Society & Social justice

All (4049)Current Affairs (4038)Mains Practice (126)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

The state of scholarships for minorities

Context: In the past few years, the Centre has discontinued two key educational schemes for religious minorities, narrowed the scope of another and gradually cut down on the expenditure incurred on multiple programmes of the Ministry of Minority Affairs.

Importance of Scholarships for Religious Minorities

  • India is home to over 30 crore (20%) people from religious minority communities. These include six religions notified under Section 2(c) of the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. Among them, Muslims make up the largest religious minority but face challenges in various sectors. 
  • Their participation in salaried jobs is low and many are engaged in the informal sector, characterised by low wages, weak social security and poor working conditions. The Justice Rajinder Sachar Committee was constituted by the UPA government to look into the social, economic and educational standing of Muslims in India. In a comprehensive 400-page report tabled in Parliament in 2006, the Sachar Committee concluded that the Muslim minority was neglected in almost all dimensions of development. “By and large, Muslims rank somewhat above SC/ST but below Hindu OBCs [Other Backward Classes], Other Minorities and Hindu General [mostly upper castes] in almost all indicators considered,” the report stated. 
  • Around the same time, the Manmohan Singh-led UPA government accepted the long-pending demand for a Ministry of Minority Affairs in 2006. The new Ministry was to “ensure a more focused approach” on issues affecting the notified minorities, especially “educational empowerment, economic empowerment, infrastructure development and special needs.”
  • Directive Principles of State Policy require the state to ensure the welfare of the citizens, for example, Article 38 requires the state to minimise the inequalities in terms of income, status, facilities and opportunities.
  • To achieve the objectives of the slogan sabka sath sabka vikas it is necessary to equal opportunity for quality education to sections of the society.
  • Access to quality education for sections of society is crucial to realise the objectives of the Preamble of the Indian Constitution.
  • We are aspiring to become a developed nation by 2047, inclusive development is the only way to achieve this aspiration.

Some of the Scholarships for Minority 

The Pre-Matric Scholarship Scheme-  One of the first central sector programmes implemented by the Ministry of Minority Affairs. The scholarship was initially awarded to minority students from class 1 to 10 and ranged between ₹1,000 and ₹10,700 for each selected candidate. The scheme has now been discontinued for classes 1 to 8, only covering classes 9 and 10 in its revised form. 

The Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme- for students of class 11 and above (till Ph.D). It aimed to give minority students access to quality higher education, with a scholarship ranging between ₹2,300 and ₹15,000. The funds for this scheme increased from ₹515 crore to ₹1,065 crore this fiscal year. 

The Merit-cum-Means based Scholarship Scheme- targeted professional and technical courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Eligible candidates in any of the 85 institutes listed under the scheme are reimbursed full course fees, while those in other institutions are reimbursed course fees worth ₹20,000 per annum. The scholarship scheme saw a major reduction in funds in 2023-24. It was allotted ₹44 crore this year, while last year’s allotment was ₹365 crore. 

Maulana Azad National Fellowship (MANF)-The scheme provided financial assistance for five years to research scholars pursuing an M.Phil and PhD from institutions recognised by the University Grants Commission (UGC). Under the scheme, junior research fellows received a grant of ₹31,000 for the first two years while senior research fellows got ₹35,000 per month for the remaining tenure. The MANF benefited over 6,700 candidates between 2014-15 and 2021-22, with ₹738.85 crore paid before it was cancelled in 2022. 

The Padho Pardesh scheme was launched to provide better opportunities for higher education abroad, providing an interest subsidy on education loans for overseas studies to students belonging to economically weaker sections of minority communities. However, this scheme was discontinued from 2022-23. The scheme benefited 20,365 beneficiaries since its inception in 2006. 

The Begum Hazrat Mahal National Scholarship was for meritorious girls to pursue higher secondary education and was provided by the Maulana Azad Education Foundation (MAEF). The scholarship has had zero allocation this year. 

The Naya Savera was a separate programme launched to provide free coaching to minority students for entrance to technical and professional courses and competitive examinations. In the Union Budget 2023-24, the scheme was allotted ₹30 crore but the Centre has since discontinued the scheme stating that the New Education Policy 2020 does not support coaching programmes. Official records show that 1.19 lakh students benefited under the scheme. 

The Scheme for Providing Education to Madrasas and Minorities (SPEMM), a centrally sponsored umbrella programme, has a sub-scheme, the Scheme for Providing Quality Education in Madrasas (SPQEM), under which recognised madrasas receive financial assistance to introduce ‘modern’ subjects such as science, mathematics, social studies, Hindi and English in their curriculum. The scheme was allocated ₹10 crore for the financial year 2023-24 — more than 90% less than the allocation in 2022-23, which was ₹160 crore.

Consequences of discontinuation of scholarship programmes

Social consequences- The minority community is already backward as affirmed by the Sacher committee if the youth of this community are deprived of quality higher education then there is a higher chance that they may be trapped in social evils like communalism, and crimes.

Political repercussions-uneducated generations are breeding grounds for polarisation of the society by political parties as is evident from our own history. In the long run, depriving a  community of quality education can hamper the unity and integrity of the nation itself.

Economic fallouts- we can't achieve the goals of inclusive and sustainable development by depriving a section of quality education, because education is crucial to fostering productivity and equitable resource distribution.

Way forward

  • The government should adhere to constitutional morality of ensuring the welfare of all of its citizens without discriminating on the grounds of religion, race or region.
  • The government can promote the NGOs in this sector so that it can achieve its target of availing quality education with reduced economic burden.
  • Ensure adequate employment opportunities at the local level so that people can afford quality education on their own.
  • Community leaders can come forward to ensure quality education for the community by resource pooling.

Only the Central Government is entitled to conduct Census

Context: The Centre government has opposed the Bihar government's decision to conduct a caste-based survey in the state, stating that it is a 'Union subject'.

Major Highlights:

  • The Ministry of Home Affairs filed an affidavit before the Supreme Court, which stated, "According to the Centre, the census is a Union list subject (in the seventh schedule), and that it is the Centre only which can conduct it under the Section 3 of the Census Act 1948 Act."
  • The affidavit also states, "The central government is committed to taking all affirmative actions for the upliftment of the SC/ST/OBC in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution of India and the applicable law."
  • Background: The decision of a caste-based census was taken by the Bihar cabinet in 2022. The Supreme Court of India dismissed a plea challenging the Bihar caste survey in January 2023. The Bihar government’s Caste survey is now underway. In 2015, the Karnataka government conducted a caste survey which was not released.

Caste-based census in India:

  • Caste census means inclusion of caste-wise tabulation of India's population in the Census exercise. India has counted and published caste data — from 1951 to 2011 — of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes only. 
  • A caste-based census gathers data on economic status and other caste-related information of every Indian family, both in rural and urban areas to help the authorities define deprivation indicators and map inequalities at a broader level. 
  • This data helps better policy-making by identifying both disadvantaged and privileged sections of society. Many political parties feel that the present reservation being based on the last caste census conducted in 1931 does not reflect the correct numbers.

The first and last caste census:

  • In India, there have been caste-based censuses conducted in the past. The first caste-based census took place in 1881 during the colonial period. 
  • The 1931 census was the last exercise to enumerate caste data. The population of OBCs was 52% as last recorded in the 1931 caste census.
  • The UPA government conducted Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) in 2011. It was the first caste-based census since 1931. The data was, however, not published. 

Is Caste Census constitutionally mandated?

  • Article 340 of the Constitution authorises the appointment of a commission to investigate the conditions of SEBCs and the difficulties under which they labour. 
  • The commission is assigned to make recommendations for the Union or any State necessary for the removal of such difficulties and to improve the conditions of the Socially and Economically Backward Classes. E.g., Justice G Rohini Commission in 2017

Rationale behind the caste census:

  • For a significant period of time post-independence, there has been a certain level of “caste-blindness” to policy-making and this has been accompanied by the wishful thinking that if we do not address caste and make it even more glaring it will wither away. 
  • Caste has been deeply entrenched social structure in India for centuries. Census exercise in Independent India has never enumerated castes, except SC & ST, as a matter of policy. However, recently there has been growing demand for Caste enumeration in the census. 
  • The idea behind the caste-based census is to recognise what we mean to abolish (in order to abolish caste, caste-based discrimination, caste-based distribution of wealth and socio-cultural inequalities generated by caste it is essential to understand its expansiveness).

Need for Caste-based census: 

  • Demographic changes: Existing reservation limits of 27% to OBC, and overall 50% legally mandated cap on reservation is based on pre-independent census data, which needs to be revised/reviewed keeping in mind present-day demographic changes. 
  • Identifying Vulnerable Communities: Caste-based census can help identify the most disadvantaged and marginalised communities/caste groups to reveal disparities in literacy rates, income levels, access to healthcare etc. for targeted interventions. E.g., OBC Sub-categorisation can identify/prioritise the most deprived communities within OBC list. 
  • Accurate data for Policy Formulation: Can provide accurate/up-to-date data on socio-economic conditions of different caste groups for formulating evidence-based policies and reducing inclusion and exclusion errors. E.g., Evaluate legitimacy of reservation demands. 
  • Assessment of Affirmative Action: Enables government to measure effectiveness of previous policies/initiatives targeted towards specific castes and make necessary adjustments for better outcomes.
  • Constitutional Imperative: Article 340 calls for creation of a commission to evaluate the conditions of socially and educationally disadvantaged.

Significant challenges and concerns associated with conducting caste-based census:

  • Complexity: Data collection is complex due to huge population, multiple caste identities and presence of individuals unwilling to disclose their caste identity. 
  • Cost and Resources: Conducting comprehensive caste-based census requires significant financial and human resources. And often, due to challenges involved, the costs may outweigh the benefits involved.
  • Social Tensions: As Caste is a sensitive issue in India, conducting caste-based census may lead to heightened social tensions and conflicts.
  • Privacy and Misuse of Data: Caste-related information can be sensitive and raise privacy concerns. It can be misused for electoral purposes, vote-bank politics etc. rather than genuinely addressing social inequalities.
  • Perpetuate caste identity: Caste census can reinforce caste identity, intensify caste-based divisions and may perpetuate discrimination.
  • Political Resistance: Idea of caste-based census may face opposition from various groups/political entities, potentially delaying its implementation. 

Way Forward

  • Category-based, if not caste-based, enumeration of the census will not only help the government in collecting data that mirrors social inequalities but also make decisions for course correction. India needs to make bold decisions through data and statistics in the way the United States does to tackle race issues, by collecting data around race, class, language, inter-race marriages etc.
  • Caste may be the dominant but not the only/sole criterion of backwardness in the country. Need for improving HDI, education, health outcomes for the population irrespective of caste, and effective implementation of affirmative action policies for the upliftment of the marginalised sections. 

Population growth and Economy

Context: Moody's Investors Service released a report stating that although India's population growth could expand its labor force, this alone wouldn't suffice to strengthen the economy or enhance fiscal outcomes due to the country's education quality. The report emphasized the importance of improved education to prevent job losses from technological advancements in sectors like call centers. 

Moody's compared India's education with Pakistan and Bangladesh, noting the need for quality education and infrastructure for economic benefits. The report highlighted India, along with other nations, contributing significantly to global population growth and workforce increase. It also pointed out educational disparities between these countries and their peers. Lastly, the report highlighted gender-based education gaps in India and Bangladesh.

The relationship between population growth and economic growth is complex and multifaceted. Economists and researchers have debated this topic for years, and the consensus has evolved over time. The relationship can vary depending on the specific context, the stage of development of a country or region, and various socio-economic factors. 

From the Point of View of UPSC mains syllabus, this is a very important topic. 

GS PAPER II 

  • Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.

So in this article, we are going to cover the following:

  • Relation between population growth and economic growth (For general understanding)
  • Factors responsible for India’s population growth
  • Challenges caused by growing population
  • Way ahead to harness the benefits of population growth 

Relation between population growth and economic growth:

  • Population Growth as a Driver of Economic Growth (Early Stages)
    • A larger population means a larger labor force, which can lead to increased production, consumption, and innovation. This phenomenon is often referred to as the demographic dividend. When the ratio of working-age individuals to dependents (children and elderly) is high, it can create a favorable environment for economic expansion.
  • Labor Force and Human Capital:
    • A growing population can provide a larger labor force, which, if properly educated and skilled, can contribute to higher productivity and economic growth. However, for population growth to positively impact economic growth, there must be adequate investments in education, healthcare, and skill development to ensure that the workforce is productive and capable of contributing to economic activities.
  • Consumption and Demand:
    • A larger population can lead to increased consumption and demand for goods and services, which can stimulate economic growth. Businesses may expand to meet this increased demand, leading to higher levels of investment and production.
  • Urbanization and Productivity:
    • Population growth often leads to urbanization, as people move from rural areas to cities in search of better opportunities. Urbanization can lead to increased productivity due to factors like economies of scale, improved infrastructure, and better access to markets and resources.
  • Resource Constraints and Negative Impacts:
    • Rapid population growth without corresponding economic development and resource management can lead to resource constraints, environmental degradation, and increased competition for limited resources. This can have negative effects on economic growth in the long run.
  • Demographic Transition:
    • As economies develop and standards of living improve, birth rates tend to decline. This results in a shift from high population growth rates to lower ones. During this demographic transition, countries can experience a period of accelerated economic growth due to a relatively smaller dependent population.
  • Aging Population:
    • In more advanced economies, declining birth rates and increased life expectancy can lead to an aging population. While this may result in a decline in the working-age population, it can also create opportunities for innovation and growth in industries related to healthcare, elderly care, and technology.
  • Quality of Institutions and Policies:
    • The relationship between population growth and economic growth is influenced by the quality of institutions and policies in place. Good governance, effective healthcare systems, education policies, and infrastructure development play a crucial role in determining how population growth impacts economic growth.

In summary, the relationship between population growth and economic growth is not deterministic, and its effects can vary widely based on numerous factors. While a growing population can potentially provide a demographic dividend and contribute to economic growth, this positive outcome depends on factors such as investments in human capital, infrastructure, and sound governance.

Additionally, as countries progress in their development, the relationship often becomes more nuanced, with demographic transitions and changing population structures influencing economic dynamics.

Factors responsible for India’s population growth

  • Falling mortality: The IMR has decreased from 40.7 in 2015-16 to 35.3 in 2019-21.
  • Increasing Life expectancy at birth: It reached to 69.7 years in the 2015-19 period from 31 in 1947.
  • Unintended pregnancies: 1 in every 7 unintended pregnancies of world occur in India.
  • Lack of female education, child marriage and early marriages, etc.

Challenges caused by growing population

  • Pressure on resources: As India has only 2.45% of the global surface area and 4% of the water resources. 
  • Pandemic outbreaks: Due to increasing urbanization and expansion of humans in wild habitats. 
  • Disruption and Conflicts: Due to rise in struggle for finite resource. 
  • Decline in social indicators: Due to suboptimal public expenditures on health and education may not be possible. 
  • Pressure on economy: Due to low skilled workforce, stagnant economy, unemployment, etc.
  • Widening gender gap: If expenditure on health and education decline, women would suffer the most.

Way ahead to harness the benefits of population growth 

  • Supporting Reproductive Justice: Provisions of safe and effective methods of family planning and freedom to make the best reproductive choice. 
  • Education for all: Educational attainment, particularly of girls, enhances intergenerational formation of human capital and has a positive impact on demographic behaviour with respect to nuptiality, fertility, health, etc. 
  • Foster Inclusive Growth developing democratic institutions to facilitate equity in the society. 
  • Facilitate migration to bridge the demand and supply of the workforce. 
  • Investment in green technology and social innovations to adapt to and mitigate climate and environmental changes. 
  • Better geriatric care, health insurance and pension facilities for 65+ age category.

Social Safety Net

Context: Around 53% of all the salaried workforce does not have any social security benefits in India, Says the Periodic Labour Force Survey Annual Report 2021-22.

Social safety nets are non-contributory transfer programs generally targeted to the poor or those vulnerable to shocks, e.g. 

  • Cash transfers are either targeted or not, either conditional or not.
  • Food or other in-kind distribution. 
  • Public workfare jobs.
  • General price subsidies, e.g., for food or fuel.
  • Fee waivers for essential services such as health or education.

Importance of Safety nets 

  • Safety nets enable households to make better investments in their future.
  • Safety nets help households manage risk e.g., health risk.
  • Safety nets help communities create assets.
  • Safety nets help governments make beneficial reforms that improve growth prospects.

Status of Safety Nets in India

  • According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey Annual Report 2021-22, around 53% of all the salaried workforce does not have any social security benefits in India.
  • In India only 1.9% of the poorest 20% quintile of India’s workforce has access to any benefits. 
  • Gig workers, or approximately 1.3% of India’s active labour force, rarely have access to any social security benefit. 
  • Mercer Global Pension Index (2021 MCGPI) ranked India at 40 out of 43 countries. 

Steps taken by Government 

The government has put in place economic safety nets comprising the world’s largest free food program, direct cash transfers and relief measures for small businesses: 

  • Barbell Strategy: The government opted for a “Barbell Strategy” that combined a bouquet of safety-nets to cushion the impact on vulnerable sections of society, with a flexible policy response based on a Bayesian updating of information. 
  • Creation of Fund: The National Social Security Fund was set up for unorganised sector workers, with an initial allocation of just ₹1,000 crore to support schemes for weavers, rickshaw pullers and bidi workers etc. 
  • Push for Digitisation: Government has giving push to reduce human interference to reduce the corruption and get the benefits of social security scheme to citizen e.g., e-Shram platform has enabled the enrolment of approximately 300 million workers while expanding coverage of accident insurance (of ₹2 lakh cover) and disability (of ₹1 lakh cover).
  • Cash transfer: Under Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) a transfer of Rs 6,000 per year in three instalments has been provided.
  • Food security:
    • Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana was launched to provide additional free-of-cost food grains to National Food Security Act (NFSA) beneficiaries 5 kg per person per month, over and above the regular monthly NFSA foodgrains.
    • One Nation One Ration Card: to ensure PDS benefit for people in transit, especially migrant workers.
    • Ujjawala Scheme: under the scheme the target was to release 8 Crore LPG Connections to the deprived households by March 2020.
  • Employment Security 
    • Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Rojgar Abhiyaan (PM-GKRA) was launched for immediate employment & livelihood opportunities to returnee migrant workers.
    • Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS): It aims to enhance livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment in a financial year to at least one member of every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. 
    • Aatmanirbhar Bharat Rojgar Yojana (ABRY) was launched to reduce the financial burden of the employers and encourages them to hire more workers, implemented by EPFO.
  • Housing 
    • Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana - Gramin and Urban: To achieve the objective of providing “Housing to All” by the year 2022.
  • Credit
    • PM SVANidhi Scheme to provide working capital loan to urban street vendors to resume their businesses.

Challenges 

  • Low Budgetary Allocation: The budgetary allocation by the government has always been limited E.g., In national social security fund, the amount was a pittance when compared to a requirement of over ₹22,841 crore as estimated by the Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability. 
  • Increasing Burden: It is estimated that the cost of providing social protection to the poorest 20% of the workforce would be in trillions, a cost of approximately 0.69% of GDP in FY20.
  • Accessibility: Approximately 91% of India’s workforce works in the informal sector which lacks access to social security. 
  • Coverage: While the Code on Social Security (2020) merged existing social security legislation, it dealt fundamentally with formal enterprises and did not cover informal ones.
  • Compliance Burden: Presence of a complex process to register for social scheme and low awareness is leading to less coverage e.g., e-Shram puts the burden of registration on informal workers, who are required to furnish a self-declaration and share their Aadhaar card.
  • Complex and Confusing Processes: The existing social security framework has become complex, with overlapping areas of authority between the State and Centre, and confusing definitions being used such as between a platform worker, an unorganised worker and someone who is self-employed.
  • Migrant Worker: Migrant workers often face discrimination and suspicion from authorities in their working area, which hinder the effective utilisation of the schemes by them.

Global Practices 

Brazil’s General Social Security Scheme 

  • It is a contribution-based scheme, substituting income loss for a worker and his family, whether in partial or full. 
  • This covers any situation due to an accident at work, a disability that prevents the worker from working, death, an illness/medical treatment etc. 
  • Even income loss that occurs due to a worker being imprisoned is covered by the low-income insured. 
  • Unemployment insurance is paid from worker support funds, and health care is covered through the Unified Health System. 
  • The Constitution itself has established that if there is a lack of funds, the National Treasury will step in.
  • Social security benefits can be availed of with a simple phone call or a visit to a bank, with no requirement to submit endless documents.

Way forward 

  • For Worker: 
    • For formal workers the government should expand employer and employee contribution under the Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO) system. 
    • For informal workers with meaningful income, whether self-employed or in an informal enterprise, partial contributions can be elicited.
    • Government should persuade informal enterprises to formalise and expand their total contribution to the fund.
  • Unemployed Individual: For those who are unemployed or have stopped looking for work, or do not earn enough, the government should step in to make provision for employment and provide for the social security initiatives. 
  • Easy and Wholistic Coverage: Greater support is required for financing social security for most of the India’s labour force.
    • There should be a push for a pan-India labour force card and an expansion of existing successful schemes such as the Building and Other Construction Workers Schemes to other categories of workers. 
    • Such expansion requires a loosening of existing restrictions on benefit portability, having a 90-day mandatory cooling period, as well as a more straightforward registration process.
  • Domestic Worker: Special provisions should be made for domestic workers owing to their uncertain employment. The government should promote the idea of organised domestic worker association.
  • Strengthening Existing Schemes: Government should also strengthen the existing schemes, for example the Employees’ Provident Fund (EPF), the Employees’ State Insurance Scheme (ESI), and the National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP), with budgetary support and expansion of coverage. 
  • Raising Awareness: Government should give a more significant push to raise awareness about social security to ensure that more workers are aware of the available benefits.
    • Organisations such as the Self-Employed Women’s Association which run Shakti Kendras (worker facilitation centres), may be funded to run campaigns to provide greater information on social security rights, along with services and schemes that the government offers.

With occupations becoming more on-demand and hire/fire rules growing, India's workforce is becoming increasingly job insecure. To ensure that the rewards of growth trickle down while providing a sense of social stability, policymakers must abandon supply-side tweaks in favour of measures that promote equitable growth. 

Hunger and Malnutrition

Context: Recently the Prime minister, in his Independence Day speech, has claimed that the government had lifted 135 million people out of poverty from 2015-16 to 2019-21. Though it was a commendable achievement, the reduction in the poverty did not result in reduction in Hunger and Malnutrition in India. In this context, let us analyse the reasons for persistence of Hunger in India. 

Status:

India had been ranked 107 out of 121 countries on the Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2022. The level of hunger in India had been labelled as 'serious' by the latest edition of the annual country-wise rankings report.

Global Hunger Index: Each country’s GHI score is calculated based on four indicators. 

Undernourishment – calculated by the share of the population with insufficient caloric intake. 

Child stunting - calculated by the share of children under age five who have low height for their age, reflecting chronic undernutrition. 

Child mortality - Calculated by the share of children who die before their fifth birthday, partly reflecting the fatal mix of inadequate nutrition and unhealthy environments.

Child wasting - Calculated by the share of children under age five who have low weight for their height, reflecting acute undernutrition. The GHI score is calculated on a 100-point scale reflecting the severity of hunger, where zero is the best score (no hunger) and 100 is the worst. 

Reasons for prevalence of widespread Hunger in India:

  • Inappropriate child feeding practices:

The WHO and UNICEF recommend that breastfeeding should be initiated within the first hour of birth and infants should be exclusively breastfed for the first six months. NFHS-5 says that only 42% of infants are breastfed within one hour of birth and only 64% of infants are exclusively breastfed for first 6 months. 

  • Low Female literacy:

Nutrition levels are majorly affected by the education level of women. It increases awareness about nutrient-rich diet, personal hygiene, good feeding practices etc. Educating women also help in containing the family size in poor, malnourished families. But female literacy in India is only 65% and the rate is much lower for the states like Bihar and Rajasthan that recorded high levels of malnutrition in children. 

  • Poor Sanitation: 

Repeated infection with diarrhoeal diseases due to poor sanitation contributes to chronic malnutrition by inhibiting intestinal absorption of nutrients and is strongly correlated with stunting. The proportion of people with access to improved sanitation facilities in India is only 49% as per NHFS-4. 

  • Micro nutrient deficiency: 

According to studies, more than 80 per cent of the Indian population suffers from micronutrient deficiencies, contributing to compromised immunity. This is mainly due to lack of dietary diversification, changed dietary habbits, food processing resulting in plant micronutrient loss, crop homogenisation. 

  • Food inflation: 

With rising food inflation families become less able to buy and eat nutritious food. Accoridng to a report of ADB, 1 per cent increase in food inflation leads to an increase of 0.3 per cent in both infant and child mortalities, and 0.5 per cent in undernourishment. 

  • Limitations of existing schemes:

The ICDS program, while successful in many ways, has not made a significant dent in child malnutrition. This is mostly due to the priority that the program has placed on food supplementation, targeting mostly children after the age of three when malnutrition has already set in.

Stringent conditions to avail the benefits of Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana  has led to the exclusion of teenage mothers and poor women who birth more than one child, thereby abetting the intergenerational cycle of undernutrition.

Exclusuion errors, non-inclusion of  nutritious items such as pulses and edible oil in the PDS basket failed to improve the nutritional status of poor households. 

Impact on national growth

It is estimated that malnutrition can decrease the economic growth of a nation by approximately 8% due to loss in productivity caused by reduced schooling and cognitive impairments. Research suggests that $1 spent on nutritional interventions in India could generate $34.1 to $38.6 in public economic returns, three times more than the global average. As one of the fastest growing economies in the world, India requires a strong and healthy workforce to sustain its growth levels.

Measures taken by the Government: 

  • POSHAN Abhiyaan is an overarching umbrella scheme to improve the nutritional outcomes for children, pregnant women and lactating mothers by holistically addressing the multiple determinants of malnutrition. It involves convergence of multiple programs and schemes: ICDS, PMMVY, NHM (with its sub components such as JSY, MCP card, Anaemia Mukt Bharat, RBSK, IDCF, HBNC, HBYC, Take Home Rations), Swachh Bharat Mission, National Drinking water Mission, NRLM etc.
  • Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM POSHAN) for providing one hot cooked meal in Government and Government – aided Schools.
  • Food fortification: 
    • Fortification of wheat is being implemented in 12 states on pilot basis.
    • Fortification of edible oil, too, was made compulsory across the country by FSSAI in 2018.
    • Fortification of milk was started in 2017 under which the National Dairy Development Board of India (NDDB) is pushing companies to add vitamin D.
    • States have been scaling up the use of double-fortified salt in an effort to combat iron and iodine deficiencies.
  • Price stabilisation fund to regulate the price volatility of important agri-horticultural commodities like onion, potatoes and pulses.

Global Initiative on Digital Health: G20 Summit

Context: India, in collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO), will launch the Global Initiative on Digital Health as part of the ongoing G-20 summit.

Global Initiative on Digital Health 

Need of Such Initiative

  • To align the digital health initiatives of country.
  • To reduce duplication and optimise impact of digital health initiatives. 
  • To provide information on the funding levels in the country in Digital Health. 
  • To reduce the gaps in domestic and external investment in digital health, particularly for low and lower-middle income countries.
  • To provide a global platform that can respond to the complex digital health ecosystem.

The GIDH, the first such global initiative aimed at data convergence, interface of health platforms and investments in the digital health space around the globe, will be a WHO Managed Network (“Network of Networks”) that will promote equitable access to digital health by addressing challenges such as duplication of efforts and “products-focused” digital health transformation through a focus on four foundational pillars:

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  1. Country Needs Tracker - ensuring digital health investments are informed by country priorities.
  2. Country Resource Portal – identifying traditional as well as innovative resource opportunities, enhancing transparency and reducing risk of duplication while enabling a standards-based prospective and retrospective analysis of resourcing gaps in digital health. 
  3. Transformation Toolbox – quality assured tools and resources that strengthen country capacity and autonomy to manage their national digital health transformation journey.
  4. Convening and Knowledge Exchange - promoting strengthened collaboration and knowledge exchange across global, regional, and national networks in digital health.

Aims of GIDH 

  • Align efforts to support of the Global Strategy on Digital Health 2020–2025
  • Support quality-assured technical assistance to develop and strengthen standards-based and interoperable systems aligned to global best practices, norms and standards
  • Facilitate the deliberate use of quality assured digital transformation tools that enable governments to manage their digital health transformation journey

Expected output in the period 

  • Country needs for technical support will be systematically captured and made accessible to development partners through a standardized Country Needs Portal.
  • A platform will be created to announce and identify resources and gaps in financial and in-kind commitments in digital health available to countries, development partners and technical partners.
  • Countries will have timely access to routinely updated tools to measure maturity of the enabling environment for digital health, track digital health initiatives, guide the development and updating of digital health related strategies and policies, and identifying quality-assured digital solutions. 
  • There will be continuous cross-network knowledge exchange between existing global, regional, and national communities of practice, coalitions and more institutionalized within the WHO.

Expected Outcomes from the Initiative

  • Increased transparency and alignment on availability and reporting of digital health resources and unfunded priorities.
  • Improved alignment, collaboration, and knowledge exchange on standards based and deliberate technical assistance between countries, development and technical partners supporting national digital health transformation.  
  • Strengthened enabling environment for sustained whole-of-government approaches to national Digital Health Governance. 
  • Increased technical and financial support for the accelerated achievement of the WHO’s Global Strategy on Digital Health 2020 – 2025 and its next phase. 
  • Strengthened country ownership of quality assured investments in digital health implementation needed to sustainably accelerate national health priorities.

Benefits of Digital Health space for India

  • Inclusiveness: It will provide equal opportunity of access to better health facilities and outcomes to all citizen of India.
  • Respect: As it decreases human contact and provides individual digital autonomy, it increases consideration for human dignity, privacy and law.
  • Human flourishing and centeredness: Designed for human benefit with accountability for outcomes which will promote social good with sustainable growth.
  • Collaboration: It promotes interoperability to facilitate co-working and co-development in the health sector.
  • Accessibility: It provides for a simple, reliable and affordable healthcare alternative which increases the accessibility of health services to every section of Indian society.
  • Sustainability: It also aligns with the best practices of zero-carbon, zero-waste economy in the process and provides sustainable alternative for future.
  • Harmony: As it provides flexibility in adoption it leads to use of digital health initiatives by governments and businesses in good faith without exploiting or provoking conflicts.

A global platform which can respond to the complex digital health ecosystem by aligning investments, strengthening the enabling environment and enhancing quality assured technical support while promoting countries’ autonomy in their digital health transformation journeys can only reduce the global burden of disease while increasing the promotion between the states.

Reimagining the role of state universities in science education

What is the present status regarding STEM education in India?

  • India produces over 25 lakh graduates in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) every year, across bachelors and masters courses.
  • Among STEM graduates, the aggregate enrolment of students in BSc courses is close to 50 lakh.
  • However, the number of science graduates drops to 2.9 lakh at the masters level (25% of BSc graduates), and even further at the doctoral level, with only 6,000 science PhDs awarded each year.
  • In the QS Global Ranking of 1,000 universities from 82 countries, there are only 23 Indian institutions, with IIT Mumbai at 152, followed by IIT Delhi at 182 and IISc Bengaluru at 184 ranks. 
  • India produced 25,550 doctorates in 2020-21, of which 14,983 were in science and engineering disciplines. This 59 per cent proportion in the overall doctorates compares well with other countries, putting India in the seventh rank overall. 
image 86

What are the associated challenges?

  • Lack of Funding - The expenditure on research as a proportion of GDP has gone down, from about 0.8 per cent at the start of this millennium to about 0.65 per cent now. For the last decade or so, this share has remained stagnant.
  • Lack of research - Only one per cent of universities engage in active research, according to the detailed project report on NRF on account of poor coordination between various departments and lack of interdisciplinary approach.
  • Intellectual property - In 2021, a total of 61,573 patents were filed in India, making it the sixth largest in the world. But this was nowhere close to the nearly 16 lakh patents filed in China, and about six lakhs in the United States that year.

What does NEP 2020 say about this?

  • NEP proposes to increase the overall proportion of Public Expenditure on Education from 10% to 20.9% in the next 10 years. 
  • Of this additional 10.9%, a major share of 5% has been assigned for strengthening the quality / faculty /operations at universities and colleges. 
  • In addition, it recommends greater contribution from the private sector and ‘Not-for-profit’ organisations in education.

What is NRF? 

It was recommended by N.E.P 2020 with a total estimated cost of Rs 50000 cr during five years (2023-28)An apex body to provide high-level strategic direction of scientific research in the country.

Department of Science and Technology (DST) will be the administrative Department of NRF which will be governed by a Governing Board consisting of eminent researchers and professionals across disciplines.Prime Minister will be the ex-officio President of the Board and the Union Minister of Science & Technology & Union Minister of Education will be the ex-officio Vice-Presidents. NRF’s functioning will be governed by an Executive Council chaired by the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India.

NRF will forge collaborations among the industry, academia, and government departments and research institutions, and create an interface mechanism for participation and contribution of industries and State governments in addition to the scientific and line ministries. It will focus on creating a policy framework and putting in place regulatory processes that can encourage collaboration and increased spending by the industry on R&D.

Recently, the government has introduced NRF bill 2023 which will repeal the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) established by an act of Parliament in 2008 and subsume it into NRF which has an expanded mandate and covers activities over and above the activities of SERB.

What can be a way ahead?

  • Differentiate the needs for science and technology for a) Science education, b) Professional education and c) Vocational education.
  • Take definite steps to upgrade pedagogical capacity of the science teachers at school, college and university levels and ensure that every school has a science laboratory equipped with fundamental facilities.
  • Identify universities for research grants on the bases of their performance, scientific strength and any special needs which are location specific. 
  • A number of scientists of Indian origin are doing excellent research in the countries abroad. Such persons may be invited to work in India on sabbatical and mentor young researchers. 
  • Healthy collaboration with the private sector R&D facilities could be a win-win situation for faster development of technology and their innovative application. Best performing students may be given an opportunity to work as interns in the private labs with a possibility of placement.
  • Identify programmes in the critical fields for every five years. Strengthen the ones where India has a comparative advantage, or is at par with the global competence.

14 States are yet to join Centre’s flagship education scheme

Context: Kerala, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal are among 14 States and Union Territories which are yet to sign a crucial Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Union Education Ministry, which mandates the implementation of the National Education Policy in order to avail funds worth almost ₹13,000 crore for the next three years, under the Centre’s flagship scheme Pradhan Mantri- Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (PM-USHA) for State-run higher education.

About Pradhan Mantri- Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (PM-USHA) 

Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) was a Centrally Sponsored Scheme to fund State/UTs institutions, with the vision to attain higher levels of access, equity, and excellence in the State higher education system with greater efficiency, transparency, accountability, and responsiveness.

The scheme's first phase was launched in 2013 and the second phase was established in 2018. Now, in the light of the National Education Policy, the RUSA scheme has been launched as Pradhan Mantri Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (PM-USHA).

  • It covers government and government-aided institutions of the States and UTs.

Objectives of PM-USHA

  • To improve the overall quality of existing state higher educational institutions by ensuring their conformity to prescribed norms and standards and adoption of accreditation as a quality assurance framework; 
  • Usher transformative reforms in the State higher education system by creating a facilitating institutional structure for planning and monitoring at the state level, promoting autonomy in State Universities, and improving governance in institutions; 
  • Implementation of recommendations of the NEP 2020 through funding support provided to State HEIs;
  • Ensure governance, academic, and examination (and evaluation) reforms in the State higher educational institutions and establish backwards and forward linkages with school education on one hand and employment market, on the other hand, to facilitate self-reliance and thus create an Atma-Nirbhar Bharat; 
  • Create an enabling atmosphere in the higher educational institutions to devote themselves to research and innovations; 
  • Correct regional imbalances in access to higher education by facilitating access to high-quality institutions in urban & semi‐urban areas, creating opportunities for students from rural areas to get access to better quality institutions, and setting up institutions in unserved & underserved areas;
  • Developing infrastructure for ODL/Online/Digital mode of education in such States/UTs;
  • Improve equity in higher education by providing adequate opportunities for higher education to socially deprived communities; promote inclusion of women, minorities, SC/ST/OBCs, and special-abled persons; 
  • To identify and fill up the existing gaps in higher education, by augmenting and supporting the State Governments’ efforts; 
  • Enhancing employability through skilling and vocationalization; 
  • Improving the accreditation status of accredited institutions and getting accreditation of non-accredited institutions; 
  • Providing better hostel facilities in remote areas; 
  • Establishing New Model Degree Colleges in the districts where there are no Government and Government-aided institutions; 
  • Focusing on low GER, Left Wing Extremism (LWE), border area districts, aspirational districts and districts with higher SC/ ST populations; and 
  • Focus on multidisciplinary education, including STEM, commerce and humanities fields of education.

A New Form of Untouchability

Context: Recently, a video, purportedly showing villagers from the Surguja district of Chhattisgarh taking an oath to implement an economic boycott of Muslims, went viral on social media. This was not a spontaneous reaction of the villagers to a brawl in the village but was allegedly orchestrated by a Hindutva outfit. The Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) is known to distribute pamphlets calling for the economic boycott of those it labels “anti-national, anti-Hindu, love jihadists” — all convenient epithets to convey a communal message.

Why it is a new form of Untouchability?

  • These acts are not merely ‘expressions of hate’; they can be characterised as the emergence of a new form of untouchability guided by the political imperatives of Hindutva rather than the religious dictates of Hinduism.
  • A progressive re-articulation of the concept of untouchability or a re-reading of the anti-discrimination legislation is required to end this abomination.
  • The hierarchical caste-based Hindu social order was governed by the ideology of purity and pollution. The primary function of the ideology was to maintain the ritual hierarchy.
  • Untouchability was a mechanism through which power was exercised over the Dalits and the hierarchy was reinforced.
  • One of the most common forms of untouchability was the imposition of social and economic boycotts on Dalits if they dared to transgress social norms or exercise their rights.
  • In Ambedkar’s opinion, the method of boycotting was more effective than even open violence.
  • Collective discrimination, marginalisation and disempowerment were justified as the right of the individual to choose freely in a marketplace.
  • He argued that the boycott was effective for two reasons – one, the Dalits constituted a minority within the village; and two, they were economically weaker and hence, dependent on the ‘upper’ castes. Therefore, it was of paramount importance to outlaw this ‘tyranny of the majority’ for their uplift.

Limits of anti-boycott laws

  • During the freedom struggle, the struggle to eradicate untouchability gained momentum. This struggle found its highest expression in the fundamental rights enshrined in the Constitution under Articles 14, 15 and 17. However, although untouchability was abolished, its definition remained vague.
  • Even during the Constituent Assembly debates, it was argued that the scope of untouchability should be restricted to practices related to religion and caste, lest it be left open to unwarranted tinkering; however, the Assembly voted against such a circumscribed definition.
  • Therefore, the limits of untouchability under Article 17 have been contested.
  • While the conservatives restrict it to caste-based discrimination, the progressives argue that it includes other forms of untouchability as well.
  • However, there is a consensus that only those acts which are motivated by the ideology of purity and pollution are considered within the ambit of untouchability. These include social and economic boycotts.
  • In India, mere provision of rights has proved to be insufficient to prevent marginalisation owing to the practice of untouchability. Hence, the legislature and the judiciary have had to make and interpret special laws to that effect.
  • Two laws that explicitly make social and economic boycotts punishable are The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, and the Maharashtra Protection of People from Social Boycott (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2016.
  • However, the scope of both is restricted to criminalising caste-based discrimination and boycotts.
  • The tethering of anti-boycott or untouchability laws to the tenets of purity and pollution and restricting their scope to caste-centric boycotts make them ineffective in countering the calls for the economic boycott of Muslims.
  • Hindutva is using pre-constitutional methods to disempower a community.
  • It is not driven by the motive of maintaining ritual hierarchy but by the political imperatives of exclusion. Its ultimate objective is to ethnicise the Hindu identity. Such public calls for boycotts are a means of constructing such an identity.
  • The act of collectively resolving to boycott Muslims reinforces their ‘othering’ and re-emphasises the VHP’s idea of ‘Hinduness’; reconstituting Hinduism, based on caste hierarchy, into a unified, ethnic whole, where the figure of the Dalit is replaced by the Muslim as the significant ‘other’.

Way forward

  • These grave new developments need to be taken into cognisance and an urgent politico-legal response to such public calls for a Muslim economic boycott is required as they militate against the principle of fraternity enshrined in the Constitution.
  • This can be done by a progressive redefinition of untouchability or by expanding the scope of the anti-boycott laws to include discrimination against religious communities.
  • Other than these legal measures there is an urgent need to ensure socio-economic upliftment of the Muslim community.
  • Civil society should come forward to raise voices against such boycott calls.

India reports record 93% DPT3 immunisation coverage in 2022: WHO

Context: Recently, World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) have released estimates for National Immunisation Coverage for 2022 for its 195 member states. 

image 54

Each year WHO and UNICEF jointly review reports submitted by Member States to both agencies regarding national immunisation coverage.

Major Highlights of the Estimates:

  • The coverage rate for DPT3, the third dose of diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus vaccines, in India rose to an all-time 93% in 2022. It has surpassed the previous pre-pandemic best of 91% recorded in 2019. It has also marked a sharp increase from the 85% recorded in 2021.
    • DPT vaccine is a class of combination vaccines against three infectious diseases- diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus. This vaccine is administered to children in 3 doses for children below 7 years of age.
  • The South-East Asia Region had the best immunisation recoveries among all the WHO regions which can be majorly attributed to the efforts being made by India and Indonesia. In the region, the coverage rate for DPT3 recovered to the pre-pandemic level of 91%, a sharp increase from the 82% recorded in 2021. The region also witnessed a 6% improvement in the coverage of the measles vaccine, rising to 92% in 2022 from 86% in 2021.
  • Concerns: Despite achieving 93% coverage for its 22.5 million infants in 2022, India still accounts for 1.6 million unvaccinated and under-vaccinated children for DPT-3. The inequities in immunisation coverage can lead to accumulation of pockets of unvaccinated children, and may pose the risk of outbreaks of measles, diphtheria, and other vaccine-preventable diseases.
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Universal Immunization Programme (UIP): 

  • Launched as Expanded programme on Immunization in 1978, it was renamed a Universal Immunization programme in 1985 when it was expanded beyond urban areas. Since the launch of National Rural Health Mission in 2005, Universal Immunization Programme has always been an integral part of it.
  • Universal Immunization Programme (UIP) is one of the largest public health programmes targeting close of 2.67 crore newborns and 2.9 crore pregnant women annually.
  • Under UIP, immunization is provided free of cost against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases:
    • Nationally against 11 diseases - Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, Polio, Measles, Rubella, severe form of Childhood Tuberculosis, Rotavirus diarrhea, Hepatitis B, Meningitis & Pneumonia caused by Hemophilus Influenza type B and Pneumococcal Pneumonia. 
    • Sub-nationally against 1 disease - Japanese Encephalitis (JE vaccine is provided only in endemic districts)
  • Milestones: It is largely responsible for reduction of vaccine preventable diseases and, thus, contributing to decrease in India’s Under 5 mortality rate from 45 per 1000 live births in 2014 to 35 per 1000 live births in 2019. The two major milestones of UIP have been the elimination of polio in 2014 and maternal and neonatal tetanus elimination in 2015.

Mission Indradhanush: 

  • In 2014, the central government launched another major health mission called Mission Indradhanush which aims to cover all those children who are either unvaccinated or are partially vaccinated against vaccine-preventable diseases. Focus is given to pockets of low immunization coverage and hard-to-reach areas where the proportion of unvaccinated and partially vaccinated children is highest.
  • Initiative of: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
  • The scheme seeks to drive towards 90% full immunisation coverage in India. Vaccination is being provided against eight vaccine-preventable diseases nationally, i.e. Diphtheria, Whooping Cough, Tetanus, Polio, Measles, severe form of Childhood Tuberculosis and Hepatitis B and Meningitis & Pneumonia caused by Haemophilus influenza type B; and against Rotavirus Diarrhea and Japanese Encephalitis in selected states and districts. 

In 2017, the government introduced the Intensified Mission Indradhanush to significantly enhance the immunization campaign. A total of six phases of Mission Indradhanush have been completed covering 554 districts across the country.

Minimum Income Guarantee Bill in Rajasthan

Context: The Rajasthan government stated intent of enacting a Minimum Income Guarantee Law in the next few days.

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Minimum Income Guarantee Bill 

The Rajasthan government while introducing the bill, said “According to the basic spirit of the Constitution, every person has the right to live with dignity.”

Provision of the bill

  • Minimum Income Guarantee Scheme will include a provision for giving pension of at least Rs 1000 per month to elderly, widow, single women, with a guaranteed annual increment of 15 per cent per year. After the law is made, “giving pension will become a legal obligation.”
  • Families who complete 100 days in Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) will get 25 days extra employment on a permanent basis. Kathodi, Sahariya and Specially abled people will get employment for 200 days instead of 100 days.

MGNREGA as a Right based approach of entitlement 

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), 2005 made 100 days unskilled work a legal right for a rural resident. Which makes it a rights-based approach for providing social protection. 

  • It is a public employment guarantee scheme designed to provide employment and basic income security to the rural working-age population in India, as well as improve their livelihoods through the development of durable assets. 
  • MGNREGA combines rights-based entitlements with demand-driven employment and citizen-centred planning and monitoring in its design.

Benefits of MGNREGA over Cash transfer 

  • MGNREGA solved the hitherto difficulty of selecting recipients under a cash transfer scheme by making it a universal right for all rural residents who could self-select based on their need for employment.
  • The “targeted” safety net approach of using BPL lists to identify beneficiaries for cash transfer is plagued by the misuse of power by the rural elite and bureaucracy, resulting in the benefits reaching people who were not supposed to receive them.
  • MGNREGA provides wage income as a legal entitlement for labour done and replaces doles with salaries that are quantified.
  • MGNREGA combined development rights with citizenship rights thereby giving citizens the platform to mobilise and assert their rights to plan works, earn a minimum wage and evaluate the outcomes of the programme through social audits.
  • MGNREGA contributed to the resolution of market problems by increasing the negotiating power of MGNREGA workers in the open labour market.
  • The inability to address authentication errors, inaccessible banking systems and lack of proactive facilitation to the most marginalised make cash transfer less effective in comparison to MGNREGA.

Global Cases of social welfare programme

Brazil

Bolsa Família is the current social welfare program of the Government of Brazil, part of the Fome Zero network of federal assistance programs. Bolsa Família provided financial aid to poor Brazilian families.

Mexico

Oportunidades was the first national conditional cash transfer program targeting poor and extremely poor households and that integrated three basic social rights –health, education and nutrition.

Way Forward

  • The most logical and effective method by which delivery systems, even within a rights-based framework, can be made to respond to people’s needs is to make sure that the state agencies are accountable. Officials are accountable not just to their administrative superiors, but also to the people.
  • For any mass scale delivery of rights, a strong people-centric accountability mechanism needs to be in place — the mechanism must be codified by law. The failure to deliver should be dealt with in a given time frame and in a decentralised manner. Accountability should be fixed on individual officials.  

Poverty & UNDP

Context: The UN report noted that deprivation in all indicators declined in India and “the poorest States and groups, including children and people in disadvantaged caste groups, had the fastest absolute progress.”

image 37

Different types of Poverty 

Absolute Poverty 

Absolute poverty means poverty defined using a universal baseline with no reference to other people’s income or access to goods. The failure of meeting this baseline thus means that the individual is poor.

It incorporates the deficiency of basic food, clean water, prosperity, refuge, guidance and information and puts a money value on them to calculate a baseline. 

Relative Poverty 

Relative poverty is the level of poverty which changes depending on the context–it’s relative to the economic context in which it exists. Relative poverty is present when a household income is lower than the median income in a particular country.

For example, if the disposable income of a household is less than 50% of the median income of the country the household is relatively poor.

Situational Poverty 

Situational poverty occurs when “a family temporarily experiences financial constraints due to an illness, job loss, or other temporary event”.

Generational Poverty 

Generational poverty is a condition in which poverty has become a familial pattern for at least two generations, although it typically affects multiple generations. Sometimes, situational poverty may lead to Generational poverty.

Subjective Poverty 

Subjective poverty is an individual’s perception on his or her financial/material situation. This kind of Poverty is defined on the basis of individual feeling, i.e., those who say that they feel poor represent subjective poverty.

Different Methods of measuring Poverty

Head Count Ratio or Poverty Ratio 

Absolute poverty may be measured by the number or ‘head count’ of those whose incomes fall below the ‘poverty line’. Head Count Ratio is the percentage of that population in the total population.  

Multi-dimensional Poverty 

Multidimensional poverty encompasses the many deprivations that people can experience across different areas of their lives. This could include a lack of education or employment, inadequate housing, poor health and nutrition, low personal security, or social isolation.

In 2005/2006, about 645 million people were in multidimensional poverty in India, with this number declining to about 370 million in 2015/2016 and 230 million in 2019/2021.

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is released by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI). 

The MPI as a poverty index can be pictured as a stacked tower of the interlinked deprivations experienced by poor individuals, with the aim of eliminating these deprivations.

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Source UNDP

Causes of improvement 

During the last two decades, India has implemented several social protection programmes with the aim to improve living standards, and these have helped the Indian government in poverty reduction.

  • Implementation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) since 2006 has significantly increased household consumption and accumulated more nonfinancial assets.
  • Minimum Support Price (MSP), Public Distribution Systems (PDS), PM-POSHAN and other programmes have addressed the problem of food security. 
  • Code on social security, Code on wages etc. have increased labour earnings and security of job which played significant roles in poverty reduction.
  • PM- Jan Dhan Yojana and biometric identity cards under Aadhar have also transformed the anti-poverty programmes by replacing the current cumbersome and leaky distribution of benefits under various schemes using the Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT) programme. 
  • Saubhagya scheme, PM-Sahaj Har Ghar Bijali Yojana etc. helped in improving the standard of living.
  • Swachh Bharat mission, National Rural Drinking Water Programme, Total Sanitation Campaign, Jalmani Programme etc. have helped in improving the sanitation outcomes.
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Current status of MPI in India

India was among the 19 countries that halved their global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) value during one period - for India it was 2005/2006–2015/2016.

  • According to the report, people who are multidimensionally poor and deprived under the nutrition indicator in India declined from 44.3% in 2005/2006 to 11.8% in 2019/2021, Child mortality fell from 4.5% to 1.5%.
  • Those who are poor and deprived of cooking fuel fell from 52.9% to 13.9% and those deprived of sanitation fell from 50.4% in 2005/2006 to 11.3% in 2019/2021.
  • In the drinking water indicator, the percentage of people who are multidimensionally poor and deprived fell from 16.4 to 2.7 during the period, electricity (from 29% to 2.1%) and housing from 44.9% to 13.6%.

Way Forward

  • Government may focus on the implementation of programmes which faces the problem of rigidity, non-adaptability to local conditions, late disbursement of funds, reallocation of funds to unrelated recurring expenditure, and wide-ranging rent-seeking practices. 
  • DBT, technological improvement Programmes and sanitation programmes has been criticised because of digital divide and urban biasness in their implementation. Through initiatives for education and awareness, the Indian government could enhance the implementation its policies.

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