword bears an inscription in Devanagari script on its spine, suggesting that it was made for Raghuji Bhonsle I.
The sword exemplifies the ‘European’ style of Maratha weaponry — characterised by a straight, single-edged European blade paired with a locally crafted Mulheri hilt, beautifully adorned with intricate gold inlay.
The European-made blade reflects the active global arms trade in 18th-century India, emphasising the intersection of Indian and European craftsmanship.

Note:

Nagpur Bhosales ruled over a mineral-rich region abundant in iron and copper, which were skilfully used to craft both everyday items and formidable weapons. The quality and artistry of the weaponry crafted by the Bhosales are renowned for their exceptional craftsmanship.
Following the 1817 Battle of Sitabuldi, where the East India Company defeated the Nagpur Bhosales, the British looted the Bhosale treasury, seizing priceless treasures, ornaments and weapons.

The artifact will be brought back to India shortly, where it is expected to be displayed in a museum or heritage institution.

Raja Ravi Verma

Context: On the occasion of his 177th birth anniversary of the legendary artist Raja Ravi Varma, a musical tribute will be paid at the Kilimanoor Palace, Kerala.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Raja Ravi Verma.

Raja Ravi Verma (1848-1906)

Ravi Varma was born into the aristocracy at Kilimanoor in the erstwhile Travancore (present-day Kerala state in India) on April 29, 1848.
He is considered to be the pioneer of the modern school of painting. The school was called ‘modern’ because of the heavy influence of western techniques and themes.
He successfully combined elements of South Indian painting and Indian iconography with Western techniques and styles.
He was patronised by: Ayilyam Thirunal, the next Maharaja of Travancore and began formal training. Later, he was trained in water painting by Rama Swami Naidu, and in oil painting by British portraitist Theodore Jenson.
His religious depictions of Hindu deities and works from Indian epic poetry and Puranas have received profound acclaim.

Titles and Acclaimations:

He received widespread acclaim after he won an award for an exhibition of his paintings at Vienna in 1873.
His paintings were also sent to the World's Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893.
In 1904, Viceroy Lord Curzon, on behalf of the British King Emperor, bestowed upon Varma the Kaisar-i-Hind Gold Medal.
He was conferred the title of ‘Raja’ by the Viceroy and Governor-General of India Lord Curzon.

Famous works:

Episodes from the story of Dushyanta and Shakuntala
Nala and Damayanti from the Mahabharata
Paintings from the epic Ramayana, especially the one titled ‘Ravana Kidnapping Sita’.
Lady in the Moonlight
Galaxy of Musicians
Parsi Lady painting.

Bhagavad Gita & Natyashastra enter UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register

Context: Recently, UNESCO has added 74 new documentary heritage collections to its Memory of the World Register. The latest additions from India include manuscripts of the Bhagavad Gita and Bharat Muni’s Natyashastra.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Bhagwat Gita; Natyshastra; UNESCO Memory of the World Register.

Bhagavad Gita & Natyashastra enter UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register

UNESCO Memory of the World Register

The Memory of the World (MoW) Programme was established in 1992. It serves as a global platform to recognise and safeguard manuscripts, oral traditions, archives, audio-visual materials etc.
It aims to preserve and promote universal access to documentary heritage of outstanding value to humanity.
Collections are added to the register by a decision of the UNESCO’s Executive Board, following the evaluation of nominations by an independent international advisory committee.
There are now a total of 570 inscribed collections (2025).

Bhagavad Gita

Bhagavad Gita is a revered scripture forming part of the Mahabharata; composed as a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna.
Composed by the ancient sage Vyasa, also known as Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa or Veda-Vyasa.
It is considered a timeless philosophical and spiritual guide, and has been translated into around 80 languages.

Natyashastra

Natyashastra is the foundational text of Indian performing arts and cultural theory, written sometime during the 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD.
It is a treatise on dramaturgy, performance, aesthetics and classical arts, and remains one of the most comprehensive documents on theatre and performing traditions.
Authored by: Bharat Muni, written in Sanskrit.

List of India's entries in the UNESCO Memory of World Register

With the latest addition, the total number of Indian inscriptions in the list becomes 14.

Archives of the Dutch East India Company
Rigveda
Shantiniketan Archives
Tamil Medical Manuscript Collection
I.A.S. Tamil Nadu State Archives
Gilgit Manuscripts
Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi by Ziauddin Barani
Saiva Manuscripts in Pondicherry
Saang Lok Collection (2023)
Ramcharitmanas (2024)
Panchatantra (2024)
Sahrdaya loka-Locana (2024)
Bhagavad Gita Manuscripts (2025)
Natyashastra Manuscripts (2025)

India’s inclusion of Bhagavad Gita and Natyashastra in 2025 underlines the significance of its ancient philosophical, literary, and performance traditions in global cultural heritage.

Sattriya Dance

Context: Recently, Sattriya dance was performed during the Rongali Bihu celebrations in Assam. Rongali Bihu (Bohag Bihu) marks the beginning of the Assamese New Year, coinciding with the first day of Hindu Solar calendar (mid April/ Baisakha).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Sattriya Dance.

About Sattriya Dance

The Sattriya dance of Assam is one of the eight classical dance forms of India.
It derives its name from the ‘satras’ (Vaishnavite monasteries) of Assam.
It emerged in the 15th century as part of the neo-Vaishnavite Bhakti movement spearheaded by Srimanta Sankardev (a saint and social reformer).
It is based on the Borgeet (devotional songs) composed by Sankardev and his disciple Madhavadev.
The dance was originally practiced solely by male bhokots (monks), and its performance was strictly limited to the confines of the satras.
Now, the dance can be categorised into two styles:
- Paurashik Bhangi: masculine style involves more energetic gestures and leaps.
- Stri Bhangi: feminine style characterised by more delicate gestures and poised feminine movements.
The dance is a crucial part of the region’s neo-Vaishnavite worship system. It is a vibrant expression of devotion, spirituality, and tradition. It combines the elements- nritta (pure dance), nritya (expressive dance) and natya (drama).

Theyyam: The Dance of Divinity

Context: The Kathiranur Veeran Theyyam was performed at the Chulayadu Aduvapuram Vyail Kavu Kaliyattam (festival) in Kannur, Kerala.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Theyyam.

About Theyyam

Theyyam, also referred to as Kaliyattom, is a traditional folk-dance ritual that is practiced in northern Kerala and certain parts of Karnataka.
A similar practice known as Bhuta Kola is followed in the Tulunadu region of neighbouring Karnataka.
Over time, it has evolved into a socio-religious ceremony with its roots in the worship of divinities and heroes.
Villages were obligated to organize Theyyam as an act of appeasement towards gods, goddesses, and the spirits of departed heroes. As a result, it was also known as Thirayattom, signifying the dance of the village.
Notably, a significant number of Theyyam deities originated from individuals belonging to the lower castes of Kerala's caste system.
Theyyam is performed by individuals from castes and tribes such as Pulayar, Vannan, Malayan, Velan, and Kalanaadi.
There are approximately 456 documented types of Theyyams, and it is primarily a male performance tradition, except for the Devakkoothu Theyyam, which is the only Theyyam ritual performed by women.

Ritual Performance

The first segment of the performance is commonly referred to as Vellattam or Thottam.
This ceremonial dance is accompanied by a chorus and the use of musical instruments like Chenda, Elathalam, Kurumkuzal, and Veekkuchenda.