Art & Culture

Rock Art Sites of the Chambal Valley:

Context: The Rock art sites of the Chambal Valley have been included in the UNESCO’s Tentative list of World Heritage Sites.

About Chambal Site:

(Battle scene, on a rock painting from Chambal Valley)

Chambal Basin and Central India region contain the largest concentration of known rock art sites in the world.
Rock art sites have thrived in the hilly areas: Vindhyan, Satpura, and Kaimur ranges.
These rock art sites are from: Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Megalithic, and Proto Historic periods.
Currently, only Chaturbhujnath Nala is partially protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Chambal River:
- Known as Charmavati in ancient times, it originates from the Malwa trap zone.
- Covers: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
Earliest traces of human habitation in the region are Acheulean tools, including cleavers, hand axes, scrapers, cores, have been found here.
Chambal basin rock art includes: Cupules, with the oldest ones found at Darki, Madhya Pradesh.

Note:

Rock cupules are artificially made depressions on rock surfaces that resemble the shape of an inverse spherical cap or dome.
They were made by direct percussion with hand-held hammer-stones, on vertical, sloping or horizontal rock surfaces.

Petroglyphs (cupules) discovered at Chattaneshwar and Kanyadeh (Rajasthan).
Bhanpura (Madhya Pradesh) area also boasts a significant collection of petroglyphs.
Engraved ostrich egg shells found at Chandrasel in Kota district (Rajasthan) date back approximately 40,000 years B.P.
Rock art themes during the Mesolithic period:
- Scenes from the lives of simple hunting and gathering societies.
- Painted animals in this period were adorned with abstract designs like triangles.
- Bichrome paintings (in two colours) were a notable feature of Mesolithic rock art.
Chalcolithic period:
- Pastoralism and cattle herding became prominent themes
- Economic importance of Humped cattle: It is appearing in about ninety percent of the rock art depictions.
- Cattle were also depicted in other art forms like terracotta bull figures, seals, and sealings.
- Red and its variants were the most commonly used pigments.
Chalcolithic sites in Chambal basin:
- Ahar (Rajasthan), Kayatha (Madhya Pradesh) and Malwa (Malwa region of Central India and parts of Maharashtra in the Deccan Peninsula.
- Ahar culture, dating around 3600-1500 B.C.E., is believed to be the first to settle in the Basin and establish settlements.
- Ahar culture sites: Balathal, Gilund, and Ojiyana (Rajasthan).
Not much information about the rock paintings from the Megalithic phase have been found:
- However, a few dolmens with cup marks have been discovered.
- Also, cup marks were found on the capstones of dolmens and on boulders within stone circles from the Kotra Vihar (Madhya Pradesh).
Early Historical period:
- Rock art is typically found in isolated locations near perennial water sources.
- These locations also contain remnants of ancient temples or mounds from this historical era.
- Many of these sites have temples dedicated to deities like Shiva or mother goddesses.
- Significant social, political, and economic change:
  - Establishment of states, organized religions, and the use of written scripts, all of which are reflected in the rock art of this era.
  - Rock art from this period is work of warriors, war refugees, elite hunters, or local tribal communities who sought refuge or temporary shelter in these rock shelters during wars or hunting expeditions.
- Symbols and designs with religious significance in rock art: fire altars, kalashas, swastikas, triratna, and alpana patterns.
- Art reflects themes and designs from local traditions, including rangoli patterns and depictions of human forms.
- Rock art includes representations of Hindu deities like Ganesha, Rama.
- Religious Sites in the Chambal Basin: Bhimlat Mahadev, Chatturbhuj Nath Nala, Garadia Mahadev, Bukki Mata, Chattaneshwar, Kanyadeh, Narsinghgarh, Kotra Vihar Jogania Mata, and Gepadnath.

Mesolithic Culture:

Mesolithic sites are found in most parts of India.
Sites: Paisra (Bihar), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Baghor II, Chopani Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama (all in Uttar Pradesh), Sankanakallu and Kibbanahalli (Karnataka).
Rock shelter sites: Lekhakia and Baghai Khor in Uttar Pradesh; Adamgarh and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
Rock paintings: Bhimbetka near Bhopal, Raisin and Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh and South Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh are some of the sites.
Coastal sites: Mumbai, Teri sites of Thoothukudi in Tamil Nadu and Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh.
In India, Mesolithic cultures appeared around 10,000 BCE.
In certain parts of India including Kerala and Tamil Nadu, it continued up to 1000 BCE, till the beginning of the Iron Age.
Hunting wild animals and gathering plant food and fishing were people’s main occupation during this age.
Agriculture was not practised in the early stages. At the end of the Mesolithic period, humans domesticated animals and paved the way for the Neolithic way of life.
They made temporary huts and also used caves and rock shelters.
- Many caves and shelters feature paintings.
- Circular huts are seen in rock paintings.
- Traces of oval and circular huts and possible wattle daub are found in Chopani Mando and Damdama in Uttar Pradesh and Bagor and Tilwara in Rajasthan.
Mesolithic people buried the dead.
- Suggests their beliefs and humane relationships.
- Human skeletons have been found in Mahadaha, Damdama and Sarai Nahar Rai in Uttar Pradesh.
- One burial had an ivory pendant as the grave good.

Chalcolithic Culture:

The Pre Harappan cultures are the earliest Chalcolithic cultures of India, and they are found in the time before the beginning of the mature phase of the Harappan culture, and continued to exist in the later period.
Unlike the mature urban phase of the Harappan civilization, Chalcolithic cultures were pastoral and based on farming, generally rural in nature.
They used copper and stone blades and pottery and also low-grade iron in the later period.
Their settlements were sedentary or semi-sedentary.
In the north western and western regions of India, the early farming cultures are associated with the Chalcolithic cultures rather than the Neolithic cultures.
The Chalcolithic people also began to domesticate animals in addition to agriculture.
The houses were made of stone, mud bricks, mud and perishable wooden materials, and built on a stone foundation.
People used black and red ware and black on red ware pottery.
These sites have produced a large quantity of copper objects, such as flat axes, bangles, rings, knives, blades, socket-less axes, barbed and tanged arrowheads, choppers and chisels.

Ahar-Banas Culture:

A Chalcolithic archaeological culture on the banks of the Ahar River of southeastern Rajasthan.
Dated: from c. 3000 to 1500 BCE.
Contemporary and adjacent to the Indus Valley civilization.
Sustained on a number of crops, including wheat and barley.
More than 90 sites of the Ahar culture have been identified to date.
A number of sites with Ahar culture level are also found from Jawad, Mandsaur, Kayatha and Dangwada in Madhya Pradesh state.
Rajasthan: Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Dungarpur, Banswara, Ajmer, Tonk and Bhilwara districts.
Based on the pottery excavated here, this site is considered as a separate archaeological culture.
Ahar pottery is a Black-and-red ware (BRW) with linear and dotted designs painted on it in white pigment.

For more information:

Khooni Bhandara in Burhanpur added to UNESCO’s Tentative List

Context: Khooni Bhandara, built in the historic city of Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh, has been included in UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites.

Architecture of Khooni Bhandara:

It is an ingenious network of 103 well-like structures called Kundis (aqueducts). As the entire system was essentially based on the law of gravity, it ensured a smooth course of water from the first to the last Kundi.
The water recharging system devised for the canal is based on the principle of intercepting the run-off in the subsoil groundwater level through underground channels and collecting it in structures, partly underground and partly above ground, called ‘Bhandaras’.
An underground water management system which is built on Persian qanat approach, in 1615 CE. Out of eight sets of these subterraneous channels, six are still intact.
The groundwater is collected from the underground springs flowing from the adjacent Satpura hills towards the Tapti.
The water coming from the reservoirs: Mool-bhandara, Chintaharan, and Sookha bhandara, are collected at a common point to flow towards Khooni-bhandara from where it was transported to Jali Karanj or Jal bhandara.
Water stored here was then distributed through pipelines to the entire city.
Khooni bhandara provided water to the entire city for as long as 300 years before it collapsed in 1977.
The hint of red colour in this mineral rich water, gave it the name khooni (bloody).
It has been declared as a state protected structure by the State Directorate of Archaeology, Archives and Museums.

(Khandesh Sultanate 1526, with neighbouring polities)

History of Khooni Bhandara

Commencement of Mughal rule in late 16th century:
- Burhanpur became the centre of military activities and commerce as well as the base for the expansion of Mughals in South India.
- Abdul-Rahim Khan-i-Khana was the Governor of the Subah of Khandesh during the reign of Jahangir. His capital was Burhanpur.
- He planned to excavate an underground canal in the vicinity of Burhanpur, to augment the potable water supply of the city.
- The canal was constructed under the supervision of Tabaqat-al-Ardh or the Department of Earth (sciences), which looked after such constructions.
- A Persian geologist, Tabkutul Arz, was invited to investigate the valley in the Tapti plains. After the investigation, he devised a system.
  - This was based on the ancient water supply system that in Arabic is called Qanat (originated 3000 years ago in Persia).
- Qanat or Kariz system: It is built for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct.
Need of an underground water management system:
- Burhanpur was situated on the river banks of the Tapti and Utavali, but its banks were so high that it was difficult and expensive to service water to different parts of Burhanpur city.
- Huge Mughal armies camped here for a prolonged period and caravans engaged in transportation of goods often stopped here.
- Some alternative was urgently needed to overcome the problem of water shortage.
- Since the area also received a fair amount of rainfall, the real issue was to devise a system to effectively tap these sources for an adequate supply of clean water.

About history city of Burhanpur:

Situated: North Bank of Tapti River.

Pre-Mughal period:

Important town under the Rashtrakuta Dynasty from 753–982.
In 1388, Malik Nasir Khan (Faruqi dynasty Sultan of Khandesh), founded Burhanpur (named it after a medieval Sufi saint, Burhan-ud-Din).
Burhanpur became the capital of the Khandesh sultanate (1382-1601).
Miran Adil Khan II of Faruqi dynasty, built a citadel and a number of palaces in Burhanpur.
The city became a major centre for trade and textile production.

Under the Mughals:

Khandesh Sultanate was annexed by Akbar in 1601.
Burhanpur became the capital of Khandesh Subah.
It grew in importance because it was considered the gateway to south India.
Described in the Ain-i-Akbari (the chronicle of the rule of Akbar), by Abul Fazl, as a city of gardens, some of which boasted of sandalwood trees.
Burhanpur was the residence of Khandesh's Mughal governor, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana, during Akbar and Jahangir's rule.
He constructed a new water supply for the town, as well as several gardens.

Maratha conquest:

1705: Santaji Ghorpade attacked Khandesh (during the reign of Rajaram I), which forced the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to deploy more army in Khandesh.
1720s: the town was attacked by the Maratha Peshwa Bajirao during his expedition to Malwa and Delhi.
1750s: Maratha army under Sadashivrao Bhau, who defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad, took control of the town.
Downfall of the Maratha Empire: the town was given to Maratha Sardar Holkar, then Scindia, and finally in 1818, Burhanpur was handed over to the British by the Marathas.

Mughal Water Management works:

The Mughal era brought significant advances in water management due to the need to efficiently utilize scarce water resources in arid and semi-arid regions.
Qanat system: Played a crucial role in the use of groundwater.
A developed irrigation system was made possible by storing well water, surface water as well rain water.
Water from these sources was stored in tanks and then distributed across the vast agricultural lands through a large network of canals.
Some water-lifting devices were also used for utilising the stored water.
In the Doab and Haryana region, the role of canal irrigation became quite significant by the closing decades of the nineteenth century.

Water Management during Akbar’s Rule (reigned 1556-1605)

Hydraulic systems employed to control summer temperature, such as in Fatehpur Siri. Here, the Rahat/Rehat/Rehant system (sometimes called the Persian wheel) was used.
- The technology employed to raise water, had been used in India prior to Mughal rule.
- Thus, the achievement was an engineering feat of scale rather than innovative technology.
Innovation occurred in placing inhabitable water buildings within the two supply systems for raising water, creating buildings that were simultaneously pieces of machinery and social spaces.
‘Ain-i-Akbari’ mentioned that most of the province of Lahore was cultivated with the help of well-irrigation using technologies such as Arhat or Rahat/Saqiya (‘Persian wheel’) to lift water.
Around Agra, the ‘charas’, or the leather bucket lifted out of water by oxen, pulling rope thrown over a pulley was most common.
Dhenkli/Shadoof/Tula/lat/Latha, based on the level principle, was generally used wherever the water-level was close to the surface.
Most of the wells were ‘kachcha’, i.e., made without use of masonry.

Water Management during Shahjahan’s rule (reigned 1628-1658):

Proposed to advance nearly Rs.40,000 to cultivators in Khandesh and the Painghat portion of Berar for the purpose of erecting dams or bunds.
The old channel of the eastern Yamuna Canal was dug in the reign of Shahjahan. Shahjahan decided to re-open it from Khizrabad, to serve the new city of Shahjahanabad at Delhi. This was the famous ‘Nahr-I-Bihist’ or ‘Nahr-i-Faiz’ which irrigated a considerable area.
In Punjab, a small system of canals was brought into existence in the Upper Bari doab. The best known of these was the ‘Shahnahr’.
Taj Mahal originally had sophisticated waterworks to irrigate the garden and an elaborate water channel system was created in the Khan-i-Alam complex on the western side of Taj Mahal.
- The fountain pipes were not connected directly with the copper pipes feeding them, as this would have resulted in gradual decrease of volume and pressure of water.
- Instead, a copper pitcher was provided under each fountain pipe and the same was connected with the water supply line.
- The water first filled the pitcher and rose in the fountains simultaneously.
Excavations at Mehtab Bagh (Charbagh complex in Agra) supposed to have been constructed by Shah Jahan, brought to light a huge tank of octagonal shape.
- The digging of pits revealed that they were built of Lakhauri brick in lime mortar for installing a fountain shaft.
- Lakhauri brick: Red burnt-clay bricks, originating from the Indian subcontinent; became popular element of Mughal architecture during Shah Jahan.

Water Management during Aurangzeb’s rule (reigned 1658-1707):

The Bibi-ka-maqbara, built for Dilras Banu Begum, the wife of Aurangzeb, at Aurangabad also had a remarkable water management system.
There is a huge water tank on the south-east corner of the complex which is known as Hati Haud.
The water channels run on the enclosure walls from the Hati Haud and the water is distributed from the channels to various parts of the complex through terracotta pipes.

Lalit Kala Akademi

Context: The Ministry of Culture has curtailed the powers of Lalit Kala Akademi (LKA) Chairman, V Nagdas. The Chairman is now barred from taking any administrative actions which also includes matters of appointment, recruitment, transfer, disciplinary action and financial decisions without consulting the Ministry.

About Lalit Kala Akademi (Academy)/National Academy of Art

It was inaugurated in New Delhi on 5th August 1954 by the then Minister for Education, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
The objective was to promote fine arts/visual arts in India.
The Akademi also deals with the international arts.
It was registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860, in 1957.
It is an autonomous body and is funded by the Union Ministry of Culture.
Functions through General Council, Executive Board, and other Committees, as given in the Akademi’s Constitution.
The Chairman of the Akademi is appointed by the President of India. The term of office for the Chairman is three years, which can be extended.
Main Centre: New Delhi
Regional Centres: Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Shimla, Shillong and Bhubaneswar.
The National Art Award: One of the awards and honours in India and Asia, awarded by Lalit Kala Akademi.

Definition of Visual art

One of the constitutional objectives of the LKA in 1954 was to preserve and protect art forms of surviving indigenous and traditional craftsmen, painters, and sculptors.
However, the ‘Creative Arts’ as defined in the 1954 constitution are only paintings, sculpture, and graphics.
In 1978, the rules of participation of the Triennial stated that the art forms constantly referred to as ‘folk’, ‘tribal’, and ‘tradition’ would not be allowed as they are not in the ambit of the ‘contemporary’.
National Exhibition of Art (NEA):
- Most prestigious annual event organised by the LKA. During this event, the artists are awarded.

Triennale-India exhibitions

In 1968, the LKA started its programme aiming to enter the international art circuit with the Triennale-India exhibitions.
In these exhibitions, a host of countries were invited to participate in New Delhi at regular intervals of 3–4 years.
Triennale aimed not only at creating a meeting ground for artists from the global south but also for those of the industrially developed countries.

The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple

Context: The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple, Bhojpur, in Madhya Pradesh, has been included into UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites.

Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple

Introduction:

Situated: along the Betwa and Kaliasot Rivers, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Constructed: during the 11th century
Patronage of: Raja Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty
Dedicated to: Lord Shiva
Paramara dynasty:
- Reigned over the Malwa region and adjacent territories from the 9th to the 14th century.
- Raja Bhoj emerged as a celebrated monarch.
- He was renowned for his architectural treatise, the “Samaranganasutradhara”.
- Inscriptions and literary works attribute King Bhoj with an extensive temple building initiative, dedicated to various aspects of Shiva.
- However, the Bhojpur temple remains the sole surviving shrine definitively linked to Bhoja.
The temple has been designated as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Architectural features of the temple:

Architectural style reflects the evolution of temple design during the Paramara period.
Elements of the Bhumija style emerged in the 9th century and flourished until the 13th century.
Bhumija style is an evolved form of the Nagara temples.
The main structure and the shikhara in this style harmoniously blend influences from the Dravidian style of temple architecture.
The temple does not have a mandapa, which have led researchers to propose the hypothesis of it being a funerary monument.
The unfinished shikhara is decorated with small sub-shrines or kuta-stambhas and corner bands known as Lata.
The temple has a square plan and it is built on a raised plinth with ornate carvings and sculptures in its exterior.
In the centre, the garbhagriha is constructed which houses a massive lingam, carved from a single stone.
Projecting balconies are built on three sides of the temple.
The northern wall features a makara-pranala, which provided a drainage outlet for the liquid used to bathe the lingam.
The four brackets supporting the cornerstones feature four different divine couples: Shiva-Parvati, Brahma-Shakti, Rama-Sita, and Vishnu-Lakshmi.

About Paramara Dynasty (9th-14th Century):

Introduction:

Exerted dominion over Malwa and adjacent territories in west-central India.
Originated from the Parmara clan of Rajputs.
Initially served as vassals to the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta.
They rose to sovereign power around 972 CE when Siyaka, one of the rulers, sacked Manyakheta and established Paramaras as an independent authority.
Capital: Dhara (modern-day Dhar)
The dynasty faced repeated conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms such as the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Kalachuris of Tripuri, and the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti.
Due to the challenges, the capital was shifted to Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu).
Religion:
- Predominantly followers of the Shaivite tradition.
- Also supported Jain scholars

Rulers:

Earliest known king Siyaka:
- Harsola copper plate inscription (949 CE), mentions him as vassal to the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III.
- As a Rashtrakuta vassal, Siyaka engaged in military campaigns against the Pratiharas and Hunas.
- He secured victory over Krishna III's successor, Khottiga, in 972 CE.
Munja (Siyaka's successor):
- Munja attained victory over various neighbouring kingdoms, such as Chahamanas, Guhilas, Hunas, and Kalachuris.
- He was defeated by Western Chalukya king Tailapa II. This resulted in loss of southern territories to the Chalukyas.
Sindhuraja (Munja’s successor):
- He reclaimed the lost territories by defeating the Western Chalukya king Satyashraya.
- He expanded the dominion by defeating Shilaharas, Somvanshi, and rulers of Lata (now South Gujarat).
- His court poet, Padma Gupta, wrote his biography, Nava-Sahasanka- Charita.
King Bhoja (Sindhuraja’s son and successor):
- Reigned from 1010–1055 CE.
- The dynasty reached its zenith during his reign.
- Bhoja's inscriptions mention his titles as Parama Bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Parameshvara.
- Extended control from Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in the south, and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east.
- He founded the town of Bhojpur.

Cultural Contributions of King Bhoja:

Under his rule, Malwa and its capital Dhara became one of the chief intellectual centres of India.
Chintamani-Sarnika (1055 CE) was composed by his court poet Dasabala.
Besides the Bhojeshwar Temple, he also construction of three dams in Bhojpur.
- The first dam, built on Betwa River.
- A second dam was constructed in a gap between the hills.
- A third dam diverted more water from the smaller Kaliasot river.
Bhoja established the Bhoj Shala which was a centre for Sanskrit studies and a temple of Saraswati in Dhar.
Bhoja was renowned as a scholar king, and several books are attributed to him. He was an expert on poetry, and the treatise Shringara-Prakasha was authored by him.
Some of his surviving works in Sanskrit language:
- Bhujabala-bhima, a work on astrology
- Champu-Ramayana or Bhoja-Champu, a re-telling of the Ramayana in mixture of prose and poetry (champu genre)
- Govinda-vilasa, poem
- Raja-Martaṅda or Patanjali Yogasutra Bhashya, a major commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
- Raja Mriganka Karana, a treatise on chemistry, dealing with the extraction of metals from ores, and production of various drugs.
- Samarangana-Sutradhara, a treatise on architecture and iconography.
- Sarasvati-Kanthabharana, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar for poetic and rhetorical compositions.
- Tattva-Prakasha, a treatise on Shaivite philosophy.
- Vidvajjana-Vallabha, treatise on astronomy.
- Vyavahara-Manjari, a work on dharmasastra or Hindu law
- Yukti-Kalpataru, a work dealing with several topics including statecraft, politics, city-building etc.
His Prakrit language poems are: Kodanda-Kavya and Kurma-Sataka.
- The Kodanda-Kavya was found inscribed on stone slab fragments at Mandu.
- The Kurma-Sataka was found inscribed at the BhojShala in Dhar.

The Paramara Dynasty experienced a decline in their power, ultimately leading to the defeat and death of the final recorded ruler, Mahalakadeva, by the forces of Alauddin Khilji of Delhi in 1305 CE. However, despite this, inscriptions indicate that Paramara authority persisted for some time following Mahalakadeva's downfall.

Ugadi festival

Context: Pre-Ugadi festivities started with vibrant 'Jatharas' (fairs) at Sri Kanakamma Ammavaru Temple in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.

About Ugadi festival:

Ugadi/Yugadi, also known as Samvatsaradi (beginning of the year), is New Year's Day.
Celebrated in the states of: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Goa in India.
Locally known as Souramana Ugadi or Mesha Sankranti (by followers of Souramana calendar system) in Karnataka.
- Souramana, or the solar year, is a way of measuring time using the movement of the sun.
- Chandramana, or the lunar year, is a way of keeping track of the year with the moon's movement.
It is observed in these regions on the first day of the Hindu lunisolar calendar month of Chaitra (falling in late March or early April as per the Gregorian calendar).
Traditions and rituals:
- Drawing colourful patterns on the floor called Muggulu.
- Mango leaf decorations on doors called Torana.
- Preparing and sharing a special food called Pachadi.
It has been an historic festival of the Hindus, with medieval texts and inscriptions recording major charitable donations to Hindu temples on this day.
Ugadi is one of the five Hindu national public holidays in Mauritius.

Traditional News Year Festivals in India:

S.NO.	Festival	Information
1.	Puthandu	Tamil NaduFirst day of year on the Tamil calendarThe festival date is set with the solar cycle of the solar Hindu calendar. References about the festival: In Netunalvatai, by a Sangam period author, NakkirarSilappadikaram by Illango AdigalManimekalai by Seethalai Satanar
2.	Jude Sheetal/Maithili New Year	Bihar; JharkhandCelebrated by the Maithilis in Bihar, Jharkhand and even Nepal.
3.	Novruz	Novruz is the Iranian New YearIn India, it is celebrated by the Parsi community. In 2009, it was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
4.	Vishu	KeralaFestival starts with Vishu Kani: arranging harvest's fruits, vegetables and seasonal flowers in front of a mirror.Devotees visit Sabarimala Ayyappan Temple and Guruvayur Krishna temple for prayers.
5.	Navreh/Kashmiri New Year	Celebrated by Kashmiri PanditsDedicated to their Goddess Sharika. On the eve of the Navreh, the priest of the family provides a Nechipatra, a collection of the important events and a scroll, Kreel-Pach of the Goddess.
6.	Gudi Padwa/Marathi New Year	Maharashtra and parts of Goa.People hoist Gudi dhwaja (a decorated flag to symbolize victory) outside their homes.Some believe that the festival marks the victory of Shivaji over Mughal dominance in the Maharashtra region.
7.	Shigmo/Shishirotsava	By Konkani speaking communities in Goa and parts of Karnataka.Two variants: Dhakto Shigmo (small Shigmo) and Vhadlo Shigmo (big Shigmo).Dhakto Shigmo: celebrated by the farmers, labor class, and the rural population;VhadloShigmo: celebrated on a major scale and everyone takes part.
8.	Cheti Chand	Celebrated by the Sindhi community.Marks the arrival of spring and harvestIn the Sindhi community, it also marks the birth of Uderolal in 1007. He, as Jhulelal, became the saviour of the Sindhi Hindus.
9.	Losoong	Also known as NamsoongSikkimese New Year, also observed in Darjeeling (West Bengal)Communities: Lepchas and Bhutias.Several religious dances (known as Chaams) are performed mostly in the famous monasteries.
10.	Ashadhi Beej	Celebrated by the Kutchi community in GujaratAssociated with the beginning of rains in the Kutch region.
11.	Sajibu Cheiraoba/Nongma Panba	ManipurCelebrated by Meiteis, an ethnic group who follow Sanamahism (traditional Meitei religion).Observed on first day of Manipuri lunar month Shajibu (month of April every year)
12.	Pana Sankranti/Vishuva Sankranti	Celebrated in OdishaAn earthen pot is filled with a sweet drink which is known as Pana and hung over a Basil (Tulsi) tree.

Also read for information on Harvest festivals: https://compass.rauias.com/gk/harvest-festivals/

Qutb Shahi Monuments of Hyderabad

Context: Hexagon (a digital solutions company) has created a digital twin of the Qutb Shahi Tomb complex using drone scanners. A digital twin is a digital model of an object, system or a process that acts the same as its real-world counterpart.

Qutb Shahi Tombs

Qutb Shahi tomb complex form a mausoleum complex which forms a royal necropolis which comprises a tomb of Royal family and officials who faithfully served them and mortuary bath and mosques.
This complex consists of 30 tombs, mosques, and a mortuary bath.
Qutb Shahi tombs are in Ibrahim Bagh, close to the famous Golconda Fort in Hyderabad, India.
They contain tombs and mosques built by various kings of Qutb Shahi dynasty.
These tombs are present in a large group on a raised platform.
Architectural styles: They have an amalgamation of Persian, Muslim, and Hindu architectural styles.
They are made using grey granite with stucco ornamentation.
Each tomb is of quadrangular shape and rises around 9-15 meters above the terrace. Smaller tombs constitute single stories while larger tombs are two storied.
Each tomb is covered by beautiful minarets.
The most impressive tomb among the group is of Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah which rises to a height of 42 meters and is protected by a large dome.
The site has a series of stepwells and aqueducts which have been recently restored.

Qutb Shahi Dynasty (1518-1687 AD)

Qutb Shahi dynasty is a Persianate Shia Islamic dynasty ruling over the Golconda region in modern Telangana.
It was founded after the collapse of Bahmani kingdom by Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk Shahi.
This dynasty came to an end in 1687 during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and annexing Golconda into the Mughal empire.
Qutb Shahis was patrons Persianate Shia culture, Persian language. However, Telugu was also given an important place in the kingdom.
Economy of Qutb Shahi Dynasty:
- They had control over the rich fertile deltas of Krishna and Godavari from where land revenue was collected.
- Handicrafts and textiles such as calico cloth, cotton weaving etc.
- The region was famous for its diamonds especially those produced at Kollur mine in Guntur district.

The Gond monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla

Context: The Gond Monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla, in Madhya Pradesh, has been recently added to the UNESCO’s Tentative list of World Heritage Sites.

Introduction:

Mandla region was formerly known as the Central Provinces of India, covering parts of the present-day states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
It was historically called Gondwana, ‘the Land of the Gonds’, the largest heterogenous tribe of India.
Four major kingdoms ruled over the region, the most important being the Garha-Mandla kingdom.
In 1651, when the Bundelas finally captured Chauragarh, during Hriday Shah’s reign,
He shifted the capital from Chauragarh to Ramnagar (1657 A.D).
- On the southern bank of the Narmada River in Ramnagar and the Chaugan Rayotwari, the architectural complexes built by Hridya Shah still stand today.
- The royal palace, Moti Mahal, indicates the new seat of government in the late 17^th century.
- Mughal and Rajput influences are evident in the architectural elements of these buildings.
  - Stone lattice screens show the influence of Mughal architecture.
  - Decorative stone parapets, chattris, bangaldar roofs, multi-foil arches in the exterior facade are characteristic Rajput features.
- The geographical features of the site further indicate the planning principles adopted with respect to defence mechanisms with the surrounding landscape of the dense forests on the banks of the Narmada River.
- None of the monuments have excessive ornamentation since they were not intended as castles displaying artistic capacity or opulence.

Cluster of monuments include:

Moti Mahal, Ramnagar
Raibhagat ki Kothi, Ramnagar
Vishnu Mandir (Suraj mandir), Ramnagar
Begum Mahal, Chaugan Rayotwari, Mandla
Dal Badal Mahal, Chaugan Ryotwari, Mandla

About Moti Mahal

Situated near the Narmada River bank.
Declared as a state protected monument since 1984.
Moti Mahal, is built in a quadrangle shape and has a central courtyard.
Arched colonnades (an evenly spaced row of columns usually supporting the base of roof structures) separate the halls, durbar hall, and dancing hall.
The monument also has a basement with a network of tunnels and passages.
It also has an elaborate drainage system, which is connected to the Narmada.
A stone inscription, believed to be inscribed in 1667 A.D., is also found (which was previously in the Vishnu temple).
- It is considered one of the most important historical sources recording the genealogy of the Gond rulers of Garha Mandla.
- It places the origin of the family in the beginning of the 7th century and describes the chronological reign of 54 Gond rulers.

Raibhagat ki Kothi

It is also known as Mantri Mahal.
Also, it has been declared a state protected monument since 1984.
The residence was built by Hriday Shah for his Dewan, Rai Baghat.
Monument appears more symmetric with the central courtyard and the four domes on each corner.
Entrance of the monument has an ornate painted ceiling.

Vishnu Mandir (also known as Suraj mandir)

The temple resembles a Mughal tomb or a Bengali Pancha Ratna style temple.
The temple was built by Rani Sundari. She was the wife of Hriday Shah.
The inscription stone housed in the Moti Mahal was originally in the Vishnu temple.
The structure is built in a square plan.
A square room in the middle is covered by a dome.
As per the sources, there were idols of Shiva, Ganesha, Surya and Durga, but none of them have remained.
Declared a state protected monument since 1984.

Begum Mahal

It is a centrally protected Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) monument.
The structure was built by King Hriday Shah for Chimni Rani, a Mughal princess.
It is a three-storey tall structure with visible Mughal features in its architecture.
Upper level of the structure has domed rooms and a central room with a vaulted roof.
Exterior of the palace features a water body and on either side of it are stairs that descend down towards the water body.

Dalbadal (Sporting Palace)

It is a centrally protected Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) monument.
It is a rectangular structure built by King Hriday Shah for his generals and soldiers.

Garha/Mandla/Katanga Kingdom (1300 AD to 1789 AD)

Introduction:

First large kingdom to be founded by the Gond tribe.
Dominated much of Central India at its peak.

About the kingdom:

First Gond king: Jadurai, who became the ruler after deposing the Kalachuri Rajputs of Garha-Mandla, where earlier he worked in court.
The kingdom was initially a small territory focussing more on consolidation.
Sukhandas (1480–1500): Included Rajputs in his army and administration.
Akbarnama (history of Akbar's reign), written by Abul Fazl, mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha katanga that had 70,000 villages:
- Abul Fazl mentioned that “the east part of the country adjoins Ratanpur which belongs to Jharkhand, and the west is contiguous to Raisen which belongs to the province of Malwa”.
- The kingdom acquired its medieval name from the city of Gadha and the village of Katanga.

Sangram Shah (the 48^th king):

Capital: Singhorgarh.
Rapidly expanded the kingdom.
Successfully captured territories like Narmada Valley, Bhopal, Sagar, Damoh and most of the Satpura hills.
Conquered 52 forts called Garhs to strengthen and consolidate his hold on territory.
The Chouragrh Fort in Narsinghpur was built in the honour of conquering 52 forts.
He was a great patron of arts and literature and he had great knowledge of Sanskrit. He wrote Rasratnamala.
Dalpat Shah, succeeded Sangram Shah and was married to Rani Durgavati (a Chandela Rajput Princess).

Rani Durgavati (reigned from 1550-1564):

Capital was moved to Chouragarh because it was safer than Singorgarh fort.
After her husband’s death, two ministers, Man Thakur and Adhar Kayastha, helped her assume the throne and leadership of the Gond dynasty.
She defeated Baz Bahadur, the last sultan of Malwa, who tried to invade Garha kingdom.
She constructed reservoirs to help farmers. Example: Ranital reservoir built close to Jabalpur; Cherital; and Adhartal, which was built by Adhar Kayastha.
Battle against the Mughals:
- Emperor Akbar sent his forces led by Asaf Khan I to capture Garha in 1564.
- Rani Durgavati fiercely resisted in the Battle of Narrai (1564), however, after facing defeat, she killed herself.
The kingdom was ruled for some years by the Mughals and later was restored to Chandra Shah (son of Sangram Shah).
Chandra Shah was recognised as a successor to Rani Durgavati by Akbar on accepting Mughal suzerainty.
Chandra Shah was succeeded by Madhukar Shah and Prem Narain.
Hriday Shah (last great king of the Kingdom), who ruled for 42 years, maintained friendly relations with the Mughals. He moved the capital from Chouragarh to Ramnagar of Mandla district.
Administration:
- It became centralized.
- Kingdom was divided into Garh and each Garh was controlled by a particular Gond clan.
- The Gond clan was further divided into units of 84 villages called Chourasi.
- Chourasi was further subdivided into Barhots, which were made up of 12 villages each.

Decline of the Kingdom:

After Hriday Shah’s death, no great ruler appeared and court intrigue became common which weakened the state.
Gond rajas of Deogadh, took advantage of the kingdom's weakness and annexed a large part of its territories.
By the time of Maharaj Shah (1732–1742), the kingdom held only 29 out of the initial 52 forts.
In 1742, Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao along with the rule of Sagar Marathas attacked Garha-Mandla and killed the ruler, Maharaj Shah.
Shivraj Singh (son of Maharaja Shah) paid an annual tribute of 4 lakhs to the Marathas.
Garha-Mandla became a dependent state of the Sagar Marathas.
In 1799 Mandla fell to the Bhonsles of Nagpur and remained under them till in 1818, when the British took over and assumed the rule also over Mandla. (after the Third Anglo Maratha war).

History Ensemble of Dhamnar

Context: Recently, six sites from Madhya Pradesh have been added to the Tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

These sites are:

Historic Ensemble of Dhamnar
Khooni Bhandara, Burhanpur
Rock Art Sites of the Chambal Valley
Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple, Bhojpura
Gond monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla
Gwalior Fort

Difference between a World Heritage Site and Tentative list

A World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by UNESCO for its special cultural or physical significance.
The list of World Heritage Sites is maintained by the international ‘World Heritage Programme’, administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee.
To get its heritage site considered for inscription on the World Heritage List, the country makes an inventory of important natural and cultural heritage sites located within its boundaries.
This ‘inventory’ is known as the Tentative List.
Making it to the tentative list thus is the first step for any site which seeks final nomination for becoming a World Heritage site.

(Picture: Dhamnar Caves site)

About Historic Ensemble of Dhamnar:

Location: Mandsaur district (formerly Dasapura), Madhya Pradesh.
Modern Account of the site:
- Earliest reference to these monuments comes from James Tod who visited in 1821.
- James Furgusson visited the site in 1845 and Alexander Cunningham visited the site between 1864-1865.
- Dating of the caves is difficult due to absence of inscriptions, therefore, these monuments can be dated to the 7^th century CE on the basis of few similarities with caves at other sites, such as Ajanta and Ellora.
- The name ‘Dhamnar’ is not known from any historical or literary sources.
- Buddhist establishment here was known as Chandananagari-mahavihara as evidenced by a clay seal discovered by Historian A.H. Khan.
  - Scholar K.C Jain opined that the present name Dhamnar is a derived from the Shaivite epithet ‘Dharmanatha’
  - Dharmanath: Name of the Linga setup in the rock-cut Vaishnava temple during the medieval period.

About Dhamnar Caves:

Series of 51 rock-cut caves, stupas, chaityas, passages and compact dwellings. These caves were cut out from a hill of coarse laterite stone.
These monolithic spaces were further carved to form grand doors with carvings, columns, and religious sculptural symbols.
Built around 1123 years ago: 5^th, 6^th and 7^th century CE (7^thcentury CE was the second wave of cave construction in India).
These caves contain structures belonging to: Buddhism (both Hinayana and Mahayana) and Hinduism (presence of the Dharmarajeshwara/Dharmanatha temple).
Secluded spaces for monks, also known as Viharas are found. These are fairly simple volumes with a lack of ornamentation.
Representation of Buddha by motifs and sculptures as a form of religious symbolic art.
Some caves found with no iconic ornamentation indicate that these possibly belong to the Hinayana Sect of Buddhism.
Archaeological Survey of India, restored the structures here, as the porous laterite rocks which got weathered over the centuries, destabilised and weakened the structures.

(Picture: Seated Buddha, Cave No.11)

Some special features:

Rani ka Makan/Kamaniya Mahal cave (Cave no. 10)
Bhim Bazar Chaitya (Cave no. 11):
- Most extensive of all the excavations.
- Stupa: Buddha is sculpted in seated posture.
- Stupa with three-tier chhatravali and circumambulatory passage.
Chota Bazar/Child’s cave (Cave no. 13):
- Chaitya-griha
- Nirvana image of Buddha depicted on the east wall.
- Depiction of Buddha, as seated upon a throne, in the teaching attitude.
- Buddha is known to locals as Bhima.
- Principal shrine with Pradakshinapath (circumambulation).
  - On the back wall of the shrine, are five images, three seated and two standing.
  - Three seated figures are known by locals as: Pandu with his two sons, Arjuna and Nakula.
Bari Kacheri/Big courthouse (Cave no. 6): includes stupas and chaityas; stone railing with the wooden architecture.
Hathi-ka-mekh/Elephant’s stable/Hathi-bandhi (Cave No 12): simple chaitya cave where the stupa is placed to support the roof.

(Picture: Dharmanatha Temple)

About Dharmanatha Temple at the site:

The temple is situated north of Cave No. 12 of the Buddhist cave group.
Rock-cut temple is excavated in a rectangular pit within the hill.
The courtyard can also be accessed from the top of the hill by the rock-cut stairs provided.
The sculpture on the south is that of Bhairava and on the north is of Kali. The latter carries an inscription dating to the 8^th-9^th century CE.
Garbha-griha, Antarala, Mandapa and Mukha-mandapa.
It is surrounded by seven subsidiary shrines.
- Thus, the temple falls under the sapta-parivara (family of seven) category, that is generally seen in Southern India for Shiva temples.
- Among the seven subsidiary shrines, the ones located in the corners are with Latina-Nagara shikhara.
- The ones opposite the garbha-griha are of the Phamsana shikhara.
The temple is known as Chaturbhuj temple by the locals due to the image of a four-arm Sheshasayi-Vishnu installed inside the Garbha-girha. Vishnu is holding Shankha, Chakra and a Lotus flower.
Main temple is Pancharatha:
- Consisting of one bhadra, two prati-ratha, and two karna projections.
- Prati-ratha is decorated with ‘ghata-pallava’ motif.
- The vertical elevation has shikhara.
- The shikhara is Latina style of the Nagara type, consisting of six bhumis (tiers) marked by bhumi-amalakas at the Karna.
Inside the garbha-griha is a Shivalinga known as Dharmanatha.
The southern shrine has a panel depicting dancing Shiva surrounded by four Matrakas. On the right of Shiva are Maheshwari and Vaishvani while on his left are Indrani and Brahmi.
An interesting feature is the omission of Buddha who is replaced by a figure of Vishnu instead.
There is an inscription and its palaeography helped in dating the temple to the latter half of the 9^th century CE.

Historical Evidences of Ayodhya Ram Temple

Context: The Ram Temple at Ayodhya was formally inaugurated on 22nd January 2024. This was a after large scale social movement leading to the demolition of Babri Mosque at the disputed site on 6th December 1992. Following the demolition there was a long legal battle to ascertain the claims of the various groups on the disputed site. The judgement came in the favour of Hindu groups and the site was handed over to build a temple to commemorate the Ram Temple. The judgement emphasised on the following historical sources to ascertain the presence of Ram Temple and the tradition of worship of Ram at the site.

Babri mosque was built in 1528 AD on the instructions of Mughal Emperor Babur by Mir Baqi, who was the commander of Babur’s forces. However, a section of historians also say that the Babri Mosque was constructed by Aurangzeb.

Historical Sources quoted by Ayodhya Judgement

1. Janma Sakhies of Sikhism: Various Janma Sakhies have recorded the description of visit of Guru Nanak Devji to Ayodhya, where he had darshan of birthplace of Lord Ram. The accounts presented in the Janmasakhis depicts that pilgrim visited Ayodhya even before 1528 AD (when Babur is claimed to constructed the Babri Mosque).

Janma Sakhies are legendary biographies of Guru Nanak (1469-1539), founder of Sikhism. These are hagiographical accounts of the life of Guru Nanak written after the death of Guru Nanak, particularly noting the miracles and travels known as Udasis pursued by Guru Nanak.
Largest of the JanmaSakhis is known as Guru Nanak Prakash, written by Kavi Santokh Singh.

2. Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl: Ain-i-Akbari has section on Ramavatara or Ram-incarnation and Ayodhya. Ayodhya is noted as one of the largest cities of India and as one of the holiest cities. Around the city, earth was filtered for gold.

3. Account of William Finch: William Finch arrived in India in August 1608 at Surat with Captain Hawkins. He was an English Merchant in the service of East India Company. He travelled along with Captain Hawkins during the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar and Jehangir. He explored various Indian cities like Delhi, Ambala, Sultanpur, Ayodhya and Lahore.

His account is preserved in a book edited by William Foster called ‘Early Travels in India (1583-1619)’ which has accounts by Ralph Fitch, John Mildenhall, William Hawkins, William Finch, Nicholas Withington, Thomas Coriyat and Edward Terry.

William Finch arrived in India in 1608 at Surat with Captain Hawkins.
He visited Ayodhya between 1608-11. He did not find any building of Islamic origin in Ayodhya.
He noted the mount known as Ramkot or fort of Lord Rama.

4. Account of Niccolao Manucci: Manucci was Italian traveller who visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Manucci is famous for his account of his travels in Mughal India which is known as ‘Storia do Mogor’. Storia do Mogor presents a first-hand account of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb, Shivaji, Dara Shikoh, Shah Alam I and Jai Singh I. He also provides a detailed account of folk beliefs and customs of the period. Manucci has listed the chief temples destroyed by Auranbzeb. Some of them are:

(a) Maisa (Mayapur)

(b) Matura (Mathura)

(d) Hajudia (Ajudhya)

5. Account of Joseph Tieffenthaler: Tieffenthaler was a Jesuit Missionary who visited India in 1740 (three decades after the death of Aurangzeb). His travel account is known as ‘Description Historiqueet Geographique Del’inde’ written in Latin. Tieffenthaler was reportedly proficient in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.

Tieffenthaler visited Ayodhya which is described in the text. He gives the following account:

Refers to Ayodhya as Adjudea.
Contains a reference to the belief of Hindus that Lord Rama is the human incarnation of Lord Vishnu (Described as Beschan in the account). Lord Rama was born at the site, the symbol it being the ‘Bedi’ or ‘cradle’.
Presence of Sita Rasoi which is a table like place worshipped as the kitchen of Sita.
Emperor Aurangzeb demolished the fortress called Ramcot and got a Muslim Mosque with triple domes, constructed at the same place.
Contains a reference to the use of fourteen black stone pillars which had existed at the site of erstwhile fortress.
His noted that despite the demolition by Aurangzeb there still existed a cult that continues to worship at the site and of large gatherings to mark and celebrate the birthday of Lord Rama.

6. Account of Robert Montgomery Martin: Montgomery Martin was an Anglo-Irish author and civil servant. He authored his account of 10 years of stay in medical practice in Shillong and working as a journalist in Calcutta where he established the ‘Bengal Herald’ newspaper. He wrote the ‘History, Antiquities, Topography and Statistics of Eastern India’ in three volumes based on his stay in India during the 1840s. He was one of the founding members of East India Association which was a London based organisation (1866) for raising matters concerning India with membership from Indians and retired British officials. (Note: Dadabhai Naoroji was the founder of East India Association).

He infers that the mosque was built by Mughal Emperor Babur and was the most modern in architecture.
However, Martin notes the destruction of Hindu places of worship by Aurangzeb.
He also noted the presence of pillars in the Mosque made of black stones.

7. Edward Thornton’s Gazetteer: Edward Thornton authored ‘Gazetteer of territories under the Government of East India Company and the Native States on the Continent of India’.

Mehrauli

Context: Mehrauli city in Delhi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was recently revamped for the G-20 summit.

About Mehrauli City:

Introduction:

Mehrauli is one of the seven medieval cities that make up the present union territory of Delhi apart from Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Deenpanah and Shahjahanabad.
The Lal Kot fort was constructed by the Tomar chief Anangpal I around 731 AD and expanded by AnangPal II in the 11th century,who shifted his capital to Lal Kot from Kannauj.
The Tomars were defeated by the Chauhans in the 12th century.
Prithviraj Chauhan further expanded the fort, which is now Qila Rai Pithora. He was defeated and killed in 1192 by Mohammed Ghori, who put his general Qutb-ud-din Aybak in charge and returned to Afghanistan.
In 1206, after the death of Mohammed Ghori, Qutubuddin enthroned himself as the first Sultan of Delhi.
Thus, Delhi became the capital of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi (Slave dynasty), the first dynasty of Muslim sultans to rule over northern India.
Mehrauli remained the capital of the Mamluk dynasty which ruled until 1290.
During the Khilji dynasty, the capital shifted to Siri.
In 12th-century Jain scriptures, the location is also mentioned as Yogninipura, now noticeable by the presence of the ‘Yogmaya Temple’, near the Qutub Minar complex.
It was also the execution place of Banda Singh Bahadur after he sacked the regional Mughal capital of Samana.

Various historical structure in Mehrauli:

There are a number of tombs of prominent people from the Sultanate (1206 to 1506) and Mughal (1506 to 1857) era. These tombs are usually placed near the dargahs of saints.
- Tombs of the later Mughals are near the dargah of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Mehrauli or Humayun’s tomb near Nizamuddin Auliya’s dargah.
16th Century tomb of Adham Khan and his mother, Maham Anga:
- Reminder of Akbar’s wrath on Adham for murdering his general and prime minister Atgah Khan.
- Built in an octagonal shape with low towers at corners.
- Consists of Lodhi-style domed octagonal chambers with ‘Verandahs’ on each side.
Zafar Mahal or Lal Mahal built in red sandstone:
- Zafar Mahal was the summer palace of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
- The building has two components namely, the Mahal, which was built first by Akbar Shah II in the 18th century, and the entrance gate that was reconstructed in the 19th century by last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
- Bahadur Shah Zafar II, wished to be buried in the precincts of the Zafar Mahal. However, after the first war of Independence (1857), he was deported by Major William Hudson in 1858 to Rangoon (Burma/Myanmar), where he died of old age.
- This palace is also known for the Phoolwalon Ki Sair pass. This festival was started in 1812 by Akbar Shah II’s wife Mumtaz Mahal, after her son Mirza Jahangir was exiled to Allahabad by the British Resident Sir Archibald Seton.

Jamali Kamali tomb and mosque contain the tombs of Sufi saint Jamali or Shaikh Fazlu’llah and his disciple. Jamali was a well-known court poet who enjoyed the patronage of the Lodhi dynasty and that of Babur and Humayun as well.
Tombs of Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87) and his son, Shahid Khan:
- Shahid had died fighting against the Mongols near Multan during Balban’s reign.
- Balban of Mamluk dynasty is remembered for taking strong steps to control dacoity and robbery on Delhi roads in the 13th Century.
- Balban’s tomb is housed in the building Dar-ul Amaan (Haven of Safety) and as the name suggests, it served as a haven from debt collectors.
- It is the first site where the true arch and dome, a prominent feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, introduced by the Turks, made its appearance.
A baoli or stepwell known as Rajon Ki Baoli:
- It was constructed in 1506 during Sikandar Lodhi's reign.
- It was used to store water.
- It was commissioned by Daulat Khan in 1506 CE, an administrator of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
- The enclosure of Rajon Ki Baoli includes a mosque and a tomb.
- The name Rajon Ki Baoli is derived from the 'Rajbirs' or 'Mistris', the term used for masons.
- A courtyard surrounded by a verandah with many beautiful pillars and the arches in the verandah are made in the typical north Indian fashion of that time.
Qutb Complex, close to the North-West of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque:
- Tomb of Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 CE):
  - Built by Iltutmish himself in 1235, a year before his death.
  - Made in white marble, surrounded by carved arched entrances on the three sides.

Namda art of Jammu and Kashmir

Context: The first batch of Namda Art products for export to the United Kingdom was flagged off. Namda is a hand-embroidered rug made with sheep wool that reflects the rich culture and history of Kashmir Valley. Namda craft is under the process to get a Geographical Indication tag.

About Namda Craft

It represents the traditional craftsmanship of Kashmir, focusing on the creation of rugs primarily crafted from pure sheep wool.
Diverging from conventional rug-making methods, this craft employs the felting technique instead of the typical weaving process, eliminating any involvement of traditional weaving.
The term ‘Namda’ refers to an additional layer crafted above a standard rug, utilizing old blankets in its construction. This versatile craft is designed to suit various climates.
This artistic tradition is thought to have originated in the 11th century, attributed to the inventive Nomadic tribes of the Central Asian steppes.
The art form gained popularity in India during the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
- As per the historical records, Akbar’s exchequer named Nubi personally crafted a felt for Akbar’s horse and adorned it with beautiful designs through embroidery.
- This exquisite creation earned the name Namda in honour of its skilled manufacturer, Nubi.
Artisans specializing in Namda can be found across India, particularly in regions like Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
- The craft is predominantly practiced by the Pinjara and Mansuri communities, who are Sama Muslims native to Kutch.

How is Namda made?

The intricate process involves multiple stages, including carding, border creation, layer formation, soap solution application, rolling, drying, and the meticulous Aari work.

Involves carding the wool, a process dedicated to removing impurities and refining the material.
Application of soap solution to wash the wool. Application of water to wool gives binding, enhancing the durability and longevity of the Namda.
Namda undergoes rolling/pressuring using a tool called Pinjra and drying. In
Weaver then attaches the border pattern to the wool to give the foundation.
Next comes, initiation of the primary layer, and adding of the colour and pattern of the Namda.
Aari work: This stage involves intricate embroidery that imparts a delicate form to the Namda.

Designing:

Border (Hashi): Borders play a pivotal role in defining the central layout, preventing the Namda from resembling mere fabric.
Double Khatamband: Interplay of octagons and squares.
Taldaar: Derived from the Kashmiri word ‘Tal,’ meaning 'ceiling,' this motif mirrors the craftsmanship found in ceilings.
Gul-i-akhtab: Reflecting its name, which translates to ‘flower of the sun,’ this Namda motif draws inspiration from the sunflower.

About Namda Project:

Namda Project, an industry-based training program, was introduced in 2021.
Namda craft is a rug made of sheep wool through a felting technique instead of the normal weaving process.
It is being successfully revived under a Skill India’s Pilot Project as part of the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY), with nearly 2,200 candidates from across six districts of the state, receiving training in the dying art form.

Need of the project:

Unavailability of adequate raw materials;
Dearth of skilled craftsmen;
Infiltration of machine-made carpets;
Adulteration and inadequate marketing strategies declined the export by almost 100 per cent and brought the heritage craft to the brink of extinction.

Bhojshala Complex

Context: The Madhya Pradesh High Court directed the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to conduct a scientific survey of the Bhojshala Temple-Kamal Maula Mosque complex.

About Bhojshala

Located in: Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh
Established in: 1034 AD
Built by: Raja Bhoj of Parmar Dynasty (1000–1055 AD)
Key features of the temple: It was the University in which the statue of Vagdevi ( Mata Saraswati) was installed.
- Bhojshala was first attacked by Alauddin Khilji in 1305 AD.
- In 1514 AD, Mehmudshah Khilji II attacked Bhojshala and tried to convert it into dargah. He encroached land outside Saraswati Temple and built ‘Kamal Moulana’ Makbara.
- In 1952, the Central Government gave up Bhojshala to the Archaeological Survey of India.

Architecture of the complex:
- It has a large open courtyard around which there is a verandah decorated with pillars and a prayer hall is located behind it in the west.
- The carved pillars and the exquisitely carved ceiling of the prayer hall were from Bhojshal.
Inscriptions: In the rocks of complex , two hymns written in Prakrit language of the Karmavatar or crocodile incarnation of Vishnu are engraved.
- Two Sarpabandha pillar inscriptions, one containing the Sanskrit alphabet and the main endings of nouns and verbs and the other containing the individual declensions of the ten tenses and moods of Sanskrit grammar. These inscriptions belong to the 11th-12th century.
- Two Sanskrit texts are engraved in Anustubha verse.
- In one of these, Raja Bhoj's successors Udayaditya and Narvarman have been praised.
- In the second, it is told that these pillars were installed by Udayaditya.