The Hindu

ICJ's Climate Ruling and its Significance

Context: Recently the International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered a landmark advisory opinion in response to a 2022 UN General Assembly resolution led by Vanuatu.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About ICJ and its ruling on Climate obligations.

Mains: Significance of ICJ ruling on Climate obligations.

The International Court of Justice held that:

Climate action was not a matter of choice or preference, but a legal obligation. The countries are under a legal obligation to take steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and could be held liable to pay compensation, if they failed to do so.
Rich and industrialised countries in Annexure I of the UNFCCC have an obligation to take the lead on emissions reduction, and facilitate technology and financial transfers to developing countries.
Failure to fulfil climate obligations may be deemed an internationally wrongful act, which could have legal consequences, including the liability to provide full reparation to countries that suffer on account of climate disasters, or other impacts of climate change.
Countries could be held liable even for the irresponsible actions of private businesses or corporations, if they had failed to exercise due diligence and not taken adequate regulatory or legislative measures to prevent the irresponsible behaviour of private actors.

The ruling is an advisory opinion, not a binding judgment. It does not impose immediate legal consequences on any country. Nonetheless, it can have significant implications for the global fight against climate change.

Significance of the Ruling:

Though non-binding, the ruling is the most authoritative interpretation of international climate law, and will likely guide national and international courts.
It declares that climate commitments under treaties like the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement are legal obligations, not just policy choices. The ruling puts the spotlight back on climate change, amid stalled global progress and missed 2030 emission reduction targets.
The ICJ recognises the right of climate-affected countries to seek full reparation, not just compensation.
Endorsed the concept of loss and damage in climate laws, calling upon developed countries to take the lead in raising financial and other support to help countries recover from impacts of climate change.
By asserting that climate action must be sufficient in scale, the ruling contrasts with the Paris Agreement’s “self-determined” approach to climate targets.
Enhances the negotiating strength of developing nations by legally framing the responsibility of richer countries. The ruling may trigger lawsuits by developing nations, and against corporate polluters for climate damages.

Every SC/ST Complaint must lead to FIR without Preliminary Inquiry: Madras HC

Context: Recently, the Madras High Court has ruled that the police cannot conduct preliminary inquiry on receipt of complaints disclosing cognisable offences under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989. Police should straightaway register First Information Reports (FIRs) against the suspects.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Madras HC ruling and key Provisions of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.

Mains: Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 Provisions and issues in Implementation.

In a significant verdict, the Madras High Court has held that :

The police must immediately register an FIR upon receiving complaints that disclose cognizable offences under the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, without conducting any preliminary inquiry.
The court cited Section 18A(1)(a) of the SC/ST Act (inserted via 2018 Amendment) which states: No preliminary inquiry shall be required for registration of an FIR against any person under this Act.
The court reinforced that As per Rule 7(1) of the SC/ST Rules 1995, only officers not below the rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP) are authorised to investigate.
Directed that the chargesheet must be filed within 60 days of FIR registration to ensure timely justice.
The Judge directed the Director-General of Police/ Head of Police Force to communicate a copy of his order to all Commissioners as well as Superintendents of Police in the State to ensure compliance with legal procedures in SC/ST cases.

SC and STs (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989

Enacted to prevent atrocities and hate crimes against Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
Aim: To provide protection, justice, and rehabilitation to victims of caste-based violence and discrimination.

Key Provisions of SC and STs (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989:

Criminalises caste-based atrocities against members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Includes acts like social boycott, denial of access to public spaces, forced labor, sexual abuse, and humiliation.
Does not cover offenses between SCs and STs themselves.
Most offences under the Act are cognizable and non-bailable.
Mandates establishment of exclusive Special Courts for speedy trial of cases.
Provides for relief, compensation, and rehabilitation of victims.
Burden of proof may shift to the accused in certain cases (reverse burden of proof).
Section 18: Bars anticipatory bail for accused under the Act (unless quashed by courts in exceptional cases).
Section 18A (Inserted in 2018): No preliminary inquiry required before FIR. No prior sanction needed for arrest of public servants.
Rule 7 of SC/ST Rules, 1995: Investigation must be conducted by a police officer not below the rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP).
Charge sheet must be filed within 60 days from FIR registration.

Issues in Implementation:

Police continue to conduct preliminary inquiries before registering FIRs, despite Section 18A(1)(a) prohibiting it.
Inquiries are often conducted by officers below the rank of DSP, violating Rule 7(1) of the SC/ST Rules, 1995.
Police frequently delay or avoid FIR registration, misusing discretion and undermining victims’ rights.
Regular procedural non-compliance hampers justice delivery and weakens cases.
Final reports/chargesheets are not filed within the mandated 60-day period, defeating the objective of speedy justice.

Also Read: National Commission of Scheduled Caste

Special Intensive Revision in Bihar: Legal Basis and Criticism

Context: The Election Commission of India (ECI) filed a counter affidavit in the Supreme Court in response to the writ petition challenging the constitutionality of the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) exercise, currently underway in Bihar.

ECI has defended its authority to require electors to prove citizenship through fresh documentation as part of the SIR exercise. In Bihar, the last SIR was held in 2003.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Special Intensive Revision (SIR) and its legal basis. Mains: Issues with SIR.

What is the SIR (Special Intensive Revision)?

A process initiated by the ECI to revise and verify electoral rolls.
Aim: To ensure that the voter list is accurate, inclusive, and free from discrepancies by allowing new registration, deletions, and modifications.

Legal Basis:

Article 326: Mandates that only Indian citizens can be registered as Voters. ECI asserted that it has the authority to require individuals to submit relevant documents to prove citizenship and eligibility under Article 326.
Article 324 vests the ECI with the power to supervise and control the preparation of electoral rolls and conduct of Elections.
Section 21 of the Representation of the People (RP) Act empowers the Election Commission (EC) to undertake a special revision of electoral rolls at any time, citing reasons in writing.
Section 15 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950 mandates the preparation of electoral rolls “under the superintendence, direction and control” of the ECI, Representation of the People Act, 1950 (RPA).
Registration of Electors Rules, 1960: Permit summary and intensive revisions.

However, the term “intensive” is not mentioned in the Representation of the People Act, and the rules do not define it clearly, raising questions about the statutory backing of the SIR.

Key Issues and Criticism

Burden of Proof on Electors:
- SIR shifts the burden of proving citizenship onto all existing electors, despite their prior registration through due process.
- A complaint-based mechanism already exists to delete non-citizens, but the ECI has provided no data showing its failure due to large-scale inclusion errors. In absence of such evidence, the ECI’s claim that only SIR-based entries are authentic is unsubstantiated and legally weak.
Weak Statutory Basis: The Representation of the People Act, 1950 makes no distinction between electors added through summary or intensive revisions. The term “intensive” is absent from the Act and lacks a clear definition even in the 1960 Rules. Thus, the legal foundation of SIR is vague, raising concerns over its legitimacy and enforceability.
Arbitrary Privileging of 2003 Electoral Roll:
- ECI rejects EPIC as proof of citizenship but exempts electors in 2003 rolls and their children from furnishing documents, relying only on name extract. This contradiction is legally questionable, especially when no proof of house-to-house verification or deletions of illegal migrants in 2003 is provided.
- Absence of 2003 SIR guidelines in the affidavit further weakens the claim, making the preferential treatment of 2003 entries arbitrary and unverified.
Questionable use of NRC-Based Citizenship Criteria:
- SIR 2025 applies citizenship verification norms from the CAA 2003, requiring extensive documentary proof (birth details of voter and parents). However, the constitutionality of CAA 2003 is still under Supreme Court review, and NRC, which the law envisaged, has not been implemented anywhere except Assam.
- Rules under CAA 2003 were notified even before the Act was passed, casting doubt on their legality. Even the Registrar General of India has not ordered NRC initiation.
- Hence, ECI lacks legal authority to enforce NRC-based citizenship tests via SIR in Bihar.
Arbitrary Exclusion of Aadhaar and Ration Cards as Eligibility Documents:
- ECI rejected Aadhaar as proof of citizenship, despite voluntarily collecting Aadhaar numbers in SIR 2025 forms. This is inconsistent, especially since ECI has no statutory mandate to test citizenship.
- Ration cards were excluded citing the prevalence of forgeries, but no similar objection was raised against residence certificates, despite over 13.89 crore certificates issued in Bihar (2011-2025), far more than the state's total population.
Transparency Concerns:
- The ECI’s counter-affidavit claims that over 90% of Bihar’s 7.89 crore electors have already submitted enumeration forms under the SIR exercise. However, the affidavit does not reveal how many of those forms were submitted with the required documents.
- It admits that forms submitted “with or without documents” will be included in the draft electoral roll, to be published on August 1, 2025. Document verification has been postponed, and scrutiny by electoral registration officers will only happen after the draft is published.
Operational & Implementation Issues in SIR:
- Till 22 July around 21.35 lakh (2.7%) electors were yet to receive and submit their enumeration forms. As of July 24, around 7 lakh electors (0.9%) had not submitted enumeration forms.
- Major political parties of Bihar were requested by the ECI to connect with the remaining electors, through their functionaries and booth level agents.
- Inability of the ECI in ensuring 100 % coverage through its own machinery of booth level officers (BLOs) and volunteers further exposes the impracticality of the SIR schedule.
Unverified Mass Exclusions:
- Over 53 lakh electors (6.7%) were not found at their addresses, including 21.6 lakh deceased and 31.5 lakh migrated voters.
The absence of constituency-wise data and pending verification raises concerns about error-prone deletions that may disproportionately affect certain demographics and constituencies.

Also Read: Why are Bihar’s Electoral Rolls being revised?

India-UK Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement

Context: India and the have signed a landmark free trade pact India-UK Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA). It is expected to double bilateral trade to $112 billion by 2030, boost services exports, liberalise government procurement, and facilitate mobility.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts related to India-UK trade deal.Mains: Significance of India-UK trade deal.

Key Highlights of India-UK Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA):

What India Gains?

1. 99% Duty Free Access:

The UK will eliminate tariffs on about 99% of tariff lines for Indian goods. It will benefit key labour-intensive sectors- marine, textiles, chemicals, base metals. The sectors will now enjoy zero duties, down from rates as high as 20%.
India has secured duty-free access for sectors like rubber, plastics, auto, tea, coffee, and spices.
In processed foods, tariffs on 99.7% of lines (presently as high as 70%) have been scrapped.

2. Textiles:

India’s textiles and clothing sector get duty-free access to over 1100 product categories (E.g., ready-made garments, home textiles, carpets, handicrafts etc.). This does away with the disadvantage on tariff front that India had with countries like Bangladesh and Cambodia.
With duties removed, India is expected to gain at least 5% more market share in the UK within the next one to two years.

3. Agriculture:

Many agricultural and processed foods, including fruits, vegetables, cereals, spices like turmeric and pepper, and items like mango pulp, pickles, and pulses will get duty-free access to the UK.
Over 95% of tariff lines will be duty free, which is likely to boost agri exports by over 20% in three years. This will support India's goal of $100 billion agri-exports by 2030.
The FTA protects India’s sensitive sectors like dairy, apples, oats, and edible oils.

4. Marine Products:

Tariffs have been removed on key items like shrimp, tuna, fishmeal, and feeds- previously taxed between 4.2% and 8.5%. No tariffs for India’s marine products creates a $5.4 billion marine export opportunity for India.

5. Engineering:

India’s engineering exports to the UK will have duty-free access. With tariffs (presently up to 18%) gone, exports could nearly double to over $7.5 billion by 2029-30.

6. Pharmaceuticals:

The FTA does away with tariffs on generic medicine, thus enhancing their competitiveness in the UK, which is India’s largest pharmaceutical market in Europe.
Medical devices such as surgical instruments, diagnostic equipment, ECG machines, and X-ray systems will now enjoy zero-duty access, making Indian products more cost-effective and attractive in the UK market.

7. Chemicals and Plastics:

India’s chemical exports to the UK may rise by 30-40%, estimated to reach $650-750 million in 2025-26.
The FTA gives duty-free access to plastics, and thus opens up strong opportunities in high-demand segments like films, sheets, pipes, and kitchenware in the UK.

8. Sectoral Boost:

Leather: In leather and footwear, the FTA does away with the 16% tariffs. It will add 5% market share in 1-2 years, and benefit MSME hubs like Agra, Kanpur, Kolhapur, and Chennai.
Gems and jewellery export is projected to double in 2-3 years as the FTA opens access to the UK’s $3 billion jewellery market.
India’s sports goods exports like soccer balls, cricket gear, rugby balls, and non-electronic toys will grow, boosting competitiveness against countries like China and Vietnam.

9. Benefits for Indian Professionals:

Double Contribution Convention: Indian professionals working temporarily in the UK will be exempt from paying social security for up to three years, reducing the financial burden on both employees and employers.
No Economic Needs Test: The FTA grants access to 36 service sectors without an Economic Needs Test for Indian firms and freelancers.
Indian professionals can now work in as many as 35 UK sectors for up to 2 years, even without the need for a local office.

What UK Gains?

India will reduce import tariffs on 90% of UK tariff lines, with 85% becoming fully tariff-free within 10 years.
India has cut tariffs on aerospace, automobiles, and electrical machinery with reductions ranging from as high as 110% and 11% to just 10% and 0%.
The import duties on UK-produced whisky and gin are lowered from 150% to 75% immediately, and will be followed by a further decrease to 40% within a decade.
The UK businesses will gain expanded access to public procurement opportunities in India. British companies will be able to bid on non-sensitive government tenders valued above Rs 2 billion.
The UK will be able to create over 2,200 jobs as a direct result of the trade agreement.
British consumers will benefit from cheaper prices and more choices on clothes, shoes, and food products.

The bilateral trade between the two countries stood at nearly USD 56 billion in FY2025. The deal will bring huge benefits to both our countries, boosting wages, raising living standards and putting more money in the pockets of working people.

The India-UK CETA will be implemented, once it is approved by the British Parliament, which may take a year or more.

Vitamin D deficiency linked to Neurodevelopmental Issues

Context: A major study published in The Lancet Psychiatry has found a potential link between neonatal vitamin D levels and the risk of developing neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia, ADHD, and Autism.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: India’s Vitamin D Problem; Vitamin D.

Vitamin D deficiency linked to Neurodevelopmental Issues

Researchers from Denmark used dried blood spot samples (Danish Neonatal Screening Biobank) from over 88,000 individuals born between 1981 and 2005.
From these samples, the team measured levels of:
- 25-hydroxyvitamin D or 25(OH)D which is the standard marker of vitamin D status.
- Vitamin D-binding protein which carries vitamin D in the blood and prolongs its activity.

Key Findings of the Study:

Babies with higher vitamin D levels were less likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia, ADHD, or autism.
Newborns with levels about 12.6 nmol/l higher than average had an 18% lower risk of schizophrenia, an 11% lower risk of ADHD, and a 7% lower risk of autism.
Vitamin D-binding protein levels were also linked to schizophrenia risk.
Researchers found no strong link between low vitamin D levels at birth (neonatal vitamin D) and the risk of depression or bipolar disorder later in life.

Limitations of the Study:

Nearly all participants were of European Ancestry.
In a smaller non-European group, the results were less consistent, possibly due to lower vitamin D levels, smaller sample size, and/or genetic diversity.

Gene variants may influence both vitamin D and neurodevelopment, a phenomenon known as pleiotropy.
Vitamin D measured only at birth- the study could not pinpoint a critical window during pregnancy.

India’s Vitamin D Problem

India has a high Vitamin D deficiency rate despite abundant sunlight.
A study conducted at AIIMS Rishikesh between 2017 and 2018 found that 74% of infants and 85.5% of their mothers were deficient in vitamin D, with nearly half experiencing severe deficiency.
A 2024 study conducted in the Bundelkhand region of India found a strong positive correlation between mothers’ and their infants’ vitamin D levels and interpreted it to mean babies born to vitamin D-deficient mothers were very likely to be deficient themselves.
However, findings also suggest that timely supplementation in deficient mothers can remarkably improve both maternal and neonatal levels.

Vitamin D insufficiency is not just an individual issue: it is a biological legacy passed from one generation to the next, shaping not just bones but brains too. India must move from reactive treatment to proactive care through awareness, screening, and timely supplementation.

US to Withdraw From UNESCO

Context: The United States, under the Trump administration, has announced to pull out of the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation), by the end of 2026.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Organisation based question on UNESCO, and the UN.

Mains: Shift from Multilateral world order to Unilateralism & Regionalism.

US to Withdraw From UNESCO

The US would withdraw from UNESCO by the end of 2026.
Reasonsfor withdrawal:
- Bias against Israel: The US has accused UNESCO of being biased against Israel.
- Against the US’s National Interest: The US has accused UNESCO of promoting divisive social and cultural causes and maintaining an outsized focus on the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals for international development at odds with America First foreign policy.

US’s fall out from UNESCO

1984: The US first pulled out of UNESCO, as it viewed the agency as mismanaged, corrupt and used to advance the interests of the Soviet Union. It later rejoined in 2003 during George W. Bush's Presidency.
2011: The US cut down the funding for UNESCO under the Obama administration after the agency included Palestine as a full member.
2017: The US pulled out from UNESCO during President Trump’s first term.
2023: The Biden administration rejoined UNESCO. The decision was motivated by the concern that China is filling the gap left by the US in UNESCO policy making.
2025: The US has announced to pull out from UNESCO.

Impact of the US Withdrawal:

Funding constraints: The decision to pull US funding and participation from UNESCO will deal a blow to its work preserving cultural heritage around the world. The US provides a notable share of the agency's budget (8% of the agency's total budget). Though UNESCO has diversified its funding sources in recent years and the US contribution has decreased.

About UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) is a specialised agency of the United Nations.
Aim: To promote world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture.
Members: 194 member states (including US).
Membership of the United Nations carries with it the right to membership of UNESCO. States that are not members of the UN may be admitted to UNESCO, upon recommendation of the Executive Board, by a two-thirds majority vote of the General Conference.
UNESCO gets its funding from contributions by member states, voluntary contributions, fundraising, and other, smaller sources of funding.
Headquarters: Paris, France.

Key Functions of UNESCO:

The agency focuses on promoting international collaboration in education, science and culture.
It works to improve literacy with a special focus on girls in countries hit by war or disasters, promotes sex education, and equality for women.
It is best known for its list of World Heritage Sites (presently has over 1200 World Heritage Sites) which acknowledge places with cultural or natural significance, and preserve heritage around the world. The Rapid Response Facility provides emergency support for natural World Heritage sites during times of crisis.
It also keeps an intangible cultural heritage list of humanity’s most worthy creations.
It also helps to set standards on a range of issues including-
- Ocean protection and coordinating climate knowledge.
- Ethics of Artificial Intelligence (AI). UNESCO adopted in 2021- the first global standard-setting instrument on the ethics of AI.

Important Reports by UNESCO:

Global Education Monitoring Report
Global Ocean Science Report
UNESCO Science Report
World Trend in Freedom of Expression and Media Development
United Nations World Water Development Report

UNESCO is the third UN agency that President Trump has pulled out of in 2025, following the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC).

The latest move is another blow on multilateralism and reflects increasing distrust of international institutions, especially those connected to the United Nations.

Also Read: Shift from Globalism to Regionalism

Ambrosia Beetle and Fungus threat to Kerala’s Rubber Plantation

Context: Kerala Forest Research Institute has identified a serious threat to rubber plantations in Kerala from an invasive species- the Ambrosia Beetle, in mutual association with two fungi: Fusarium ambrosia and Fusarium solani.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Invasive Alien species, Ambrosia beetles, Rubber Plantations in India.

As per the official data of 2024, India is the world’s fourth-largest producer of rubber in the world. Kerala alone accounts for 90% of India's total production and 72% of its rubber cultivation area. Threat to rubber plantations in Kerala from an invasive species- Ambrosia Beetle, is a serious concern.

Ambrosia Beetles

Ambrosia Beetles is an Invasive Alien species.
Native to Central and South America.
First reported in India in the cashew trees in Goa in 2012.
The name Ambrosia is not taxonomic but ecological. They get their name from the ambrosia fungi that call the beetle their home.
Have a mutual association with 2 fungal species - Fusarium ambrosia and Fusarium solani.

Mutual Association of Fungi with Ambrosia Beetle

Ambrosia beetles dig tunnels (called galleries) in tree bark and carry fungal spores with them.

These fungi grow inside the tunnels. The beetles and their larvae do not eat wood; instead, they feed on the nutrient-rich fungal mycelia growing inside the tunnels.
The fungi weaken the wood by secreting enzymes, allowing the beetles to go deeper.

How is it a threat to Rubber Plants?

The fungi travel deep inside the plant, especially through the xylem (the water-carrying tubes of plants), this blocks water flow making the tree dry out and die.
The infection also affects total latex production from rubber trees causing economic and agricultural losses.
Controlling the fungal infection is difficult as the Fungi reside in deeper parts of the infected plant, where insecticides or fungicides often do not reach. Once infected, the tree takes a long time to recover or may not survive at all.

A few species of ambrosia beetles, including Euplatypus parallelus, are invasive and threaten horticulture and silviculture worldwide. The infection also makes other economically significant plants such as coffee, cashew, mango, and coconut vulnerable to infections.

Being flying insects, the beetles can access a variety of trees. It can infest more than 80 species of broadleaf trees including cashew, teak, coconut, and coffee. Additionally, it may associate with other pathogenic fungi posing a bigger threat to plantations.

Way Forward

To combat the infection the experts suggest to:

Sustainable treatments such as using antagonistic fungi to outcompete pathogenic Fusarium species.
Apply microbial consortia with a diversity of bacterial species that can live inside plants, colonise plant tissues and enhance resistance to fungal infections.
Remove infected parts of the trees- burn or chip away any part that displays holes.
Rubber farmers have called for the use of genetically modified (GM) rubber plants.

Also Read: Govt raises funding for development of natural rubber sector

MiG-21 Fighter Jets to Retire

Context: After protecting the skies for more than six decades, the MiG-21 Bison fighter jets of the Indian Air Force are set to retire in September 2025. The plans are to replace them with indigenously developed Tejas Mk1A fighter aircraft.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about MiG-21 Fighter Jets.

MiG-21 Fighter Jets: India’s First Supersonic Fighter

MiG-21 is a single-engine supersonic jet fighter and interceptor aircraft.
Developed by: Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the former Soviet Union.
Induction: First procured in 1963 into the Indian Air Force (IAF). They formed the backbone of the Air Force till the mid-2000s, when the Su-30MKIs were inducted.
Initially developed as an interceptor, the supersonic jet was eventually upgraded to perform as a multi-role combat aircraft, including ground attacks.
With a maximum speed of 2230 kilometres per hour, the jet carries one 23mm twin-barrel cannon with four R-60 close combat missiles.
Key Role: They have played key roles in the wars with Pakistan (1965 and 1971), Kargil War (1999), Balakot air strikes (2019), and the most-recent Operation Sindoor (2025).

Variants of MiG-21 Fighter Jets:

Over the years, India procured more than 700 MiG-21 aircraft of different variants. Many were domestically built by Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. They include- Type 74 or MiG 21F; Type 76 or MiG 21PF; Type 77 or MiG 21FL; Type 96 or MiG 21M; Type 75 or MiG 21 Bis (upgraded Type 96); and MiG-21 Bison.

MiG-21 Fighter Jets to Retire

The Air Force currently has two MiG-21 squadrons, or 36 aircrafts, that are operated by the squadrons stationed at the Nal airbase in Rajasthan.
- Indian Air Force (IAF) has 31 fighter squadrons as against the sanctioned strength of 42 squadrons. It is significantly below the optimal readiness requirements.
- The phase out of two MIG-21 squadrons has been long extended due to the delayed deliveries of LCA-Mk1A (Tejas fighter aircraft). After the phased out, the combat strength of the Air Force will drop to 29 squadrons.

Controversy:

The MiG-21 aircrafts have been involved in several accidents, leading to the deaths of 170 pilots and 40 civilians. They were once termed “Flying Coffin”.

Also Read: Race for Fighters: the IAF’s dilemma

Keeladi Archaeological Site

Context: Findings from excavation at Keeladi village in Tamil Nadu's Sivaganga district provide compelling evidence of urban civilisation that existed in Tamil Nadu during the Sangam age.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Keeladi.

About Keeladi

Keeladi is a small village in the Sivaganga district in Tamil Nadu.
It is about 12 km south-east to the temple city of Madurai and is located along the Vaigai river.

Keeladi Findings:

The excavations here from 2015 prove that an urban civilisation existed in Tamil Nadu in the Sangam Age on the banks of the Vaigai river.
Carbon dating of charcoal discovered at the site in February 2017 established that the settlement dates back to 6th century BCE.
Houses built with burnt bricks, well-laid drainage systems, water tanks, and deep wells reflect urban planning and engineering skills.
Evidence of industries such as pottery, weaving, dyeing, and bead-making.
Square-shaped trenches reveal remnants of furnaces containing soot and ash, confirming that Keeladi was a centre for manufacturing beads made from quartz, carnelian, glass, agate, and other materials.
Discovery of spindle whorls, terracotta beads, and tools points to organised economic activity.
The findings also indicate trade and cultural exchange with the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Over 120 potsherds containing Tamil Brahmi inscriptions have been found. There are Tamil words engraved on the potteries that mention the names of individuals like 'Aathan', 'Uthiran' and 'Thiesan'.

How is Keeladi linked to the Sangam Age?

The Sangam age is a period of history in ancient Tamil Nadu which was believed to be from the third century BCE to the third century CE. The name is derived from the renowned Sangam poets of Madurai from that time.
Excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department (TNSDA) have pushed the Sangam age further back.
- In 2019, a TNSDA report dated the unearthed artefacts from Keeladi to a period between sixth century BCE and first century BCE.
- One of the six samples collected at a depth of 353 cm, sent for carbon dating in the US, dated back to 580 BCE.
Keeladi could provide crucial evidence for understanding the missing links of the Iron Age (12th century BCE to sixth century BCE) to the Early Historic Period (sixth century BCE to fourth century BCE) and subsequent cultural developments.

What is the controversy surrounding Keeladi?

After reports of possible links with the Indus Valley Civilisation, the third round (2017) of diggings by the ASI saw a delayed start.
Superintending Archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishna was transferred to Assam, allegedly in a perceived attempt to play down the excavation findings.
Keeladi almost faded from public memory as there was no “significant finding” in the third round. This led to criticism that the excavation had been deliberately restricted to 400 metres.

Are there Links to Indus Valley?

The unearthed Keeladi artefacts have led academics to describe the site as part of the Vaigai Valley Civilisation.
The findings have also invited comparisons with the Indus Valley Civilisation while acknowledging the cultural gap of 1000 years between the two places.
- Till now, the gap is filled with Iron Age material in south India, which serve as residual links.
- However, some of the symbols found in pot sherds of Keeladi bear a close resemblance to Indus Valley signs.
TNSDA affirms that Keeladi has all the characteristics of an urban civilisation, with brick structures, luxury items and proof of internal and external trade. Keeladi has also added to the credibility of Sangam Literature.

Index of Eight Core Industries

Context: The Index of Eight Core Industries grew at 1.7% in June 2025, as compared to 5% in June 2024. IIP had registered a growth of mere 0.5% in April 2025, its lowest in the last eight months. The output of eight core infrastructure sectors makes up 40% of the country's industrial production.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Index of Eight Core Industries.

Index Of Eight Core Industries

Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI) measures combined and individual performance of production of eight core sectors in India, comprising- coal, crude oil, natural gas, petroleum refinery products, fertilisers, steel, cement and electricity.
These eight core industries constitute 40.27% of the total index of industrial production (IIP).
This index is prepared by the Office of the Economic Advisor, Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
It is published monthly with the base year as 2011-12.

Weightage of different sectors in the Index:

Highest Weightage: Refinery products.
Lowest Weightage: Fertilisers.

India’s Aviation Sector Need Reforms

Context: The Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau’s preliminary report on the Air India Boeing 787 air crash in Ahmedabad was released recently. The report remains inconclusive with critical uncertainties on whether pilot action was inadvertent or deliberate.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Structure of India’s Aviation System.Mains: Key Issues in India’s Aviation Safety Ecosystem.

Structure of India’s Aviation System

The Aviation System broadly involves multiple elements:
- Airline Operator: The Aircraft (design, airworthiness, and maintenance) and the people who operate it (maintenance engineers, technicians, pilots and cabin crew) are the responsibility of the airline operator.
- Airports Authority of India: While Airport infrastructure, Air traffic control systems and its personnel are the responsibility of the Airports Authority of India (AAI) and/or the Aerodrome operator.
Regulator: Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)
- DGCA regulates Airlines, Airports and Airport Authority of India (AAI).
- It sets safety rules, approves procedures, and monitors compliance.
Supervisory Authority: Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA)
- It is the top-level policy-making and supervisory body for civil aviation in India.
- It oversees both DGCA and AAI.

Key Issues in India’s Aviation Safety Ecosystem

Each layer in aviation safety- from design, engineering, and operations to regulation- contains flaws. Accidents occur when these flaws align. Crashes are the inevitable result of years of systemic neglect and policy violations.

1. Systemic Neglect:

Aircraft Design and Airworthiness: DGCA has limited internal technical capacity and relies heavily on foreign regulators such as the Federal Aviation Administration (US) and European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EU). This weakens India's self-sufficiency in evaluating airworthiness.
Aircraft Maintenance Standards:
- Aircraft Maintenance Engineers (AMEs) work under severe stress without duty time limits. Duty-time limitations recommended for AMEs by the court of inquiry following the crash in Mangaluru (2010) remain unimplemented.
- The DGCA has allowed airlines to delegate AME tasks to less-qualified, lower-paid technicians- a cost-cutting move that undermines safety.
Pilot and Flight Crew Stress:
- Airlines violate Flight Time Duty Limitations for pilots, and the DGCA grants exemptions which allow pilots who are fatigued to operate.
- The DGCA’s unique NOC requirement restricts pilot mobility across airlines, increasing stress and enabling airlines to coerce pilots into breaching regulations.
Airline Operations:
- Airlines prioritise profit over safety. Despite the DGCA suspending personnel for safety violations, airline officials often retain high positions, controlling operations.
- DGCA-appointed officers in airlines, who are expected to enforce compliance, often have no real authority, making accountability toothless.
Air Traffic Management: The AAI faces a severe shortage of Air Traffic Controller Officers (ATCO). The provision to give licences to ATCO has not yet been implemented. Duty-time limitations for ATCOs, recommended by the Mangalore Court of Inquiry, remain unimplemented.
Silencing Whistle-Blowers: Whistle-blowers are often demoted, transferred, or terminated, discouraging the reporting of critical safety issues in the AAI and airlines.

2. Regulatory Loopholes:

Violations of Inner Horizontal Surface (IHS) Norms
- Thousands of illegal vertical obstructions have emerged within airport flight paths.
- Statutory safeguards like the Aircraft Act and Order 988 of 1988 were undermined by a non-statutory appellate committee starting in 2008. This committee, comprising officials from MoCA, DGCA, and AAI, approved dozens of unsafe buildings.
- Ironically, the same officials who approve unsafe structures are often responsible for judging safety complaints about them.
Judiciary has been inactive on aviation issues, relying on the state’s technical expertise on the subject.

Way Forward

Reform DGCA and AAI to improve transparency, technical strength, and accountability.
Enact and enforce legal protection for employees who report safety concerns.
Revoke and re-evaluate unsafe building approvals.
Judiciary’s conservative approach to valuing human life needs to change. It must address the deterioration in the aviation sector and hold authorities accountable.
A genuine ‘culture of safety’ must permeate every layer of the Aviation System including fair employment terms and access to mental health care without punitive consequences.

Without immediate, bold reforms and a fundamental shift toward a genuine culture of safety, India’s rapidly growing Aviation Sector risks further tragedies. The Judiciary, regulators, and policymakers must act in cohesion to bring out the necessary reforms.

Impeachment Process of Judge of High Court

Context: The impeachment of Justice Yashwant Varma - the ex-Delhi High Court judge has begun after 145 MPs, from ruling and opposition parties, submitted a memorandum to the Lok Sabha Speaker. The Parliament has the jurisdiction to constitutionally remove a High Court judge.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Removal process of a Judge of High Court.

Removal process of a Judge of HC

A judge of a High Court can be removed from his/her office by an order of the President. The President can issue the removal order only after an address by the Parliament has been presented to him/her in the same session for such removal.
The address must be supported by a special majority of each House of the Parliament (i.e., a majority of the total membership of that House and majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of that House present and voting).
The grounds for removal are two: proved misbehaviour or incapacity. Thus, a judge of a High Court can be removed in the same manner and on the same grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court.

The Judges Enquiry Act (1968) regulates the procedure relating to the removal of a judge of a High Court by the process of impeachment:

A removal motion signed by 100 members (in the case of Lok Sabha) or 50 members (in the case of Rajya Sabha) is to be given to the Speaker/Chairman.
The Speaker/Chairman may admit the motion or refuse to admit it.
If it is admitted, then the Speaker/Chairman is to constitute a three-member committee to investigate the charges.
The committee should consist of (a) the Chief Justice or a Judge of the Supreme Court, (b) Chief Justice of a High Court, and (c) a distinguished Jurist.
If the committee finds the judge to be guilty of misbehaviour or suffering from an incapacity, the House can take up the consideration of the motion.
After the motion is passed by each House of Parliament by a special majority, an address is presented to the President for removal of the judge.
Finally, the President passes an order removing the judge.

The procedure for the impeachment of a judge of a High Court is the same as that for a judge of the Supreme Court. No judge of a High Court has been impeached so far.