The Hindu

Inequality in India: Beyond the Gini Index

Context: The Gini Index ranked India among the world’s most equal societies by giving the score of 25.5. The claim is widely criticised for ignoring the country’s stark and multidimensional inequalities.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of inequality and Gini Index. Mains: Forms of inequality in India.

Gini Index

The Gini Index (or Gini Coefficient) measures income inequality within a population on a scale from 0 (perfect equality) to 100 (perfect inequality).
India's score of 25.5 suggests relatively equitable income distribution. However, this assessment is based on limited income tax data, which covers only about 10% of the adult population, due to the predominance of informal work and non-taxable incomes.

Forms of Inequality in India

Wealth Inequality:

According to a study titled ‘Income and Wealth Inequality in India 1922-2023: The Rise of the Billionaire Raj’, in FY 2022-23, 22.6% of the national income went to just the top 1% of the population.
Large scale informal employment - low income and lower bargaining power.
Large portion of the population remains outside the income tax net, making accurate representation difficult. This itself is a reflection of structural inequality in the economy.

Gender Inequality:

Women constitute only 35.9% of the workforce. Gender roles and familial expectations continue to limit female participation in economic, educational, and digital spheres.
In leadership positions, their representation drops further- just 12.7% in senior or middle management.
Despite India having the third-largest startup ecosystem, only 7.5% of active startups are led by women.
Digital gender divide: Only 25% of rural women have internet access compared to 49% of rural men.

Digital Inequality:

Though internet penetration has improved, a severe digital divide remains.

Only 41.8% of households across rural and urban India have broadband.
Digital inequality reinforces educational and economic disparities, and restricts access to employment opportunities. This technological gap ensures that only certain socio-economic classes stay competitive in the job market, pushing others into low-skill roles.

Educational Inequality:

Educational inequality is deepened by unequal digital access.

Only 52.7% of schools have functional computers, and 53.9% have internet access.
Students from low-income or rural backgrounds lack access to digital skills, which are crucial for higher education and employment. E.g., In cities like Delhi, where schools close during winter pollution, only children with internet access can continue learning.

Bridging these divides requires inclusive policies, better data collection, and focus on structural reforms that ensure opportunity reaches every corner of India. Only then can we truly call ourselves an equal society.

Pralay Missile System

Context: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted two consecutive flight tests of the Pralay missiles from Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Island, off the coast of Odisha.

The missile followed a desired quasi-ballistic trajectory, demonstrated mid-air manoeuvres, and struck its designated target with hit-to-kill accuracy and pin-point precision.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Pralay Missile System.

Pralay Missile System:

Pralay is a short-range surface-to-surface missile developed for tactical battlefield use.
The missile system is designed to meet the specific operational needs of the Indian Army and incorporates several indigenous technologies.

Key features of Pralay Missile:

Propulsion system: Two-stage solid-propellant rocket motor with Manoeuvrable Re-entry Vehicle (MaRV) technology in the terminal stage.
Speed: Capable of reaching speeds between Mach 1 and Mach 1.6.
Range: Operational strike range of 150-500 kilometres.
Weight: Approximately five tonnes.
Flight trajectory: Quasi-ballistic and low-altitude trajectory, allowing it to evade early detection.
Guidance: Equipped with an inertial navigation system and integrated avionics for high-precision targeting and real-time trajectory correction.
Launch platform: Can be fired from an 8x8 BEML Tatra Transporter Erector Launcher, providing mobility and rapid deployment capability.
Defence penetration: The missile can manoeuvre mid-flight, oscillate during travel, and alter its trajectory to evade enemy interception systems.
Survivability and effectiveness: Designed to resist interception, deliver precision strikes on short- and medium-range targets, and enhance battlefield readiness.

Significance:

The MoD has already cleared orders for Pralay missiles for the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force (IAF).

The missile fills the gap of a conventionally armed ballistic weapon system and remains unaffected by the 'no first use' nuclear policy.
Flexible and precise strike option that can be deployed rapidly in response to evolving threats. Deployed with conventional warheads along the borders, the missile can target radar and communication installations, command and control centres, and advanced airfields.
Enhances India’s tactical deterrence capabilities, strengthens India's strategic posture and promotes greater self-reliance in advanced defence technologies.

The successful completion of the phase-1 flight tests marks a crucial step toward the missile’s eventual induction into the Armed Forces.

Kaziranga Tiger Reserve records third-highest Tiger Density in India

Context: As per the latest large-scale assessment of Tiger population, Assam’s Kaziranga Tiger Reserve has the third-highest density of tigers in India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve; Tiger Conservation initiatives; Key facts about Tigers.

Kaziranga Tiger Reserve records third-highest Tiger Density in India

Assam’s Kaziranga Tiger Reserve has secured its position as India’s third-highest tiger density hotspot.
The tiger population in the reserve has increased to 148, and the density of tigers stands at 18.65 tigers per 100 square kilometers, trailing only after:
- Bandipur Tiger Reserve (19.83) in Karnataka
- Corbett National Park (19.56) in Uttarakhand
The implementation of advanced technology, such as M-STrIPES, Drones, and Electronic Eye surveillance systems has significantly improved monitoring, anti-poaching measures, movement tracking, and habitat monitoring, leading to better data.

Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve

Location: Assam
70% of the area of National Park is covered by grasslands.
The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River, which forms the northern and eastern boundaries and Mora Diphlu, which forms the southern boundary. Other notable rivers within the park are the Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri.
Kaziranga has an estimated 2613 one-horned rhinos and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Key Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, Indian Elephant, Wild water buffalo, Swamp deer, Sloth Bear, Hoolock Gibbon.

Key Facts about Tiger

Tiger is an umbrella species. Its conservation automatically ensures the conversation of a large number of flora and fauna and entire ecosystems.
India is home to 75% of the global tiger population.
- The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts a tiger census across India every 4 years.
- Latest Tiger Census Report (2022): India has 3682 tigers. (2967 in 2018)
- Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers (785) in India, followed by Karnataka and Uttarakhand.
Conservation status:
- IUCN Red List: Endangered
- Wildlife Protection Act: Schedule 1
- CITES: Appendix 1

First-ever Grassland Bird Census in Kaziranga Tiger Reserve

Context: The first-ever grassland bird census was conducted in Assam’s Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve with the use of passive acoustic recording monitoring technology.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve; Key fauna.

First-ever Grassland bird census in Kaziranga Tiger Reserve

Aim: To document and conserve rare and endemic grassland birds threatened by habitat loss.
The survey prioritised 10 species that are either globally threatened or endemic to the Brahmaputra floodplains:
- Bengal Florican (Critically Endangered), Swamp Francolin, Finn’s Weaver, Swamp Grass Babbler, Jerdon’s Babbler, Slender-billed Babbler, Black-breasted Parrotbill, Marsh Babbler, Bristled Grassbird, and Indian Grassbird.
The survey recorded a total of 43 grassland bird species, including 1 Critically Endangered, 2 Endangered, and 6 Vulnerable species.

Methodology used in the Census:

Surveying these small, shy, and highly camouflaged birds is very difficult using traditional methods like visual counting.
So, the acoustic recorders were placed in tall trees near grasslands during the breeding season of the birds (between March and May). This is the season when the birds are very vocal, calling out for mates and with males defending territory. The instruments recorded all the birds singing in the landscape. Then, software was used to create a spectrogram, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) was used to identify the birds based on the recordings.

An AI tool called Birdnet was used which uses machine learning to try and identify species by bird song. Grassland birds are an indicator of good health of the grassland ecosystem. The presence of these birds tells us that the habitat is healthy.

Threats to the habitats of Grassland Birds:

In the past four decades, Assam has lost around 70% of its grasslands. The reasons include:
- Anthropogenic factors such as overgrazing and clearing of grasslands for cultivation.
- Natural phenomenon called ecological succession (which is basically an instinct for grasslands to gradually transition to forests).
- Climate Change

Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve

Location: Assam
70% of the area of National Park is covered by grasslands.
The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River, which forms the northern and eastern boundaries and Mora Diphlu, which forms the southern boundary. Other notable rivers within the park are the Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri.
Kaziranga has an estimated 2613 one-horned rhinos and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Key Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, Indian Elephant, Wild water buffalo, Swamp deer, Sloth Bear, Hoolock Gibbon.

Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules 2025

Context: The Union Ministry of Environment has notified Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules 2025 to address chemically contaminated sites across India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Salient Features of Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025.

Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules 2025

Notified by the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
First formal legal mechanism in India to address the issue of contaminated land.
Aim: To establish a comprehensive legal and procedural framework to identify, assess, and remediate chemically contaminated sites across India.

Contaminated Sites:

According to the Central Pollution Control Board, contaminated sites are those where hazardous and other waste had been dumped historically.
These sites may include landfills, dumps, waste storage and treatment sites, spill sites, and chemical waste handling and storage sites.
India has identified 103 such sites, but remedial operations have been initiated in only seven.
Some of the sites were contaminated when there was no regulation on management of hazardous waste.

Salient Features of the Rules:

The rules define a step-by-step legal procedure to identify and clean up contaminated sites. Under these rules:

The district administration would prepare half-yearly reports on suspected contaminated sites.
A State Board, or a reference organisation, would examine these sites and provide a preliminary assessment within 90 days of being informed. Following these, it would have another 3 months to make a detailed survey and finalise if these sites were indeed contaminated.
A reference organisation, basically a body of experts, would be tasked with specifying a remediation plan.
The State Board would also have 90 days to identify the person(s) responsible for the contamination. Those deemed responsible would have to pay for the cost of remediation of the site. Else, the Centre and the State, under a prescribed arrangement, would arrange for the costs of clean-up.
Any criminal liability, if it is proved that such contamination caused loss of life or damage would be under the provisions of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (2023).

India’s 1st Private Test Facility for Heavy Water Upgrade

Context: Mumbai-based TEMA India has been entrusted with testing the equipment required for upgrading of depleted heavy water, a crucial requirement for Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors in India. It is a significant step towards speeding up the operationalisation of nuclear power plants.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: India’s 1st private test facility for Heavy Water Upgrade; Heavy Water; Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors.

India’s 1st Private Test Facility for Heavy Water Upgrade

Until now, the assembling and testing of equipment for heavy water upgrade were centralised and done by Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).
TEMA India has inaugurated its test facility at Achchad in Palghar district, Maharashtra, where it will manufacture equipment such as distillation columns and integrate and test them before sending them to reactor sites for installation.
The facility was designed and built by TEMA India’s nuclear vertical under technology transfer from BARC and a ‘purchase order’ from Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL).

Significance:

Single-point solutionfor upgrading heavy water:
- Till now, the distillation columns and modules were manufactured by other vendors, and then assembled and tested by BARC. The entire process took 7-8 years.
- The decentralisation will reduce the time period by at least one to two years, and thus speeden up the operationalisation of nuclear power plants.

What is Heavy Water?

Heavy water (D2O) is a form of water (H2O) with deuterium (a heavier isotope of hydrogen), instead of regular hydrogen.
It is used as a coolant as well as moderator for slowing down fast-moving neutrons during a chain reaction essential for sustaining the nuclear fission process.
D2O needs to be 99.9% pure for working efficiently. With time it gets contaminated with light or regular water, thus requiring the depleted D2O to be upgraded back to 99.9% using a distillation process.

TEMA India has dispatched the first batch of tested distillation column sections for deployment at a unit of the Rawatbhata Nuclear Power Plant (RAPP-8) in Rajasthan, which is scheduled to go critical by December 2025.

Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor:

Fuel: Natural Uranium (unenriched)
Moderator and Coolant: Heavy water is used as both moderator and coolant.
Cooling System: Uses a combination of heavy water and light water to cool the reactor. Heat is transferred to a secondary loop, which then generates steam to drive turbines.
Control Rods: Boron or Cadmium control rods.
Fuel requirement: Annual requirement of fuel (UO2) of a 700 MW PHWR (at 85% Capacity Factor) is about 125 tons.
Advantages: Uses natural Uranium fuel, produces less high-level radioactive waste, and operates at lower pressures compared to some other reactor types.

India’s Nuclear Energy Generation Target

India has set its eyes at achieving 100 GW of installed nuclear energy capacity by 2047.
There are 24 nuclear reactors operational in India with an installed capacity of 8780 MW.
The government had approved construction of 10 more nuclear reactors in 2015- of which one has come onboard, while the rest (with a combined capacity of 13.6 GW) are under construction.
The immediate target is to achieve 22.4 GW of installed capacity by 2032.
The government has also launched a 20,000-crore Nuclear Energy Mission to develop Small Modular Reactors.

Also Read: Nuclear Energy Sector in Union Budget 2025-26

Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill

Context: Maharashtra Legislative Assembly passed the Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill aiming to combat the perceived rise of "Urban Naxalism", and the activities of left-wing extremist (LWE) frontal organisations in the State.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill.

Mains: Impacts of such legislations on the Right to Freedom of Expression.

Maharashtra has become the fifth State after Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha to enact a Public Security Act for more effective prevention of unlawful activities of such organisations.

Why was the Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill introduced?

Maharashtra government claims that the State has become a safe haven for ‘Urban Naxal’ organisations.
As per the State government, Over 60 Naxal-linked "frontal organisations" operate in the State, providing shelter, logistics, and support to armed Maoists.

What is Urban Naxal?

Urban Naxal is a political and security term used to describe individuals or groups in urban areas who are alleged to be sympathisers, supporters, or facilitators of Maoist ideology and Left-Wing Extremism (LWE).

Key Provisions of the Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill:

The Bill empowers the government to declare organisations ‘illegal’ without due process.
Allows the government to extend ban on an organisation without any limit on the duration.
Section 2(f) of the Bill criminalises speech (spoken or written), signs, gestures or visual representations which ‘tend to interfere’ with public order or ‘cause concern’.
Excludes lower courts from jurisdiction, effectively closing off easy judicial remedies.
Allows the suppression of facts in public interest.
Provides full protection to State officials acting in good faith.

Criticism of the Bill:

The Bill empowers the government to declare organisations ‘illegal’ without due process and allows suppression of facts in ‘public interest’.
Vague terms like “tend to interfere with public order” or “cause concern” could criminalise dissent, satire, protests, or criticism.
The ambiguity in the Bill has given rise to fear that it might be used against farmers’ organisations, students’ groups, civil rights groups, political opponents and critics under the label of ‘threat to public order’.
Critics argue that stringent laws like UAPA and existing State laws are already sufficient to tackle left-wing extremism.
It allows the government to extend a ban on an organisation without any limit on the duration. By excluding lower courts from jurisdiction, the Bill limits judicial remedies and violates principles of natural justice.

The argument in favour of the Bill is that it seeks to prevent Maoists from brainwashing youth, professionals, and civil servants through front organisations, and the new law would only target those who try to undermine the constitutional order. However, this does not deny the probability of misuse of the legislation.

SC panel proposes power corridors through Great Indian Bustard habitat

Context: The Supreme Court panel has proposed power corridors to reroute overhead power lines in Bustard habitats in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The idea behind creating power corridors is to ensure that birds, especially in high-risk habitats are not forced to repeatedly navigate through a maze of criss-crossing power lines.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Great Indian Bustard.

Great Indian Bustard

A large bird of the bustard family, it is one of the heaviest flying birds in the world.
Physical characteristics and behaviour:
- Black crown on the forehead contrasting with the pale neck and head.
- The body is brownish and the wings are marked with black, brown and grey.
- Males and females generally grow to the same height and weight but males have larger black crowns and a black band across the breast.
- They breed mostly during the monsoon season when females lay a single egg on open ground.
- Males play no role in the incubation and care of the young, which remain with the mother till the next breeding season.
- They feed on grass seeds, insects like grasshoppers and beetles, and sometimes even small rodents and reptiles.

Habitat:
- Bustards generally favour flat open landscapes with minimal visual obstruction and disturbance, therefore adapt well in grasslands.
- They avoid grasses taller than themselves and dense scrub like thickets.
Distribution: Its population is confined mostly to Rajasthan and Gujarat. Small populations occur in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Threats

The estimated population of the large bird- once considered a candidate for national bird- is below 150.

Owing to its poor vision, the GIB is at high risk of injury and death due to collisions with high tension electric wires.
Hunting and Occasional poaching for eggs outside Protected Areas
Fast moving vehicles
Free-ranging dogs in villages.
Habitat loss and alteration as a result of widespread agricultural expansion and mechanised farming.
Infrastructural development such as irrigation, roads, electric poles, as well as mining and industrialisation.

Conservation Status:

IUCN Status: Critically Endangered
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule I
CITES: Appendix-I
Declared as the state bird of Rajasthan.

Conservation Efforts by Government of India

Listed in Schedule-I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, thereby accorded the highest degree of legal protection from hunting.
Important habitats of Great Indian Bustards are designated as National Parks/ sanctuaries for their better protection.
Identified for conservation efforts under the component ‘Species Recovery Programme’ of the Centrally Sponsored Scheme- Development of Wildlife Habitats.
Conservation breeding has been undertaken in collaboration with Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra Forest Departments with technical support of Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
A satellite conservation breeding facility has been established at Sam, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.

Mangroves and role of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation

Context: July 26 is observed as the International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem. At the national level, M.S. Swaminathan was instrumental in revolutionising India's management of Mangroves.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Mangroves.

Mains: Significance of Mangroves and role of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation.

What are Mangroves ?

Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in intertidal coastal zones, where the land meets the sea, especially in tropical and subtropical regions.

Key Features of Mangroves:

Halophytes: They thrive in salty brackish water.
Aerial Roots (Pneumatophores): Help in breathing in oxygen-poor (anaerobic) soil.
Vivipary: Seeds germinate while still on the parent tree- a unique adaptation.
Buttress and Prop Roots: Provide stability in loose, waterlogged soils.
Habitat: Found in estuaries, lagoons, backwaters, and river deltas.

Ecological Importance:

Coastal Protection: Act as natural barriers against tsunamis, cyclones, storm surges, and erosion.
Carbon Sink: Store large amounts of carbon- called "blue carbon".
Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide breeding grounds for fish, crabs, mollusks, and migratory birds.
Water Purification : Filter sediments and pollutants from water flowing to the sea.

Mangroves in India

According to the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023, the total mangrove cover in India is 4,991.68 sq. km, which constitutes 0.15% of the country’s total geographical area.
Compared to ISFR 2019, there has been a net increase of 16.68 sq. km in mangrove cover across India.
Mangroves are known by different local names across various regions of India: Sundari Forest in West Bengal, Tivar Forest in Gujarat, Kandal Forests in Kerala etc.

Contribution of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation

M.S Swaminathan played a pivotal role in mangrove restoration, conservation and management.

Highlighted mangroves as a key solution to rising sea levels and cyclones at a Tokyo conference on climate change, at the climate change and Human Responses Conference in Tokyo in 1989.
Proposed sustainable mangrove management as a climate adaptation measure, rooted in:
- Ecology- preserving coastal ecosystems
- Economics- protecting livelihoods
- Equity- involving local communities
Proposed using mangrove genes to develop salt-tolerant crops like rice.
Co-founded the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) and served as its first president (1990-93). ISME conducts assessment of economic and environmental values of mangrove forests, organises workshops on mangrove conservation and sustainable utilization, public World Mangrove Atlas.
Co-created the Charter for Mangroves and included it in the World Charter for Nature, prepared by the United Nations conference on Environment and Degradation.
Supported creation of the Global Mangrove Database and Information System (GLOMIS) to document mangrove experts, research, and species.
Guided the evaluation of 23 mangrove sites across nine countries, leading to a global network of Mangrove Genetic Resource Centres.

Revolutionised India's Management of Mangroves:

Moved attention from blaming local communities to identifying ecological causes of mangrove degradation, instead highlighted clear-felling and altered bio-physical conditions as the real cause of mangrove degradation.
Introduced the fishbone canal method, a hydro-ecological technique successfully tested in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal. This technique is used to artificially inundate areas that do not get regular tidal inundation.
Advocated for Joint Mangrove Management (JMM) involving local communities and State Forest Departments,
His efforts led to increased government investments in mangrove conservation, especially after the 1999 Odisha cyclone and 2004 tsunami.

Molecular Imaging: Caltech’s Angstrom-Scale Microscope

Context: Scientists at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) have developed a breakthrough imaging technique that enables real-time filming of Brownian motion (molecular motions). This imaging technique indirectly detects molecules by observing their interactions with light and tapping into Brownian motion.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Basic idea about working of Microscope; Brownian motion; Applications of high-resolution Molecular Imaging.

Conventional Microscope

Conventional light microscopes work by using visible light to magnify and resolve small objects or structures.
Limitations:
- Conventional microscopes are invasive (disturb or damage the sample being studied) either physically, chemically, or by introducing heat or radiation.
- Have limited fields of view. They can not distinguish individual molecules, which are around tens of Angstroms in size (1 Angstrom = 0.0000000001 m).

Brownian Motion:

Brownian motion is the random movement of particles in a fluid (liquid or air) due to their collisions with other atoms or molecules. The more massive a particle, the slower its Brownian motion.
Examples of Brownian Motion include:
- The motion of pollen grains on still water
- Movement of dust motes in a room (although largely affected by air currents)
- Diffusion of pollutants in the air
- Diffusion of calcium through bones
- Movement of "holes" of electrical charge in semiconductors.

Breakthrough Imaging Technique

The breakthrough imaging technique utilises Brownian motion, ultrafast lasers, and light-matter interaction to indirectly detect and visualise molecular behaviour by observing their interactions with light.
Their technique taps into the Brownian motion of particles. By measuring how fast a molecule changes the properties of light, researchers could determine its size.
- The more massive a particle, the slower its Brownian motion.
- Small molecules spin fast and disturb the light more than larger ones. This fact allows the size estimation of molecules by observing their interaction with light.
Benefits of the Microscope: Non-invasive; Can help visualise molecular sizes in real-time at the Angstrom scale (higher resolution). No existing technique till date has achieved this level of detail.

Significance: This new imaging technique could help better visualise processes and transform biomedical research, disease detection, drug design, and nanomaterial fabrication.

Applications of high-resolution Molecular Imaging:

Early detection of diseases (like cancer, cardiovascular, neurodegenerative) by visualising specific biomarkers associated with disease progression.
Drug design and targeted drug delivery: Help researchers visualise delivery of drugs to specific tissues or cells, and optimise the design of nanocarriers for improved therapeutic outcomes.
Efficient electronics: Observing the movement of electrons, and manipulating it to design more efficient electronic devices.
Nanomaterial fabrication: Helps understand molecular processes in nanomaterial synthesis.

Also Read: Nobel Prize in Physics for Attosecond Physics

States cannot demand Delimitation claiming parity with J&K: SC

Context: The Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking the Delimitation of Assembly Constituencies in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana on grounds of parity with the recent delimitation exercise in Jammu and Kashmir (2022).

Relevance of the topic : Prelims : Article 170(3), Delimitation process and legal provisions

What is Delimitation Exercise?

Delimitation refers to the process of redrawing the boundaries of constituencies or electoral areas. This ensures that each constituency has a roughly equal number of voters, based on the principle of ‘one vote, one value’.
The Constitution under Article 82 mandates delimitation after each census to readjust the seats as per changes in population. (Article 82 for Lok Sabha and Article 170 for State Legislative Assemblies).
After each census, a readjustment is to be made in:
- allocation of seats in the Lok Sabha to the States
- division of each State into territorial constituencies.
Such an exercise was carried out after the 1951, 1961 and 1971 Census.
The 42nd Constitution Amendment Act, 1976 put the delimitation exercise on freeze for 25 years until the 2001 Census to encourage population-limiting measures.
Further, 84th Amendment Act, 2001 put on hold the delimitation exercise again until the first Census after 2026.

The Supreme Court rejected the petition as Article 170 (3) imposes a freeze on delimitation of State Legislative Assembly seats until the first Census after 2026.

What Article 170 (3) says?

Article 170 deals with the composition of Legislative Assemblies.

Article 170 (1): Subject to the provisions of Article 333, the Legislative Assembly of each State shall consist of not more than 500, and not less than 60 members chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the State.
Article 170 (2):
- Each State must be divided into territorial constituencies in such a way that the population per seat is roughly equal across the State. This division is based on the most recent census for which final figures have been published.
- Until the figures of the first post-2026 census figures are published, the term “last census” will mean the 2001 Census. (84th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2001)
Article 170 (3): Until the relevant figures for the first Census taken after the year 2026 have been published, it shall not be necessary to readjust:
- Total number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of each State as fixed by the Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 1976; and
- Division of each State into territorial constituencies as made by that Order.

Why was Delimitation allowed in Jammu & Kashmir ?

Jammu & Kashmir became a Union Territory in 2019 after the abrogation of Article 370. As a Union Territory, it is not bound by the freeze under Article 170(3).
The delimitation exercise in 2022 was based on the 2011 Census, following the Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019.

The Supreme Court also held that:

Allowing delimitation for Andhra Pradesh and Telangana through a judicial dictum would foster discontent among other States and breed inequality.
Granting such a relief would prompt unabated challenges from other similarly situated regions. In particular, the four NorthEastern States- Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, and Nagaland, which were expressly excluded from the scope of delimitation by way of a Central notification in 2021.

Also Read: Delimitation and concerns of South Indian States

Ministry blocks 25 OTT platforms over ‘Obscene Content’

Context: The Information & Broadcasting Ministry has directed the blocking of websites and Apps of 25 OTT platforms for allegedly carrying obscene, vulgar, and in some cases, pornographic content.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Information Technology Act, 2000, and the IT Rules, 2021.

Ministry blocks OTT platforms over Obscene content

The Information & Broadcasting Ministry has directed the blocking of websites and Apps of 25 OTT platforms for allegedly carrying obscene, vulgar, and in some cases, pornographic content.
Utilising the provisions of the Information Technology Act, 2000 and the IT Rules, 2021, notifications have been issued to various intermediaries to ensure that access to these sites and Apps is disabled.
The content hosted on these platforms was found to be in violation of:
- Section 67 of the IT Act, 2000; Section 67A of the IT Act, 2000
- Section 292 of the Indian Penal Code
- Section 4 of the Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986.
The government had received multiple public grievances against these platforms, including the references from the National Commission on Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) about content on platforms Ullu and ALTT.

Legal Basis of the Ban:

Section 69A of IT Act, 2000 empowers the government to block public access to any online information (block content on internet) in the interest of: (i) interest of sovereignty and integrity of India, (ii) defence of India, (iii) Security of the State, (iv) friendly relations with foreign States, (v) public order, (vi) for preventing incitement to the commission of any cognizable offense relating to above.
- Criticism: The law does not have “decency and morality” as grounds for blocking information.

Legal Provisions on Obscenity in India:

Section 67 of the Information Technology Act, 2000: An offence is committed by a person who publishes or transmits any material which is lascivious or appeals to the prurient interest.
Section 67A of the Information Technology Act, 2000: Punishment for publishing or transmitting material containing sexually explicit acts, etc. in electronic form.
Article 19(2) of Indian Constitution: Allows the State to impose reasonable restrictions on freedom of speech and expression for reasons like- security of the state, public order, morality, etc. It provides constitutional backing to Section 69A of the IT Act, 2000.
Sections 292 and 294 of the Indian Penal Code contemplate the selling, letting on hire, distribution or public exhibition of obscene matter.
Section 4 of the Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986: Prohibition of publication or sending by post of books, pamphlets, etc., containing indecent representation of women.
IT Rules, 2021 (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Mandates OTT platforms to:
- Self-classify content into age-based categories
- Set up Grievance Redressal Mechanisms
- Adhere to a Code of Ethics.

Also Read: What does Indian Law say about Obscenity?