The Hindu

Ocean Model affirms Fukushima Wastewater release is Safe

Context: A recent simulation study by Japanese researchers using an ocean circulation model has affirmed that Fukushima wastewater release is safe.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key idea about Nuclear contamination; Key facts about Tritium.

Japan releases wastewater from Fukushima Nuclear Plant

An earthquake followed by a tsunami in 2011 wrecked the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan, destroying its cooling system and causing reactor cores to overheat and contaminate water within the facility with highly radioactive material.
Since the disaster, power plant company TEPCO has been pumping in water to cool down the damaged reactors' fuel rods. Every day the plants produce contaminated water which is stored in around 1,000 tanks, which are already filled to 98% of their 1.37 million-ton capacity.
This water has been treated to remove most radioactive contaminants but still contains tritium (a radioactive isotope of hydrogen) and Carbon-14 which are difficult to separate from water.
In 2021, Japan’s government announced plans to release over one million tonnes of contaminated water from the Fukushima nuclear plant into the Pacific ocean over the next 30 years.

Rationale to release wastewater

There is a lack of available space for additional storage tanks, as well as due to safety risks and expense of managing the accumulating water.
Japan states that the water has been treated and diluted before releasing it into the ocean. The water contains about 190 becquerels of tritium per litre, below the World Health Organisation drinking water limit of 10,000 becquerels per litre (Bq/L). (Becquerel is a unit of radioactivity).

Associated Concerns:

The release has raised concerns among China and South Korea, as well as environmental and anti-nuclear groups regarding its potential impact on public health (increase the risk of cancer), seafood and marine environment.

Waste water released into the ocean off Fukushima will not be contained to waters surrounding Japan. It will be carried by ocean currents, particularly the cross-Pacific Kuroshio current, to other parts of the world.
Marine animals that migrate great distances, phytoplankton (free-floating organisms) and microplastics can all act as Trojan horses to spread radionucleotides far away.

Findings of the latest Research by Japanese Researchers:

Low radiation levels: As the nuclear facility is releasing tritiated water gradually, the Tritium levels (radiation level) is even lower than that due to natural and historical sources. The peaks from the routine discharge never exceed 0.002 Bq/L, which is 25x (25 times) lower than natural background radiation levels.
Impact of Warming: Warmer oceans might shift the Kuroshio Current a little North and strengthen eastward flow, speeding up tritium dispersion in the mid-Pacific. However, Tritium concentrations will still remain three orders of magnitude below detection threshold.

Since, Tritium has a half life of around 12 years, natural decay reduces long-term risk. Even under extreme warming or a worst-case eddy transport scenario, the levels of the Tritium would remain undetectable across the wider Pacific Ocean by 2099.

About Tritium:

Tritium is a radioactive isotope of Hydrogen with a half-life of about 12 years. Hydrogen has three isotopes:
- Protium- one proton and zero neutron
- Deuterium - one proton and one neutron
- Tritium - one proton and two neutrons
Occurrence: Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare on Earth. The atmosphere has only trace amounts, formed by the interaction of Nitrogen with cosmic rays. It can be produced artificially as a low-abundance byproduct in nuclear reactors.
Uses:
- Energy source in radioluminescent lights for watches, gun sights, numerous instruments and tools.
- Radioactive tracer in a medical and scientific setting.
- Nuclear fusion fuel, along with more abundant deuterium, in tokamak reactors and hydrogen bombs.
Concerns: Tritium is easily absorbed by the bodies of living creatures and rapidly distributed via blood.

National Cooperative Policy 2025

Context: The Central Government has unveiled the National Cooperative Policy 2025. The government has urged States to announce their own cooperative policies by January 31, 2026, in alignment with the National Cooperative Policy.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: National Cooperative Policy 2025; Cooperatives: Benefits and Challenges.

What are Cooperatives?

A cooperative is a voluntary association of individuals with common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations, who come together to pool resources for mutual benefit. It functions on democratic principles and emphasises collective ownership, shared profits, and participatory decision-making.
The 97th Constitutional Amendment (2011) gave constitutional recognition to cooperatives, adding Part IXB to the Constitution and inserting the term "Cooperatives" in Article 19(1)(c).
Types of Cooperatives: Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS); Dairy cooperatives, Fisheries cooperatives, Urban Cooperative Banks, etc.
There are over 8.6 lakh registered cooperative societies in India covering 30 crore members, covering 99% of villages and 71% of rural households.

Benefits of Cooperatives:

Economic Inclusion: Help small farmers, artisans, and rural entrepreneurs access markets and finance.
Job Creation and Democratic Empowerment: Ensure grassroots participation in economic activities. With over 30 crore members, cooperatives remain a key socio-economic driver, especially in rural India.
Rural Development: Cooperatives enable rural credit, dairy, storage, and agro-processing.

Challenges (As per Shivaji Rao Patil Committee):

Lack of participatory character: Free rider problem where inactive members benefit without contribution. Dominated by elite members and politicians.
Restricted Coverage and Role:
- Equity infusion by the government enables the government to appoint board of directors leading to poor autonomy.
- State Cooperative Acts allow postponing elections and superseding boards.
Regional Skew: Cooperatives are successful only in a few states like Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra. Limited to single-purpose societies like PACs, reducing viability.
Governance related issues: Poor regulation by Registrar of Cooperative Societies. Prevalence of Financial fraud, corruption etc.
Lack of adequate capital as cooperatives cannot raise money from capital markets. Poor use of technology and lack of professional management.

Government Initiatives for Cooperative Sector:

Creation of Ministry of Cooperation (2021) to streamline cooperative growth, policymaking, and digitisation.
Computerisation of PACs.
Income tax relief: Reduction in MAT from 18% to 15% in Union Budget 2023-24.
National Cooperative Database launched to create a real-time, unified registry of all cooperative societies.
Banking Regulation (Amendment) Act, 2020 to strengthen regulation of urban cooperative banks.
Cooperatives as buyers on GeM portal (Government e-Marketplace).

National Cooperative Policy 2025:

Vision: To contribute to India’s collective ambition of becoming ‘Viksit' by 2047 through sustainable cooperative development.
Mission:
- To create an enabling legal, economic, and institutional framework that will strengthen and deepen cooperative movement at grassroots level.
- To facilitate transformation of cooperative enterprises into professionally managed, transparent, technology-enabled, vibrant, and responsive economic entities.
Need for a New Policy: The last cooperative policy was framed in 2002 which was outdated due to the radical shifts brought on by globalisation, digitisation, and socio-economic transformation.

Key Highlights of National Cooperative Policy 2025:

Legislative and Institutional Reforms

Encourage States to amend cooperative laws (Cooperative Societies Acts and Rules) to enhance transparency, autonomy and ease of doing business.
Promote digitalisation of registrar offices and real-time cooperative databases.
Revive sick cooperatives with institutional mechanisms.

Financial Empowerment

Preserve and promote the three-tier Primary Agriculture Credit Societies (PACS) - District Central Cooperative Bank - State Cooperative Bank credit structure.
Promote cooperative banks and umbrella organisations (like National Urban Cooperative Finance & Development Corporation).
Enable cooperative banks to handle government businesses.

Business Ecosystem Development:

Model cooperative villages with multipurpose PACS as growth engines.
Encouraging States/UTs to develop at least one model cooperative village.
Develop rural economic clusters (E.g., honey, spices, tea).

Future-Readiness & Technology:

Develop a national ‘Cooperative Stack’ integrating with Agri-stack and databases.
Promote Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) and Government e-marketplace (GeM) platform integration.
Encourage research and innovation through cooperative incubators and Centres of Excellence.

Inclusivity Measures:

Active participation of youth, women, SC/STs, and differently-abled in cooperatives.
Model bye-laws for gender representation and transparent governance.

Sectoral Diversification:

Promote cooperatives in new and emerging sectors such as:

Renewable energy,
Waste management,
Health and education,
Mobile-based aggregator services (E.g., for plumbers, taxi drivers),
Organic and natural farming,
Biogas and ethanol production, etc.

Implementation and Monitoring

A robust multi-tier implementation structure is proposed:

Implementation Cell within the Ministry of Cooperation with technical Project Management Unit support for effective and timely implementation of the policy.
The National Steering Committee on Cooperation Policy chaired by the Union Cooperation Minister will be constituted for overall guidance, inter-ministerial coordination, periodic policy review, etc.
Policy Implementation and Monitoring Committee headed by the Union Cooperation Secretary for coordination with States, troubleshooting implementation bottlenecks, periodic monitoring and evaluation, etc.

What is the Potential of Biochar?

Context: India plans to launch its carbon market in 2026 aiming to reduce carbon emissions. Among the potential carbon removal technologies, Biochar has emerged as a promising option.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Biochar.
Mains: Biochar: What, potential, benefits, challenges.

What is Biochar?

Biochar is a type of charcoal rich in carbon produced from pyrolysis of biomass (agricultural residue, municipal solid waste) under limited or no oxygen conditions. It offers a sustainable alternative to manage waste and capture carbon.

India generates over 600 million metric tonnes of agricultural residue and over 60 million tonnes of municipal solid waste every year. A significant portion of both is burnt openly or dumped in landfills, leading to air pollution from particulate matter and greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, and CO2.

Utility of Biochar

Waste management: By using 30% to 50% of surplus waste, India can produce 15-26 million tonnes of biochar and remove 0.1 gigatonnes of CO2-equivalent annually.
Byproducts of biochar production, such as syngas (20-30 million tonnes) and bio-oil (24-40 million tonnes), can generate additional electricity and fuels.
- Utilising syngas could generate around 8-13 TWh of power, equivalent to 0.5-0.7% of India’s annual electricity generation, replacing 0.4-0.7 million tonnes of coal per year.
- Bio-oil can potentially offset 12-19 million tonnes (or 8%) of diesel or kerosene production annually, leading to lower crude oil imports and reducing more than 2% of India’s total fossil-fuel-based emissions.
Carbon sink: Biochar can hold carbon in the soil for 100-1,000 years due to its strong and stable characteristics, making it an effective long-term carbon sink.
Agriculture:
- Applying biochar can improve water retention, particularly in semi-dry and nutrient-depleted soils. This can abate nitrous oxide emissions by 30-50%.
- Biochar can also enhance soil organic carbon helping restore degraded soils.
Industrial sector: In carbon capture applications, modified biochar can adsorb CO2 from industrial exhaust gases.
Construction sector:
- Biochar can be explored as a low-carbon alternative to building materials.
- Adding 2-5% of biochar to concrete can improve mechanical strength, increase heat resistance by 20%, and capture 115 kg of CO2 per cubic metre, making building materials a stable carbon sink.
Wastewater treatment: Biochar offers a low-cost and effective option to reduce pollution. India generates more than 70 billion litres of wastewater every day, of which 72% is left untreated. A kilogram of biochar along with other substances can treat 200-500 litres of wastewater, implying a biochar demand potential of 2.5-6.3 million tonnes.

What hinders Biochar’s Application?

Despite its theoretically substantial potential to capture carbon, biochar remains underrepresented in carbon credit systems due to:

Absence of standardised feedstock markets and consistent carbon accounting methods, which undermine investor confidence.
Barriers such as limited resources, evolving technologies, market uncertainties, and insufficient policy support.
Viable business models are yet to emerge for large-scale adoption. Market development is further constrained by:
- limited awareness among stakeholders,
- weak ‘monitoring, reporting, verification’ frameworks, and
- lack of coordination across areas such as agriculture, energy, and climate policy.

Way Forward

To enable large-scale adoption :

Sustained support for R&D is essential to create region-specific feedstock standards and to optimize biomass utilisation rates based on agro-climatic zones and crop types.
Biochar should be systematically integrated into existing and upcoming frameworks, including crop residue management schemes, bioenergy initiatives in both urban and rural contexts, and state-level climate strategies under the State Action Plans on Climate Change.
Recognising biochar as a verifiable carbon removal pathway within the Indian carbon market will generate additional income for investors and farmers through carbon credits.
Deploying biochar production equipment at the village level has the potential to create approximately 5.2 lakh rural jobs, linking climate action with inclusive economic development.
The additional benefits of biochar, such as better soil health, lower fertilizer requirement (by 10-20%), and higher crop yield (by 10-25%), should be systematically integrated into policy and market frameworks to fully realise its potential.

Biochar, though not a silver bullet, offers a science-backed multisectoral pathway for India to achieve its climate and development goals.

The Concept of Necropolitics

Context: Necropolitics is a theory that examines how modern nation states determine whose lives are disposable and may be sacrificed in the name of security, threat, or political control.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About the idea of Necropolitics. Mains: Essay: Necropolitics: What, How Necropolitics Operates?

What is Necropolitics?

Necropolitics refers to the power of the state (or other authorities) to decide who may live and who must die. It goes beyond physical killing as it includes slow neglect, abandonment, and structural violence where certain people are denied care, dignity, or justice.
E.g., Bengal Famine of 1943 - Millions died not due to a lack of food, but because British colonial policies prioritised imperial interests over Indian lives.
The idea of Necropolitics was coined by Cameroonian historian Achille Mbembe in a 2003 essay and later expanded in his book Necropolitics (2019). The concept of Necropolitics builds on Michel Foucault’s Notion of Biopolitics.

How Necropolitics Operates?

Necropolitics is not always about open violence. It works through invisible systems and everyday decisions. Mbembe identifies key features of necropolitical systems:

State terror and suppression: Even in democracies, dissent is crushed using surveillance, arrests, or killings.
Collaboration with non-state actors: Governments often work with militias or gangs, blurring lines between legal and illegal violence.
Enemy creation as governance: Politics often revolves around inventing an enemy- a community to blame, exclude, or control.
War and terror as economies: Violence fuels industries- arms, surveillance, and security become profitable.
Displacement of communities: Large-scale resource projects or conflict zones often force poor people out of their homes.
Varied forms of death: Torture, drone strikes, hunger, lack of healthcare, all can be tools of political death.
Moral justifications: Ideologies like nationalism, religion, or security are used to justify abandonment or violence.

‘Living Dead’ and ‘Death Worlds’

Mbembe introduces the idea of the "living dead", people who are alive biologically but have been stripped of all social, legal, and political recognition.
These people may not be killed directly, but live in conditions so degrading and unstable, it is like dying slowly every day.
For Example: During India’s COVID-19 lockdown, migrant workers were left without food, shelter, or transport. Many died walking back to their villages, not from the virus, but from state neglect.
Mbembe calls such spaces “death worlds”, zones where people live outside the protection of law, care, or justice.

The State of Exception:

Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben describes the "state of exception", a situation where governments suspend laws and rights in the name of protecting them.
Mbembe extends this idea: For some communities (like refugees, slum dwellers, minorities), this exception is not temporary, it is permanent. In these zones, people are governed by logistics, not justice.

Necropolitics in Everyday Life:

Necropolitics is not confined to war zones. It thrives in the slow violence of poverty, caste, racism, and displacement. It exists all around us, through silence, neglect, and “routine” policy decisions.
Examples:
- Sterilisation of Dalit and Adivasi women: bodies controlled without consent.
- Police profiling of Muslims or Dalits: targeted surveillance.
- Neglect of refugees, slum dwellers, and tribal areas: systemic denial of basic rights.
It also exists in silence, in the world including states and global institutions, looking away as thousands of civilians, including women and children, are killed in places like Gaza, while the rest of us carry on with our daily lives.
In a necropolitical world, the aim must not just be survival. It must be the right to a dignified life- a life that is: Valued, Protected, Mourned if lost.

Way Forward

Challenge Necropolitics by:

Resisting narratives that normalise suffering.
Questioning systems that abandon the most vulnerable.
Demanding policies that protect all lives equally.

Recognising necropolitics around us is the first step towards building a state that protects, not abandons, a nation where every life counts.

Project to curb Rhino Poaching through Radioactive Isotope Injection

Context: Researchers from South Africa have launched an anti-poaching campaign with a unique approach which involves injecting radioactive isotopes into Rhino horns. The method is claimed to be harmless for the Rhinos and allows customs agents to detect trafficked horns.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Radioactivity; Applications of Radioactivity.

Key Highlights of the Anti-Poaching Campaign

Method: Through a non-invasive procedure, Rhino horns are tagged with low doses of radioactive isotopes. This allows for their ready detection by radiation portal monitors (RPMs) already deployed at borders, ports, and airports worldwide to identify unauthorised nuclear materials.
Rationale: To facilitate detection of Rhino horns at international borders using existing radiation monitors to curb poaching.
Potential: This application can be extended to other vulnerable species like elephants and pangolins.

What is Radioactivity?

Radioactivity is the property of some unstable atoms (radionuclides) to spontaneously emit nuclear radiation (usually alpha particles or beta particles, often accompanied by gamma-rays) to transform into a more stable form. The radiation emitted can be traced using existing radiation monitors.
- Atoms found in nature are either stable or unstable.
- Instability of an atom's nucleus may result from an excess of either neutrons or protons. In such a case, the atom is radioactive and the nucleus has excess internal energy.
- A radioactive atom attempts to reach stability by ejecting nucleons (protons or neutrons), as well as other particles, or by releasing energy.
Common examples of Radionuclides: Tritium (isotope of Hydrogen and the lightest radionuclide), Carbon-14, Caesium-137, Thorium-232, Uranium-235, Uranium-238, Plutonium-238, Plutonium-239.

Applications of Radioactivity

Radioisotope Thermo-electric Generator (RTG): A radioactive material (Plutonium-238) is used which when decays produces heat. This heat is in turn used by a generator to produce electricity. E.g., the New Horizon spacecraft to Pluto uses RTG as an energy source for the spacecraft.
Medical Imaging: Radioactive isotopes are used in medical imaging techniques such as CT scans and PET scans.
Radiation Therapy: Radioactive isotopes (Cobalt-60) and (Cesium-137) are used to treat various types of cancer through radiation therapy.
Smoke Detectors: Smoke detectors use a small amount of radioactive material to detect smoke and trigger an alarm.
Industrial Radiography: Radioactive isotopes are used in industrial radiography to test the integrity of metal structures such as pipelines and oil rigs.
Carbon Dating: Carbon-14 is used in carbon dating to determine the age of ancient fossils and artefacts.
Nuclear Power: Uranium-235 is used to generate nuclear electricity through nuclear fission. Tritium is being explored as a potential nuclear fuel that can undergo nuclear fusion.
Food Irradiation: Radioactive isotopes (Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137) are used to sterilise and preserve food products.
Geological Dating: Radioactive isotopes (Uranium-238) are used to determine the age of rocks and minerals.
Sterilisation: Cobalt-60 is used to sterilise medical and surgical instruments.

Naangarni Spardha

Context: Recently, Naangarni Spardha, the traditional oxen ploughing race was organised at Ringane village in Maharashtra’s Ratnagiri district.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about traditional animal-based sports in India.

Naangarni Spardha

Naangarni Spardha is a traditional oxen race held annually in Ratnagiri district in Maharashtra.
The unique rural sporting tradition thrives during the monsoon season.
The oxen race is held on a horseshoe-shaped, mud-filled track. Strict rules are enforced; any oxen pair that touches the track flags or steps outside the boundaries is immediately disqualified. Victory is determined solely by speed.

Other livestock‑based sports in India:

1. Jallikattu:

Jallikattu is a traditional bull-taming sport from Tamil Nadu.
In this event, a zebu bull such as the Pulikulamor Kangayam breeds, is released into a crowd of people (not teams), and many people attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape. They hold the hump for as long as possible, attempting to bring the bull to a stop. In some cases, they must ride long enough to remove flags on the bull's horns.
Location: Tamil Nadu
Duration of the year: January (during Pongal)
History of the Event: Inception: around 6^th-1^st century BCE (Sangam period). It began during the Sangam period when Ayar tribal people living in Mullai region (dense forest) of Tamil Nadu started playing this sport.
Legal backing: In May 2023, a five judge Constitution Bench dismissed petitions challenging constitutionality of Jallikattu and upheld the validity of Tamil Nadu laws protecting the sport.

2. Kambala:

Kambala is an annual buffalo race held in the southwestern Indian states of Karnataka and Maharashtra.
The festival is dedicated to an incarnation of Hindu God Shiva- Lord Kadri Manjunatha.
The festival is celebrated every year after harvest season (generally from November to March) to offer thanks to the god for a year of good harvest.
Traditionally, it was sponsored by local Tuluva landlords in Dakshina Kannada and Kasaragod region of Kerala, a region collectively known as Tulu Nadu.

Gaza War and Diplomatic Isolation of Israel

Context: The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom has announced to recognise the state of Palestine during the coming UN General Assembly session in September 2025, unless Israel agrees to a ceasefire in Gaza, allows more humanitarian aid and commits itself towards long-term peace based on the two-state formula.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Balfour Declaration; Diplomatic Isolation of Israel; Gaza War.

Gaza War and Diplomatic Isolation of Israel

The Gaza war began in October 2023, when Hamas launched coordinated armed incursions on Israel from the Gaza Strip. In retaliation, Israel declared war and launched “Operation Swords of Iron,” launching airstrikes against Hamas militants in the Gaza Strip.
As the 21-month-long war on Gaza rages on, over 58,000 people have been killed, including more than 17,000 children.
Israel is facing one of its biggest diplomatic crises with more and more countries in the West (Israel’s traditional allies) adopting a favourable position towards Palestinian statehood.
- Recently, the President of France declared to recognise Palestinian statehood in September.
- Canada and Portugal have also expressed their intention to do the same.
- The United Kingdom has announced to recognise the state of Palestine during the coming UN General Assembly session.

Changing Diplomatic Positions of the Western Nations:

Of the 193 UN member states, 147 have already recognised the state of Palestine. Until now, powerful Western countries had resisted such recognition, insisting it should be part of a final diplomatic settlement to the Israel-Palestine conflict. However, the position is beginning to shift.

Among the five members of the UN Security Council, Russia and China have already recognised Palestine. If France and the U.K. follow through with their recent statements, the U.S., Israel’s closest ally and patron, will be isolated at the UNSC.
France, the U.K. and Canada are also members of the G7 group of advanced economies, and their recognition could influence other countries to follow suit.
Britain’s move, in particular, carries historic weight, given its central role in the Israel-Palestine question. In the 1917 Balfour Declaration, Britain became the first major power to endorse the Zionist demand for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

About Balfour Declaration:

The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.
The declaration was issued by Sir Arthur Balfour, the British Foreign Secretary, addressed to Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild, a Zionist and leader of the British Jewish community.
By the time the Balfour Declaration was issued, there were roughly 60,000 Jews in Palestine, accounting for over 9% of the total population. Palestine was a part of the Ottoman Empire until the end of the First World War, in the late 19th century.

108 years after the Balfour Declaration was issued, Britain' s announcement to recognise the state of Palestine, clearly reflects a change in the UK’s policy towards Israel and Palestine.

India’s Stand in Israel-Palestine issue

India announced its recognition of Israel in 1950 and has recognised Palestine in 1988.
Two-State solution: India consistently supports a negotiated two-state solution leading to the establishment of a sovereign, independent and viable state of Palestine, living within a secure and recognised border, side by side at peace with Israel.
Focus on Practical solutions: Recently, at a United Nations conference (July 2025), India joined the call for Israel to end the war in Gaza and ensure access to food, for Hamas to return hostages, and for U.N. members to recognise the Statehood of Palestine. India advocated the need for practical solutions, not paper solutions, to bring about a Two-State solution through purposeful dialogue and diplomacy.

As Israel is facing accusations of committing genocide against Palestinians, and images of Gaza’s devastation and starving children are coming out, it becomes untenable for many Western nations to continue to back Israel unconditionally.

Also Read: Is Israel committing Genocide in Gaza?

Permanent National Commission for De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes

Context: The recently concluded National Conference of De-notified Tribes (DNTs) witnessed increased calls for the establishment of a permanent National Commission for Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about De-notified Tribes.
Mains: De-notified Tribes: Issues faced and Way Forward.

De-notified Tribes

The term 'De-notified Tribes' (DNT) stands for all those communities which were once notified under the Criminal Tribes Acts, enforced by the British Raj between 1871 and 1947.
These Acts were repealed by the independent Indian Government in 1952, and these communities were "De- Notified".
A few of these communities which were listed as de-notified were also nomadic. Some of the examples of DNTs are Yerukulas (AP), Lambadis (AP), Koli (Gujarat), Lodha/Lodhi (Bihar/Jharkhand), Banjara (MP/Rajasthan), Kalbelia (MP), Ramosi (Maharashtra), Domb (Odisha), Bawaria (Rajasthan), Boyas (Tamil Nādu) and Madari (UP).

Issues faced by DNTs and Nomadic Tribes:

Education: Due to migratory lifestyle, acute poverty, lack of awareness of the importance of education and poor access to educational facilities, the literacy rate is much lower and the school dropout ratio of children belonging to these communities is significantly higher.
Health: Members of DNT/NT communities are not likely to be much aware of health-related issues, including preventive healthcare, immunisation, family planning, communicable diseases. They are so poor that they cannot afford private medical doctors other than quacks.
Economic Issues:
- Decline in traditional occupations due to modernisation and Industrialisation.
- Loss of livelihood due to shrinking pasture lands:
  - Because of agriculturally centred development strategies. E.g., Extension of Indira Gandhi Canal project into Rajasthan led to expansion of agriculture in wastelands and eliminated fallow areas for grazing.
  - In India, grasslands are classified as wastelands and the government hopes to make these lands productive by developing them for solar & wind energy projects and commercial plantations of crops like oil palm.
Anomalies: De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes were included in the lists of SC, ST, and OBC categories. However, their categorisation was not logical or uniform. A single (De-notified or Nomadic) community living in contiguous States/UTs and homogenous in nature has been included in different categories.
- E.g., The community of Banjara has been included as ST in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa; as OBC in Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan and as SC in Punjab, Delhi and Karnataka.
- There are still a number of DNTs which have not been included in any one of these categories. Instead, they are placed at par with the communities of the general category.
Issue of identification: There has been no well-defined criteria for the classification of de-notified and nomadic tribes. It has been observed that the inclusion and exclusion of communities in such lists was done on political considerations rather than on fair and uniform criteria.
No data on demography: The exact number of the nomadic tribes in India is still unknown as there has been no formal census conducted which could help in tracking them. The lack of reliable data about their demography and geographical distribution handicapped the policy makers to frame appropriate measures for their development.

Measures Needed for De-notified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs/NTs):

Permanent Commission: Establish a permanent statutory body for DNTs/NTs, led by a prominent community leader as Chairperson. Bhiku Ramji Idate Commission (2018) has proposed completion of classification of DNT communities, and setting up of a permanent national commission for their protection and development.
Rational Classification: Remove anomalies and standardize the classification of these communities under SC, ST, or OBC categories based on clear, uniform criteria.
Census and Survey: Conduct a systematic community-based census and socio-economic survey to gather accurate demographic and geographic data.
Land and Forest Rights: Ensure land and forest rights for DNTs under the Forest Rights Act to secure their traditional livelihoods.
Education: Establish dedicated residential schools to improve literacy rates and reduce school dropouts.
Healthcare: Introduce mobile health clinics to provide accessible healthcare services, including preventive care and immunisation.
Sub-categorisation of STs: Implement sub-categorisation within STs to ensure equitable distribution of benefits.
Political Representation: Ensure adequate political representation through nominations in local bodies and legislative assemblies.

Also Read: Impact of classifying Denotified Tribes

Bio-fortified Potatoes to hit Indian Market soon

Context: The Director-General of the International Potato Center (CIP), based in Peru, has announced that bio-fortified iron-rich potatoes will soon be available in Indian markets.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Bio-fortification; Bio-fortified Potatoes; International Potato Center.

What is Bio-fortification?

Bio-fortification is a technique of increasing the nutritional value of crops using conventional breeding or biotechnology. E.g., adding iron or vitamins to potatoes.
It helps tackle hidden hunger especially in poor and rural communities.

Why Bio-fortified Potatoes?

Potato is the third most consumed food crop in the world after rice and wheat. Potatoes are rich in carbohydrates, but naturally low in micronutrients. Iron deficiency is a major concern in India, especially among women and children.
Bio-fortified iron-rich potatoes are aimed at addressing iron deficiency and hidden hunger. E.g., Sweet potatoes fortified with Vitamin A are already being used in Karnataka, West Bengal, Assam, and Odisha.

About the International Potato Center (CIP)

CIP is a leading international research organisation focused on tubular crops, especially potatoes and sweet potatoes.
Headquarters: Peru
Collaborates with national governments, research bodies, and private stakeholders.
CIP South Asia Regional Centre to be established in Agra, Uttar Pradesh.

Bairabi-Sairang Railway Line and Act East Policy

Context: Indian Railways recently commissioned a 51.38 km railway line to Sairang, located near Aizawl, the capital of Mizoram. This is a significant step toward enhancing connectivity in the Northeast and advancing India’s Act East Policy.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: About Bairabi-Sairang Railway project; Regional connectivity projects, Act East Policy.

Background of the Project

Before this project, Mizoram had just 1.5 km of metre-gauge track connecting Bairabi in Kolasib district, Mizoram to Silchar in Assam.
The gauge conversion and extension project was sanctioned in 2000, and the extension up to Sairang began in 2008-09.
However, progress was slow due to inclement weather, a difficult and landslide-prone terrain, manpower shortage, and issues with transporting construction materials.
This project is part of the Indian Railways’ larger goal from the early 2010s to connect all Northeastern state capitals to the National railway network.

Key Features of the Bairabi-Sairang Rail Line:

The total length is 51.38 km. Includes 48 tunnels with a combined length of 12.85 km.
Contains 142 bridges, including one with India’s tallest railway pier.
The total project cost is over ₹5,020 crore.
Received safety clearance and awaits formal inauguration.

Significance of the Project:

The Aizawl-Silchar highway via Sairang takes around five hours. Trains from Sairang, including a proposed Rajdhani Express could reduce travel time to 1.5 hours. The project will lower transportation costs and reduce truck dependency
It is expected to boost tourism, trade, and goods movement.
Sairang is also expected to be vital for transhipment of goods from the India-funded Sittwe Port in Myanmar.
Sairang railhead is strategic vis-a-vis the Act East Policy, envisaging rail and road connectivity to improve trade with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and other East Asian countries, deepen diplomatic engagements, and build stronger security cooperation.

What is the Act East Policy?

The Act East Policy was announced in 2014.
It was a more ambitious version of the Look East Policy initiated in 1991.
It is a strategic and diplomatic initiative aimed at enhancing India’s engagement with the ASEAN region and the broader Indo-Pacific.
Objective: To transform the northeastern region into India’s gateway to the ASEAN bloc.

Infrastructure Push under Act East Policy:

The Centre has increased the budgetary allocations for the region by 300% from ₹36,108 crore during the 2014-15 fiscal to more than ₹1,00,000 crore during 2024-25.
More than 10,000 km of highways and 800 km of railway tracks were built, eight new airports established, and several inland waterway projects undertaken during this period.
Important projects include:
- Dimapur-Zubza (near Kohima) railway project in Nagaland (82.5 km)
- Imphal-Moreh plan in Manipur
- Asian Highway 1 from Assam to Moreh via Kohima and Imphal.

Challenges:

Ethnic conflicts: The ethnic conflict in Manipur has affected the proposed railway line between Imphal and Moreh.
Unrest in India’s neighbourhood: The connectivity projects to link the northeast with Southeast Asia have not progressed beyond India’s borders due to the unrest in India’s neighbourhood. E.g., Civil war in Myanmar; Fall of the Sheikh Hasina government in Bangladesh in August 2024.
Agartala-Akhaura Rail Link Stalled: Agartala-Akhaura railway to connect Tripura to Chittagong Port via Bangladesh is stalled due to the political turmoil and change in government in Bangladesh.
Kaladan Project Delayed: Kaladan Multi-Modal Project in Myanmar, aimed at reducing distance between Mizoram and Kolkata by 1000 km, is also delayed.

Stablecoins and their Regulation

Context: Hong Kong is set to enforce a new Stablecoins Ordinance, requiring a licence for issuing fiat-referenced stablecoins (FRS). This move aims to regulate stablecoin issuers, ensure transparency, protect investors, and prevent financial risks like money laundering and unbacked digital assets.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts about Stablecoins; CBDCs.

What are Stablecoins?

Stablecoins are a class of cryptocurrencies with their values linked to assets.
Unlike cryptocurrency coins such as Bitcoin (BTC) and Ether (ETH) or even tokens such as Shiba Inu (SHIB), whose values can wildly rise and fall due to investor sentiments and other factors, stablecoins are designed to maintain relatively steady prices.
This stability is achieved through the process of “pegging” the stablecoin to an asset such as:
- Fiat currency (like U.S. Dollars, EU Euros, Hong Kong Dollars, etc.)
- A commodity (like gold)
- Other cryptocurrencies (such as Bitcoin), by regulating their value via computer algorithms, or by mixing multiple strategies.
While the price of Bitcoin might rise or fall in the coming years, a USD-pegged stablecoin should ideally remain around $1.

Difference between Stablecoins and Central Bank Digital Currencies

CBDCs are digital currencies officially issued and controlled by a government’s central bank, while Stablecoins can be privately issued and can also be pegged to foreign currencies.

Why do Stablecoins require Regulation?

Widespread Use: Stablecoins are used globally for trading, savings protection, and cross-border transactions, especially in countries facing currency instability (E.g., Argentina, Turkey, Afghanistan).
Market Size: Over $250 billion worth of stablecoins are in circulation. E.g., Tether (USDT) alone has a supply of over 163 billion USDT.
Lack of Transparency: Issuers may not always have adequate reserves backing their stablecoins, leading to trust issues and risks of fraud or insolvency.
Potential Impact on Fiat Currencies: Excessive or unregulated issuance may affect the value and stability of the underlying fiat currencies or commodities.
Risk of Collapse: History shows that algorithmic stablecoins (like UST in 2022) can fail, leading to massive investor losses and systemic risks.
Need for Oversight: Regulation ensures reserve transparency, financial audits, consumer protection, and compliance with anti-money laundering (AML) norms.

Regulation of Stablecoins around the world

GENIUS Act:

The US President signed the GENIUS Act (July 2025) to regulate stablecoins and protect the US Dollar.
The Act requires 100% reserve backing with liquid assets like US dollars or short-term Treasuries for stablecoins.
Those issuing this asset will also have to make monthly, public disclosures of the composition of their reserves, apart from complying with marketing rules.

Other countries that have started to regulate stablecoins include Japan and Singapore, while multiple other jurisdictions have more generic regulations that cover stablecoins along with other cryptocurrencies.

What is Hong Kong’s Stablecoins Ordinance?

It will be illegal for people to offer any unlicensed fiat-referenced stablecoin (FRS) to a retail investor, or actively market the issue of unlicensed FRS to the public of Hong Kong.
Companies that want to legally issue stablecoins to users in Hong Kong will have to obtain a licence from the Monetary Authority as well as meet set requirements when it comes to managing reserve assets and redemption, asset stabilisation, and processing user requests.
In addition to this, they will have to comply with the applicable regulations that prevent money laundering and terrorist financing, thus making sure that their assets are properly disclosed and audited.

Also Read: Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC)

PM E-DRIVE scheme

Context: The PM E-DRIVE (Prime Minister Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement) scheme, launched in 2024 (initially for 2 years), has been extended by two years till March 2028. There will be no extra budget allocated to the extension and remaining funds out of the total outlay of ₹10,900 crore will be utilised.

Relevance of the topic: Prelims- Key provisions of PM E-DRIVE scheme.

About PM E-DRIVE scheme

The ‘PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM E-DRIVE)’ came into effect on October 1, 2024, and will remain in force until March 31, 2026.
Outlay: Rs 10,900 crore
Aim: To accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), develop essential charging infrastructure, and establish a robust EV manufacturing ecosystem across the country.
Initiative of: Ministry of Heavy Industries
The scheme replaces the earlier FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) Scheme of 2015.

Key Scheme Components:

The PM E-DRIVE scheme is implemented through the following key components:

Subsidies: Demand incentives for electric vehicles such as e-2 wheelers (e-2W), e-3 wheelers (e-3W), e-ambulances, e-trucks, and other emerging categories of EVs.
Grants for creating capital assets: Funding will be provided for the acquisition of electric buses (e-buses), the establishment of a comprehensive network of charging stations, and the upgrading of the Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI) testing facilities.
Administration of the Scheme including IEC (Information, Education & Communication) activities and fee for project management agency (PMA).

Eligible Categories:

Two Wheelers: The scheme aims to incentivize approximately 24.79 lakh electric two-wheelers (e-2Ws). Only e-2Ws equipped with advanced batteries are eligible for this incentive. Both commercially registered and privately owned e-2Ws can benefit from the scheme.
Three-wheelers: To incentivize around 3.2 lakh electric three-wheelers (e-3Ws), covering registered e-rickshaws/e-carts or L5 category vehicles. Only those e-3Ws with advanced battery technology are qualified for the demand incentive. The scheme is solely applicable to e-3Ws used for commercial purposes.
e-Ambulances:
- Allocation of Rs 500 crore to promote comfortable patient transport.
- Standards: Performance and safety standards to be formulated with MoHFW, MoRTH, and other stakeholders.
e-Buses:
- Allocation of Rs 4,391 crore for procurement of 14,028 e-buses for STUs/public transport agencies.
- Demand Aggregation: Managed by CESL in cities with populations over 40 lakh.
- Preferences: Given to cities/states replacing old STU buses through authorized scrapping centers (RVSFs).
e-Trucks: Fund of Rs. 500 crore allocated to promote the adoption of electric trucks to reduce CO2 emissions. Only those holding a scrapping certificate from MoRTH-approved vehicle scrapping centers (RVSF) are eligible for the incentives.
Public Charging Stations (EVPCS): To establish a robust network of public charging stations, including 22,100 fast chargers for e-4Ws, 1,800 for e-buses, and 48,400 for e-2Ws and e-3Ws. These charging points to be installed in key cities with high electric vehicle penetration and along select highways.
Modernisation of Testing Agencies: Allocation of Rs 780 crore to upgrade and modernize testing agencies under the Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI) to equip them with new and emerging technologies, thereby promoting green mobility.

Other key provisions of the scheme:

Beneficiaries of the Scheme:
- The scheme primarily targets electric two-wheelers (e-2Ws) and three-wheelers (e-3Ws) registered for commercial use. Privately or corporately owned e-2Ws are also eligible.
- EVs purchased by government departments are not qualified for demand incentives, preventing the transfer of funds within government bodies.
e-Vouchers to avail incentives: The Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI) is introducing e-Vouchers for EV customers to avail the demand incentive under the scheme.
- The scheme portal will generate an e-KYC Aadhaar FACE authenticated e-Voucher for the customer at the time of purchase.
- This e-voucher will be signed by the buyer as well as the dealer and uploaded on the PM E-DRIVE portal to claim reimbursement of demand incentives under the scheme.

Benefits:

Environmental Impact: Reduce transportation’s environmental footprint and improve air quality with sustainable transportation solutions.
Facilitate establishment of essential EV charging infrastructure.
EV Industry Growth: Promote a competitive and resilient domestic EV manufacturing sector and strengthen the EV supply chain.
Spur investment in the EV sector and create employment opportunities along the value chain.