The Hindu

Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act 2025

Context: The President of India has given assent to the Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Bill, 2025. The Act encourages e-sports and online social games, while prohibiting harmful online money gaming services, advertisements, and financial transactions related to them.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Online Gaming in India, provisions of Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Bill, 2025.

Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act 2025

The Act imposes a complete ban on online money games which applies to games of chance, games of skill, and those that combine both. Advertising and promotion of such games is strictly prohibited. Financial transactions related to these platforms cannot be processed by banks or payment systems. Authorities will be empowered to block access to unlawful platforms under the Information Technology Act, 2000.
Offences and Penalties:
- Offering or facilitating online money games can lead to imprisonment of up to 3 years and a fine of up to 1crore rupees. Financial transactions linked to these games are also punishable with similar penalties.
- Advertising such games can attract a jail term of up to 2 years and a fine of up to 50 lakh rupees.
- Repeat offenders face harsher punishments, including imprisonment of up to 5 years and fines of up to 2 crore rupees.
- Offences under key provisions will be cognisable and non-bailable (police can arrest without a warrant and bail is not a right). Central Government may authorise officers to investigate, search and seize both digital and physical property linked to offences.
- Corporate and Institutional Liability: Companies and their officers will be held accountable for offences.
Promotion and Recognition of E-Sports:
- E-sports have been recognised as a legitimate competitive sport in India. The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports will prepare guidelines and standards for tournaments.
- Training academies, research centres and technology platforms will be set up to advance the sector, along with providing incentive.
Establishment of Online Gaming Authority: A national-level regulatory authority will be established, or an existing one may be designated for oversight. Its functions will include categorising and registering online games, deciding whether a game qualifies as a money game, and addressing public grievances. The Authority will issue guidelines, codes of practice and directions to ensure compliance.

Online Gaming Sector in India

Online gaming has emerged as one of the fastest-growing segments of India’s digital economy, driven by cheap data, smartphone penetration, and a young demographic.
India is among the largest online gaming markets by users, though the industry remains dominated by Real Money Gaming (RMG) platforms.

Market Size & Growth:

India had over 500 million gamers in 2023 expected to cross 650 million by 2025.
Online gaming revenue stood at around ₹16,000 crore in 2023, projected to grow rapidly.
Composition: RMG constitutes nearly 80-86% of gaming revenues (fantasy sports, rummy, poker, etc.). Non-monetary games (casual, educational, e-sports) form a smaller share but growing base.
The RMG sector currently contributes ₹20,000 crore in annual GST, alongside ₹25,000 crore in investments, 2 lakh jobs, and 400 companies are at stake.

Why is the Ban Imposed?

Addiction and Massive Financial Loss: Online money games encourage compulsive playing. It is estimated that roughly 45 crore Indians collectively lose about ₹20,000 crore each year on real-money gaming platforms.
Mental Health and Suicide: Rising Suicide cases linked to gambling debts. E.g., Karnataka police records attribute 32 suicides in just 31 months to online gambling debt spirals.
Distorted Industry Structure: In 2024, 86% of online gaming revenues came from Real Money Gaming (RMG) platforms, overshadowing creative and educational games.
Regulatory challenges: The “skill vs chance” legal loophole allowed quasi-gambling to flourish unchecked.
Fragile growth model: The 28% GST imposition in 2023 caused huge losses, layoffs, and investor exits. The business model relied on tax loopholes and user losses, not on real innovation.
Threat to National Security: Investigations have shown that some gaming platforms were being used for terror financing and illegal messaging, which compromise the country’s security.
Closing Legal Loopholes: Gambling and betting are already restricted under Indian laws such as the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, and by various state legislations. But the online domain remained largely unregulated. The Bill ensures that the same standards apply in both physical and digital spaces.

Significance of the Ban:

Protects Vulnerable Populations: Prevents gambling addiction, debt spirals, and suicides linked to persistent small-value losses.
Correct Market Distortion: Shifts India’s gaming sector away from Real Money Gaming (86% revenues) towards building creative, export-oriented games instead of quasi-gambling apps.
Regulatory Clarity: A blanket ban ends the legal ambiguity of “skill vs chance” and simplifies enforcement.

Consumer Welfare and Social Stability: Safeguards household savings, reduces predatory advertising, and curbs associated crimes.
Encouraging Healthy Alternatives: E-sports will be promoted as a legitimate sport, while social and educational games that build skills and cultural values will receive government support.

Regulations for Online Gaming Sector in India

1. Information Technology Act, 2000 and Related Rules:

The IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021 laid down norms for online gaming platforms.

Online gaming intermediaries must ensure unlawful or illegal content is not shared on their networks.
Intermediaries offering money games are required to register with self-regulatory bodies (SRBs) which verify whether a game is permissible.
Section 69A of the IT Act empowers the Government to block access to illegal websites or links. E.g., Over 1500 betting and gambling websites and mobile apps have been blocked between 2022 and 2025 (till date).

2. Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023:

Section 111 penalises unlawful economic activities and cybercrimes.
Section 112 prescribes punishment for unauthorised betting and gambling. Offenders face a minimum of one year imprisonment, extendable up to seven years and fine.

3. Integrated Goods and Services Tax Act 2017:

Illegal and offshore gaming platforms are regulated under the IGST Act.
Online money gaming suppliers must register under the Simplified Registration Scheme.
Directorate General of GST Intelligence is authorised to direct intermediaries to block access to unregistered or non-compliant gaming platforms. This ensures digital entities follow the same taxation rules as physical businesses.

4. Consumer Protection Act 2019:

Prohibits misleading and surrogate advertisements.
The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) has powers to investigate, penalise and take criminal action against offenders. CCPA has issued advisories to prevent celebrities and influencers from endorsing betting platforms.

Global Lessons

Finland, despite its small population, has built a globally competitive gaming ecosystem. It hosts over 250 gaming studios, generates more than €3 billion in turnover, and has produced multiple global hits through companies like Supercell and Rovio.
Its ecosystem is export-led, talent-dense, resilient, and achieved entirely without money-based apps.

India should take inspiration from Finland’s experience. Rather than letting its industry be dominated by real-money apps that erode savings, it must shift towards a creative, export-oriented ecosystem that nurtures world-class intellectual property.

India needs a National Space Law

Context: India’s space programme has achieved remarkable milestones from the cost-effective success of Mangalyaan (2014) to the historic soft landing of Chandrayaan-3 (2023) and the upcoming Gaganyaan mission. These achievements have positioned India among the top spacefaring nations.

However, India lacks a comprehensive National Space Law which is essential to regulate private participation, ensure accountability, and align with international obligations.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: India's and Global Space Legislation.Mains: Why India Need for National Space Legislation?

Global Space Legislation

The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 is the foundational legal framework for outer space.

Outer Space Treaty of 1967:

It declares space to be the province of all mankind
Prohibits any national appropriation of celestial bodies, and
Makes states responsible for all space activities conducted under their jurisdiction, including those by private actors.
Its companion agreements create binding frameworks of rights, responsibilities, and liability rules.

Companion Agreements of OST 1967:

Liability Convention 1972: Establishes state responsibility for damages caused by space objects.
Registration Convention 1976: Mandates registration of space objects.
Moon Agreement 1979: Treats space resources as “common heritage of mankind” (India is not a party).

Limitations:

These treaties are not self-executing. They need to be translated into national laws for effective enforcement.

India’s Current Legal & Policy Framework

India has ratified the key UN space treaties but it is still in the process of enacting comprehensive national space legislation. Current regulatory measures include :

Indian Space Policy, 2023: outlines roles of government and private entities.
IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre): Regulator for non-governmental space activities.
Catalogue of Indian Standards for Space Industry: Provides technical safety guidelines.
Norms, Guidelines and Procedures (NPG), 2023: Framework for authorisation of space activities.

Need for National Space Legislation:

International Obligations: Under Article VI of the OST, India is internationally liable for activities of private companies. Without national law, India risks treaty violations or arbitrary regulation.
Predictability & Legal Clarity: National space legislation offers predictability, legal clarity, and a stable regulatory environment for both government and private actors, critical for attracting private investments.
Industry Concerns:
- IN-SPACe lacks statutory authority; its decisions are vulnerable to procedural challenges.
- Companies face delays due to the dual-use nature of space technology (defence and civilian), requiring multiple ministry clearances.
- Unclear FDI rules and lack of affordable third-party insurance hinder startups.
- Weak IPR protection risks migration of talent to IP-friendly jurisdictions.
Strategic Importance: Space technologies are dual-use and critical for national security, absence of legal clarity can weaken strategic autonomy in space.

At present, more than 20 countries including the U.S., Luxembourg, and Japan already have national space legislation. To compete in this rapidly expanding market which is projected to reach $1 trillion globally by 2040, India cannot afford regulatory ambiguity.

In the words of UNOOSA, “policy signals intent, but law creates enforceable structure.” For India to lead the new space age, enacting this law is no longer optional but an imperative.

What are Machine Readable Electoral Rolls?

Context: Recently, the Leader of Opposition alleged vote theft and demanded that the Election Commission (EC) provide machine-readable voter rolls to political parties.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Machine Readable Electoral Rolls.

What are Electoral Rolls?

Electoral Roll is the authoritative list of all eligible voters prepared under the Representation of the People Act, 1950.
Voter rolls are prepared by district officials under the EC’s authority using ERONET, a digital system for adding or deleting voter entries. They are regularly updated to include newly eligible voters, address changes, or removals of ineligible voters.

How are Voter Rolls shared?

The Election Commission shares electoral rolls mainly as image PDF files on its website. These PDFs include details like name, age, gender, address, and EPIC number, but do not include photographs online.
Physical copies or printouts may also be provided to political parties and the public.
Limitations:
- Image PDFs cannot be easily indexed or searched by computers.
- Detecting duplicates requires manual effort, and with over 99 crore entries, spotting errors becomes highly challenging.

Opposition parties are demanding machine-readable voter rolls, as these would allow data to be searched, indexed, and analysed by computers, enabling quick detection of duplicate or bogus entries across constituencies and facilitating large-scale analysis for greater accuracy and fairness.

Why does the EC not provide Machine-Readable Voter Rolls?

Privacy risks: The EC stopped uploading machine-readable rolls before the 2019 elections citing privacy risks - foreign entities can access sensitive details such as the full names and addresses of Indian voters.
- In Kamal Nath vs Election Commission of India (2018), the Supreme Court refused to compel the EC to provide machine-readable rolls. The Court observed that political parties could convert the existing image PDFs into searchable format on their own if they wished.
- This position, however, contradicted the EC’s own manual which states that draft rolls should be published on State CEO websites in “text mode.”
Technical and financial barriers: Voter rolls are divided into hundreds of separate PDF parts for each constituency, making large-scale analysis difficult. Converting these files through Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is resource-intensive; with over six crore pages nationwide, the estimated cost is about $40,000 per revision cycle.

Saltwater Crocodiles on Rise in Sundarbans

Context: As per the latest survey, the estimated population of saltwater crocodiles, one of the largest reptiles in the world, has increased in the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (SBR).

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about crocodile species in India; Sunderbans.

About Sundarbans

The Sundarbans is a cluster of low-lying islands in the Bay of Bengal. Located in the delta of Rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra in India & Bangladesh.
Sunderban is the largest delta and mangrove forest in the world. It is the only mangrove forest in the world where tigers are found.
Area: covering ~10,000 sq km of which around 40% lies in India (rest in Bangladesh).
Indian Sunderban is bounded on the west by river Muriganga and on the east by rivers Harinbhahga and Raimangal. Other major rivers flowing through this eco-system are Saptamukhi, Thakuran, Matla and Gosaba.
Protection status:
- Listed as UNESCO World Heritage Site
- UNESCO Biosphere Reserve
- Ramsar Site (2019)
- Important Bird Area (IBA) under BirdLife International
Part of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve has been declared a critical tiger habitat under national law, and Tiger Conservation Landscape of global importance.
Fauna: Critically endangered northern river terrapin (Batagurbaska); endangered Irrawaddy dolphin; Other species include- Gangetic dolphins, Fishing cat, Olive Ridley Turtle, Tiger, Saltwater crocodile.
Flora: Dominated by Sundari tree (from which Sundarbans gets its name); Mangroves.

Crocodiles in India

India is home to three crocodile species- Gharial, Mugger, and Saltwater Crocodiles.
Crocodiles are cold-blooded animals usually spotted on banks of the aquatic systems.
Crocodiles are apex predators and play a critical role in the ecosystem by maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance: they control the population of other aquatic animals.
Conservation:
- All three crocodile species are placed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
- India launched Crocodile Conservation Project in Odisha's Bhitarkanika National Park in 1975 with aid from United Nations Development Programme.

1. Saltwater Crocodile:

Largest of all crocodile species and the largest reptile in the world. Recognised as a man eater.
It is a hypercarnivorous apex predator that keeps flowing water ecosystems clean by feeding on the carcasses and wild remains in the water.
Also known as estuarine crocodiles. It is distributed across the swamplands, rivers, mangroves of Odisha (Bhitarkanika National Park) and West Bengal (Sundarbans) and the coastal areas of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
IUCN status: Least concern
Concern: Increasing salinity may reduce the suitability of their habitat and may threaten their conservation, particularly in the Sundarbans which is vulnerable to climate change.
Conservation Effort: Bhagabatpur Crocodile Project (conservation and breeding facility in West Bengal).

2. Mugger:

They have a broad-snouted nose. They are also known as Marsh crocodiles. They are found in freshwaters like rivers and also in estuaries and marshy areas.
Mugger has a diverse and broad diet. They are known to dig burrows or holes for nesting purposes.
Muggers have stronger legs which allow them to bask mainly on river banks choosing steeper slopes and elevated platforms.
Their tough keratin scales are known to be sensitive to even the slightest motion in the water and this helps them detect prey easily.
IUCN status: Vulnerable

3. Gharials:

They are endemic to the Indian subcontinent.
They are shy-natured and the most aquatic of all the species.
They are the longest living crocodile species, native to northern India and are distinguished by their long, narrow snouts. The gharials are predominantly a fish-eater.
Gharials prefer to bask on mid-river sand islands on gentle slopes as they have weaker legs and can only crawl.
Chambal River (tributary of river Yamuna) holds the largest population of Gharials in the wild.
IUCN status: Critically Endangered

Note: Both Mugger and Gharials are freshwater species and have overlapping habitats in the northern rivers (Ganges, Chambal, Son, Ramganga and Girwa) and eastern (Mahanadi) river systems of India. They have shown systematic resource partitioning in their aquatic environments.

India sets eyes on 10% of global Green Hydrogen demand

Context: India aims to capture 10% of the global green hydrogen demand by 2030, with significant progress made through the National Green Hydrogen Mission. The global green hydrogen demand is expected to exceed 100 million metric tonnes (MMT) by 2030.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Types of Hydrogen, National Hydrogen Mission

Mains: Benefits and Challenges in production of Green Hydrogen as a fuel.

Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel

Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe. On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. However, Hydrogen is not present in the free state. Therefore, it must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
Hydrogen Fuel: Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct.

Green Hydrogen:

Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy sources, such as wind and solar energy, which do not release greenhouse gases when generating electricity.
Green hydrogen is made when water (H2O) is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) via a process known as electrolysis.

Other Types of Hydrogen:

Depending on the type of production used, different colour names are assigned to the hydrogen.

1. Grey Hydrogen:

Grey hydrogen is produced using fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal. Grey hydrogen accounts for roughly 95% of the hydrogen produced in the world today.
The two main production methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification. Both of these processes release carbon dioxide (CO2).
If the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, then the hydrogen produced is referred to as grey hydrogen.

2. Blue Hydrogen:

Blue hydrogen is similar to grey hydrogen, except that most of the CO2 emissions are sequestered (stored in the ground) using carbon capture and storage (CCS).
Capturing and storing the carbon dioxide instead of releasing it into the atmosphere allows blue hydrogen to be a low-carbon fuel.
Blue hydrogen is a cleaner alternative to grey hydrogen, but is expensive since carbon capture technology is used.

3. Pink Hydrogen:

Pink hydrogen is produced through electrolysis of water but using energy from nuclear power, which does not produce any carbon dioxide emissions.
Pink hydrogen facilities can achieve a high capacity factor due to the steady base-load profile of nuclear power (involving both stability and density), as compared to the intermittent supply from renewable sources (solar, wind).

4. Turquoise Hydrogen: Turquoise hydrogen is made using a process called methane pyrolysis. In this process methane is split into hydrogen and solid carbon with heating in reactors or blast furnaces.

National Green Hydrogen Mission:

National Green Hydrogen Mission was launched in 2023 with an outlay of Rs. 19,744 crores from FY 2024 to FY 2030.
Aim: To develop India into a global hub for production, usage and export of Green hydrogen and its derivatives.
The scheme has set out a goal of at least 5 million metric tonnes (MMT) of annual green hydrogen production capacity by 2030.
Initiative of: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).

As part of the mission, the government has awarded 3,000 megawatts of electrolyser manufacturing capacity to 15 companies, signaling a major industrial push.

Recently, the government has announced that India aims to secure 10% of global green hydrogen demand, or 10 million metric tonnes (MMT) by 2030, which is an aspirational target than that set in the National Green Hydrogen Mission.

Challenges associated with production of Green Hydrogen:

Renewable energy supply crunch: Achieving the target under the National Green Hydrogen Mission requires the installation of 125 GW of dedicated renewable energy and 250,000 gigawatt-hr. units of power (250 TWh), equivalent to about 13% of India’s present electricity generation.
Relying on conventional energy sources: The main concern is that if electrolysers (which split water to produce hydrogen and oxygen) were to run 24x7, they would have to operate even at night when no solar power is available. This would then mean tapping into conventional coal-fired electricity (about 70% of the electricity on the grid is coal-generated).
Burning Biomass: India’s standards allow the use of biomass to produce green hydrogen, which results in carbon emissions when burnt.
Technological constraints: The challenge is to compress or liquify Hydrogen. It needs to be kept at a stable minus 253°C (far below the temperature of (-) 163°C at which Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is stored; making its ‘prior to use cost’ extremely high.
Prohibitive Costs: The production cost of green hydrogen has been a prime obstacle. Research conducted by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) indicates that the cost of its production is about $1.5 per kg by 2030 (for countries with eternal sunshine and huge unoccupied areas) if several conservative measures are implemented.
Lack of Manufacturing and deployment of electrolysers: India’s current electrolysers manufacturing capacity is around 0.4 GW, which needs to be scaled to ~200 GW by 2050.
High cost of storage system: Fuel cells which convert hydrogen fuel to usable energy for cars, are still expensive.

Way Forward

Development of technology to produce green hydrogen is expensive. However, falling prices for renewable energy and fuel cells and stringent climate change regulations have spurred investment in the sector.

Investing in R&D and promoting private sector participation in the hydrogen economy.
Developing standardised procedures, rules and standards for hydrogen economy which will standardise and scale up production.
Mandating large users of hydrogen to shift to green hydrogen such as refineries, iron, and steel plants etc. For example, a minimum green hydrogen mandate can be introduced in such industries.
Green hydrogen facilities can be created at sites where the cost of producing renewable energy is lowest. E.g., in the Thar desert region in Rajasthan and Ladakh etc.
Facilitating international trade in clean & green hydrogen.

Also Read: Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: Explained

Governor Can Act Independently: A-G

Context: The Attorney-General of India submitted before a five-judge Bench headed by the Chief Justice of India that a Governor’s power to withhold assent to a proposed State legislation is an act independent of the Council of Ministers.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Constitutional Provisions on Governor’s Role. Mains: Governor: Powers, challenges & way forward.

Constitutional Provisions on Governor’s Role

Article 163: Council of Ministers to aid and advise the Governor.
- Article 163 (1): There shall be a Council of Ministers led by the Chief Minister to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions, except in matters where the Constitution allows him to act on his own discretion.
- Article 163 (2): If any question arises with respect to whether a matter falls under Governors' discretionary power or not, the governor’s decision will be final. The validity of anything done by the governor in his discretion will not be called into question.
- Article 163 (3): The advice given by the Ministers to the Governor shall not be inquired into any court.
Article 200: When a bill is sent to the governor after it is passed by state legislature, he can:
- Give the assent to the bill
- Withhold the assent to the bill
- Return the bill (if not a money bill) for reconsideration of the state legislature. However, if the bill is passed again by the state legislature with or without amendments, the governor has to give assent to the bill
- Reserve the bill for the consideration of the President.

The controversy lies in withholding the assent to the bill- whether it is a discretionary power or subject to ministerial advice.

Governor Can Act Independently: A-G

The Attorney-General of India submitted before a five-judge Bench headed by the Chief Justice of India that a Governor’s power to withhold assent to a proposed State legislation is an act independent of the Council of Ministers.
The Governor cannot be expected to be bound by the advice of the House if the proposed State law was found to be unconstitutional. In such cases, the Governor can act outside the aid and advice of the Council, and even contrary to the mandate of the House/Council of Ministers.
A power to withhold necessarily involves personal independent judgment, guided by settled principles of laws. The 42nd Constitutional Amendment made Article 74 (1) explicit that the President shall act in accordance with the Cabinet advice. But Article 163 (Governors) was not amended to match Article 74.

Relevant Court Cases:

Shamsher Singh v. State of Punjab (1974): The Supreme Court clarified that the Governor must act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, except in situations where the Constitution explicitly allows the Governor to act in his discretion.
State of Rajasthan v. Union of India (1977): This case dealt with the role of the Governor under Article 356, which is related to President’s Rule. While discussing Article 163, the Supreme Court emphasised that the Governor's discretion is limited and he must act on the advice of the Council of Ministers, except in specific situations provided by the Constitution.
S. R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994): Primarily a case on Article 356, it also discussed the role of the Governor under Article 163. The Supreme Court held that the Governor's report to the President under Article 356 must be based on objective material, and the Governor’s actions are subject to judicial review.
M. P. Special Police Establishment v. State of Madhya Pradesh (2004): This case dealt with the Governor’s discretion in granting sanction for prosecution. The Supreme Court ruled that in certain circumstances, the Governor may act independently of the Council of Ministers, especially where the ministers themselves are under investigation.

Issues and Concerns:

Undefined scope of discretionary powers: The Constitution does not clearly define the scope of discretionary powers with the governor, thus leaving the scope for misuse.
Erosion of Federalism: Frequent withholding or reserving of bills can delay state legislations and undermine elected government.

Hence, this may lead to the situations when governors may have political bias and can act as the agent of the Union government.

Way Forward

Sarkaria Commission (1988): Governor should be a detached figure and not too intimately connected with the local politics of the State. Discretion should be used sparingly; reserve bills only when required by the Constitution (as a last resort).
Punchhi Commission (2007): Article 163 does not give the Governor a general discretionary power to act against the advice of the Council of Ministers. The exercise of discretion is limited, and it must be dictated by reason, activated by good faith, and tempered by caution.
Nabam Rebia and Bamang Felix vs Deputy Speaker (2016): The Governor cannot withhold assent to a Bill indefinitely, but must return it to the Assembly with a message, and this could include his recommendation for amendments to the Bill.
State of Punjab vs Principal Secretary to Governor of Punjab (2023): Governor can not veto the legislature by indefinitely withholding assent to the bill. In case the bill is re-enacted, the governor does not exercise discretion to withhold the re-enacted bill.
SC’s Judgment in Tamil Nadu Governor case (2025): SC has prescribed a time limit for the Governor to exercise his powers under Article 200. The court said that a governor must be a friend, guide and philosopher to the State, not a hindrance.
- The governor has a maximum of one month to withhold the assent based on the aid and advice of the State Cabinet.
- The governor has a maximum period of three months to return the bill by specifying reasons, if the bill is withheld contrary to the advice of the Cabinet.
- The governor has a maximum period of three months to reserve the bill for the President's consideration against the advice of the Cabinet.
- The governor must grant assent to the bill re-passed by the state legislature under Article 200 within a maximum period of one month.

Hence, there is a need to align the Governor’s role with cooperative federalism, as envisioned by the Constitution.

Also Read: The Governor

Who decides nominations to UT Assemblies?

Context: The Union Home Ministry, in an affidavit before the J&K and Ladakh High Court, submitted that the Lieutenant Governor (LG) of Jammu & Kashmir can nominate five members to the Legislative Assembly of J&K without the aid and advice of the elected Council of Ministers.

This has revived debates on the constitutional scheme governing nomination of legislators and the principles of democratic accountability in Union Territories (UTs).

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Constitutional provisions for nominated members in Parliament, State legislatures, and UT Assemblies.

Mains: Federal balance between Centre and UTs, Role of LG vs elected government in UTs.

Constitutional and Statutory Provisions on Nominated Members

Indian Constitution provides for nominated members in the houses of Parliament and State legislature.

Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies: The provision for nominating two Anglo-Indian members to the Lok Sabha and one Anglo-Indian member to State Legislative Assemblies was discontinued in 2020 (104th Constitutional Amendment, 2020).
Rajya Sabha (Article 80): Rajya Sabha has 12 nominated members. These members are nominated by the President on the aid and advice of the Union Council of Ministers.
States With Legislative Councils (Article 171): In the six States with Legislative Councils, nearly one-sixth of the members are nominated. These members are nominated by the Governors on the advice of the States’ Council of Ministers.
Union Territories: The composition of the Legislative Assemblies of three Union Territories (UT) are governed by Acts of Parliament.

Provisions on Nominated Members in Union Territories

Delhi: The Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi Act 1991 provides for 70 elected members in the Delhi Assembly. There are no nominated MLAs in the Delhi Assembly.
Puducherry: The Government of Union Territories Act 1963 provides for 30 elected members in the Legislative Assembly of Puducherry. It also provides that the Union government may nominate up to three members to the Puducherry Assembly.
Jammu & Kashmir:
- Section 14 of the J&K Reorganisation Act, 2019 (as amended in 2023) provides for a total of 90 elected seats in the Legislative Assembly of J&K.
- In addition, Sections 15, 15A and 15B provide that the LG may nominate a total of up to five members (two women, two Kashmiri migrants and one displaced person from Pakistan occupied Kashmir) to the J&K Assembly.

What have the Courts ruled?

K. Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India (2018) case:

The Madras High Court upheld the power of the Union government to nominate three members to the Assembly and such nomination need not be based on the advice of the UT’s Council of Ministers.
However, the court also recommended that Parliament should bring statutory amendments to lay down a clear and unambiguous procedure for nomination of MLAs, including who will exercise this power and on what basis.
However, the Supreme Court on appeal had set aside the recommendations in this judgment of the Madras High Court.

Government of NCT of Delhi versus Union of India (2023) case:

The Supreme Court had delved into the concept of ‘triple chain of command’ that ensures democratic accountability.
In this ‘triple chain of command’ opined by the court, civil servants are accountable to ministers; ministers are accountable to the legislature; and the legislature is accountable to the electorate.
Therefore, it is held that the LG is bound by the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers in all matters, except where the Delhi Assembly does not have legislative powers.
Although this case dealt with appointment of officers in the Delhi Government, its reasoning may apply to the nomination of MLAs as well.

Way Forward

A UT does not enjoy the same status of a full-fledged State in the Indian federal set up. However, UTs with Assemblies have their own elected governments that are accountable to its population, therefore

Political differences between the Union government and a UT government should not derail the democratic process in the UTs.
The process of nomination must be based on the advice of the elected Council of Ministers as in smaller assemblies like that of J&K and Puducherry, these nominated MLAs can have the potential of converting a majority government into a minority one and vice versa, thereby rupturing popular mandates.
J&K is a special case as it was a State till 2019 with greater autonomy than others. Though its conversion into a UT has been upheld by the Supreme Court, the Union Government has promised early restoration of statehood. Hence, the LG should nominate five members to the J&K Assembly on the advice of the Council of Ministers to uphold democratic principles.

Dibru-Saikhowa National Park

Context: A new study has identified at least two native plants that have joined invasive species to alter the riverine ecosystem of eastern Assam’s Dibru-Saikhowa National Park (DSNP).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Dibru-Saikhowa National Park.

About Dibru-Saikhowa National Park

Location: Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts, Assam.
The park is an island-like formation bounded by the Brahmaputra and Lohit River to the north and Dibru River in the south.
It is the largest salix swamp forest in north-eastern India.
Key Fauna: Only habitat of feral horses in India; Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, clouded leopard, Malayan giant squirrel, Chinese pangolin, Ganges dolphin, capped langur, Hoolock gibbon, Asian elephant, barking deer, Wild water buffalo.
Flora: Grasslands, mixed semi-evergreen forests, moist mixed deciduous forests, shrubland.

Threats to DSNP’s Riverine Ecosystem:

Invasive species and native grassland invaders (flowering trees known as Simalu and Ajar in Assamese).
Recurring Brahmaputra river floods.
Increasing anthropogenic pressures from villages located within its boundaries.

The degradation of riverine ecosystems and forests in DSNP can lead to loss of biodiversity, threaten the survival of local fauna, reduce carbon storage and potentially intensify climate change.

The study recommended a targeted grassland recovery project that would encompass the control of invasive species, improved surveillance, increased staffing, and the relocation of forest villages and support community-based conservation efforts.

Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology

Context: The global market base for alternative proteins is on the rise. Animal-Free Proteins produced using Recombinant DNA Technology are one such viable option to produce alternative proteins.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims & Mains: Recombinant DNA Technology: About, Applications & Benefits; BioE3 Policy.

Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology:

Animal-free protein refers to proteins (dairy, egg, meat proteins, other biological products) produced without using animals. The proteins are produced by relying on microbes (bacteria, fungi, yeast) engineered through Recombinant DNA Technology (rDNA). E.g.,
- Casein (milk protein) produced in labs without cows.
- Insulin (earlier extracted from a pig’s pancreas) is now developed by bacteria.
- Collagen (earlier extracted from animal bones) is now produced in labs.
This is also called precision fermentation or microbial fermentation.

Key steps involved:

Identification of the gene responsible for making a specific animal protein (E.g. Insulin)
Gene Insertion: The gene is inserted into the DNA of a vector (bacteria, fungi, yeast) using Recombinant DNA Technology.
Protein Expression: The vector is now genetically engineered and acts like a mini factory (bio factory) and produces the desired protein.

Benefits of Animal-Free Protein using Recombinant DNA Technology

Efficient: Requires less resources (land, water, feed) compared to traditional animal husbandry.
Sustainable: Reduces dependence on livestock farming (which contributes to over 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions).
Safer: Eliminates the risks of zoonotic pathogens (E.g., prions in mad cow disease, viruses in poultry). Reduced risk of xenobiotic rejection or allergic reactions.
Animal Welfare: No ethical and moral issues.
Desired traits: Proteins can be modified for enhanced nutrition (E.g., more digestible Casein; allergen free proteins)

What is Recombinant DNA Technology?

Recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering involves manipulation of the genetic code or DNA of a living organism by combining genetic material from different sources.
Basic principle: Isolating a specific gene or DNA sequence of interest from one organism and inserting it into the genome of another organism, via an appropriate vector. The inserted gene can be from the same species or from a different species.
Use case: It is used to obtain desired characteristics (traits) in living organisms or to produce useful biological products.

Key steps involved in R-DNA technology:

Isolation of the gene or DNA sequence of interest from the source organism.
Fragmenting this DNA using ‘molecular scissors’ (Restriction endonuclease Enzymes).
Screening the fragments for a ‘desired gene’.
Inserting the fragments with the desired gene into a ‘vector’ (plasmids, bacteriophage, cosmid) to develop a recombinant DNA (done using an enzyme called DNA ligase which acts like molecular glue).
Introducing the recombinant vector into the target organism or host cell. The vector integrates into the host's genome and the gene of interest is expressed.
Expression: The target organism produces the protein encoded by the inserted gene.

Applications of R-DNA Technology:

Creation of Genetically modified (GM) crops with desirable traits (resistance to pests, diseases, or herbicides).
Production of therapeutic proteins such as insulin, interferon and human growth hormone (Human insulin was the 1st therapeutic protein to be genetically cloned in E.coli using R-DNA technology).
Creation of Mono-clonal antibodies.
Production of vaccines. E.g., Hepatitis-B vaccine
Backbone of diagnostic tests for diseases like HIV and Hepatitis.
Produce clotting factors for treating Haemophilia.
Development of synthetic anti-venom, free from animal-derived proteins.
Create genetically engineered microorganisms for bioremediation and cleaning up environmental pollutants.

BIOE3 Policy:

BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment) policy was launched in 2024 by the Department of Biotechnology.
Aim: Fostering high-performance biomanufacturing which involves the production of bio-based products across various sectors.
India's bio economy has skyrocketed from $10 billion in 2014 to over $130 billion in 2024, with projections to reach $300 billion by 2030.
BioE3 Policy would focus on the following strategic and thematic sectors:
- Smart proteins and functional foods
- High value bio-based chemicals, biopolymers, and enzymes
- Precision biotherapeutics
- Climate resilient agriculture
- Carbon capture & its utilisation
- Marine and space research

Implementation Strategies:

Support innovation-driven research and development (R&D) and entrepreneurship.
Establish biomanufacturing hubs, Bio-AI centers, and biofoundries.
Expand India's skilled biotechnology workforce, especially in tier-II and tier-III cities.
Align with initiatives like 'Net Zero' carbon economy and 'Lifestyle for Environment' (LiFE) to promote a circular bioeconomy.

With the launch of the BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment) policy, the government is focusing more on the manufacture of smart proteins, which entail reduced land, water, and energy requirements, while addressing nutritional needs and widespread protein deficiencies.

Election Commission Appointments: Independence under Question

Context: The Election Commission of India (ECI) plays a pivotal role in conducting free and fair elections, regarded as the bedrock of Indian democracy. Recent legal and legislative changes have brought the independence and impartiality of ECI under scrutiny.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Article 324; Election Commission of India.

Mains: Issues in appointment of Election Commissioners.

Appointment of Election Commissioners

Article 324 of the Constitution vests the superintendence, direction and control of elections to Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice-President in the Election Commission of India.
Article 324 does not provide a clear mechanism for appointing the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commissioners (ECs). As per Article 324(2), the appointment method is left subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament.
Traditionally, appointments are made by the Executive, raising concerns about bias and autonomy.

Landmark Case: Anoop Baranwal vs. Union of India (2023)

The Constitution Bench interpreted Article 324 of the Constitution, which provides for the appointment of Election Commissioners.
It held that exclusive executive control over appointments compromises the independence of the ECI.
To prevent a pliable ECI, the Court directed that appointments must be made by a Selection Committee comprising:
- Prime Minister of India
- Leader of Opposition
- Chief Justice of India

Parliament’s Reaction: The Chief Election Commissioner and Other ECs Act, 2023

The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners Act, 2023 was enacted to nullify the Baranwal verdict.
The Act removed the CJI from the Selection Committee and added a Cabinet Minister nominated by the PM.
So, effectively the government dominates the Committee (2:1 majority: Prime Minister + Cabinet Minister vs Leader of Opposition).
Criticism: This ensures that the ECI is under the control of the ruling regime.

The Act was challenged in multiple writ petitions. Petitioners sought an interim stay before the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.

However in Dr. Jaya Thakur & Ors. v. Union of India (2024), Supreme Court refused to grant stay, citing the principle of “presumption of constitutionality” of laws.

Issues and Concerns:

The exclusion of the judiciary from the appointment process raises concerns about the independence of the ECI.
Executive control over appointments increases the risk of biased or partisan decision-making.
Exclusion of the judiciary from the selection committee weakens the system of checks and balances.
Public trust in the electoral process may decline if the ECI is perceived as partisan.

Global Comparison

Many modern constitutions have created independent “fourth branch institutions” (in addition to the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary which are autonomous and independent of the ruling dispensation) to safeguard democracy from executive dominance.
- E.g., Constitution of South Africa envisages a cluster of state institutions for “supporting constitutional democracy”. The Chapter Nine institutions (as they are called) include the Electoral Commission of South Africa.

The Supreme Court’s judgment in Anoop Baranwal can be seen as an attempt to transform the ECI into such an institution by insulating it from executive control. However, the enactment of the 2023 Act and the refusal of the Court to stay its implementation have weakened this progress.

The independence of the Election Commission of India is central to preserving democratic legitimacy. Hence, there is a need to revisit the appointment mechanism for the Election Commission of India. The inclusion of the Chief Justice of India or another independent authority in the Selection Committee would strengthen the neutrality of the process.

India’s Strategic Engagement with Namibia

Context: Namibia is a valued and trusted African partner with which India is seeking to boost bilateral cooperation and partnerships.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India’s engagement in Africa; India-Namibia bilateral relations; Global South diplomacy.

India’s Engagement with Namibia

India and Namibia have a shared anti-colonial heritage and enjoy warm and cordial relations.

Diplomatic Engagement:

India was among the first nations to raise the question of Namibian independence in the UN in 1946.
At the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) summit, India offered full diplomatic recognition to SWAPO (South West Africa People's Organisation), which led Namibia’s liberation struggle, accompanied by material assistance and military training.
The first SWAPO Embassy (South West Africa People’s Organisation led Namibia’s liberation struggle) abroad was established in New Delhi in 1986.

Bilateral Trade & Investment:

Bilateral trade has grown from less than $3 million in 2000 to almost $800 million in 2025, supported by a $12 billion development partnership across Africa.
Indian companies have invested in mining, manufacturing, diamond processing and services in Namibia.

Digital Infrastructure & Capacity building:

Namibia became the first country in Africa to adopt India’s Unified Payments Interface (UPI).
India’s targeted investments in capacity-building include, India-Namibia Centre of Excellence in IT at the Namibia University of Science and Technology, and the ‘India Wing’ funded by a $12 million grant. These efforts leverage India’s strengths in IT and respond to Namibia’s youthful population and digital readiness.
Namibia’s recent accession to the Global Biofuels Alliance and the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) aligns with India’s global vision of resilient infrastructure.

Translocation of Cheetahs

Eight cheetahs from Namibia were translocated to Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh in 2022, the world’s first intercontinental translocation of a major carnivore species.

Significance of Namibia to India:

Namibia’s rich mineral resources, particularly Uranium, Copper, and rare earth metals, can meet strategic critical mineral requirements to India.
Gateway in Southern Africa: Namibia’s ports and connectivity provide India with an entry point into southern Africa’s markets.
Global South Diplomacy: Namibia is a key collaborator in the Global South’s broader effort to reshape international rules and usher reforms in global governance. This is in line with India’s advocacy for rules-based international order.

Challenges

Lack of Consistent Engagement: India’s developmental ambitions in Africa are often criticised for uneven implementation and long lapses. This is evident in the recent visit to Namibia by an Indian head of government, the first in nearly three decades.
Lack of major agreement or strategic framework to access Namibia’s critical mineral reserves.

To further the engagement, India needs to overcome structural and operational issues by consistent engagement matched by sustained investment and institutional coherence. The upcoming India-Africa Forum Summit could serve as a vital platform to formalise and solidify these diplomatic efforts through institutional cooperation.

Government Plans to revise Income Limits for Marginalised Students’ Scholarships

Context: Ahead of the upcoming financial cycle (FY 2026-27 to FY 2030-31), the Union government is considering revising the parental income limit for eligibility in availing post and pre-matric scholarships administered to students from marginalised castes and tribes.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Welfare schemes by the government.

Marginalised Students’ Scholarships

The post and pre-matric scholarships for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Castes (OBCs) run as centrally sponsored schemes by the government. They are funded by both the Union and State governments on a 60:40 ratio (Union: States), except for in northeast States where the ratio is 90:10.
Post-matric scholarships for SCs, STs, and OBCs, require the student to be an Indian national studying at the post-matric stage (after 10th grade).
Pre-matric scholarships are mostly available to students of grades IX and X. For SCs pre-matric scholarships are available from grades 1 to X, if their parent or guardian is involved in an unclean or hazardous occupation.
Both post and pre-matric scholarships require students’ annual parental income to be below ₹2.5 lakh to become eligible.

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is looking to raise parental income limit to ₹4.5 lakh for post and pre-matric ST scholarships, and the Social Justice Ministry is discussing revising the limits for post and pre-matric scholarships for SCs), Other Backward Castes (OBCs), and Denotified Tribes (DNTs).

In addition, discussions are also on to raise the parental income limit of college and school scholarships for OBCs, and DNTs.

Reasons for Revising the Parental Income Limit

Falling Number of Beneficiaries: Government data shows significant drops in beneficiaries for both pre-matric and post-matric scholarships across SCs, STs, OBCs, EBCs, and DNTs.
Too Low Existing Limit: The Parliamentary Committee on the Welfare of OBCs and the Parliamentary Committee overseeing the Ministries of Tribal Affairs & Social Justice observed that the current ₹2.5 lakh limit is too low, excluding many families even when they face financial stress.
Parliamentary Panel Recommendations: OBC Welfare Committee recommended doubling the income limit for OBC scholarships and expanding pre-matric coverage from Class IX-X to Class V onwards. The Joint Committee on Tribal Affairs & Social Justice recommended revising the parental income limits for ST scholarships and similar schemes for other marginalised groups.

Panels stressed that revising the limit would allow the scholarships to reach more beneficiaries who genuinely require them.