Science & Technology

All (4049)Current Affairs (4038)Mains Practice (126)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

Blue Origin's New Shepard Mission

Context: Recently, Jeff Bezos’s Blue Origin launched its 31st New Shepard Mission featuring an all-women crew.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about New Shepherd mission; Karman line.

31st New Shepard Mission

It was a sub-orbital spaceflight conducted by Blue Origin, a private American aerospace and space exploration company founded by Jeff Bezos. It featured the first all-female crew comprising a six-woman team.
The flight lasted approximately 10 minutes and 21 seconds, reaching 106 km above Earth, crossing the Karman line, internationally recognised boundary of space.
This mission was part of Blue Origin's ongoing efforts to expand commercial space tourism and demonstrate the reusability of their New Shepard vehicle.

New Shepard Mission

New Shepard is a sub-orbital launch vehicle developed for space tourism. The vehicle is named after Alan Shepard, the first American astronaut in space.
The vehicle is capable of vertical take-off and landings and can carry humans and customer payloads to the edge of space.
The rocket consists of a booster rocket and a crew capsule. The capsule can be configured to house up to six passengers, cargo, or a combination of both.
The booster rocket is powered by one BE-3PM engine, which sends the capsule to an apogee (Sub-Orbital) of 100.5 kilometres and flies above the Karman line.
The launch vehicle is designed to be fully reusable, with the capsule returning to Earth via three parachutes and a solid rocket motor. The booster lands vertically on the same launchpad it took off from.

Karman Line

The Karman line is an imaginary line 62 miles (100 kilometers) above mean sea level that is generally accepted as the boundary separating Earth's atmosphere and outer space.
It is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. An aircraft which crosses the Karman line is designated as a spaceflight. Anyone who crosses this line qualifies as an astronaut.
- Below the Karman line, aerodynamic principles dominate flight. Above it, the laws of orbital mechanics become more important.
- At the Karman line, the atmosphere becomes incredibly thin. Traditional aircraft that rely on wings to generate lift by pushing against air cannot function effectively at such high altitudes.
- Over the Karman line, the spacecraft need their own propulsion systems to maintain trajectory and overcome the remaining atmospheric drag, though minimal.

Rising power demand in India and the Hydrogen Factor

Context: India is the third highest energy consumer in the world. As India’s economy is expanding, India faces twin challenges- meeting growing energy demand and production of sustainable energy. In this context, India can rely on two alternatives - Nuclear Energy and Hydrogen as an energy source, to achieve a net-zero economy

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Alternatives to meet the growing Energy demand of India.

India’s Net-Zero Imperative

Presently, the power sector is dominated by fossil fuels (particularly coal) which is used to generate electricity, provide heat and molecules for industrial processes (carbon is used to reduce iron ore to produce steel).
The goal of achieving a net-zero economy by 2070 can be realised only by massive electrification of end uses of energy (from transport to industry).
Solar and wind electricity cannot provide all the electricity that India needs owing to their intermittency, and thus India has to increase the share of non-polluting alternatives like Nuclear Energy and Green Hydrogen, in its energy mix.

Crucial Role of Nuclear Energy

India has set an aspirational target to reach 100 GW of installed capacity based on nuclear power by 2047. As of January 2025, India’s nuclear capacity is 8.18 GW (8180 MW).
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) has announced an ambitious programme to set up several 700 MW Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs). (E.g., 26 units of 700 MW capacity are announced/set to be completed in upcoming years)
Many PSUs and departments such as the Indian Railways are looking to deploy nuclear power plants. NPCIL has invited proposals from the industry for setting up 220 MW PHWRs (Bharat Small Reactors) for its captive use.

Also Read: Nuclear Energy Sector in Union Budget 2025-26

Green Hydrogen or Low-carbon Hydrogen

In the coming years, the share of electricity provided by low-carbon sources (hydro, nuclear, solar and wind) will increase.
Excess/surplus energy can be used to produce green hydrogen or low-carbon hydrogen. It will solve the dual problem of storing excess energy and production of sustainable energy (green hydrogen).
Electrolysers are low-cost equipment and can be operated at different power levels. This hydrogen can be used to meet the energy demand of the end-use industry.

As India races towards the net-zero economy by 2070, India needs a robust energy policy that focuses on expanding Nuclear Energy and leverage low-carbon Hydrogen to handle/utilise surplus energy and meet energy needs.

Also Read: Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: Explained

How is safety ensured in Gaganyaan Spaceflight Mission?

Context: The recent safe return of NASA astronauts Sunita Williams and Barry Wilmore from the International Space Station (ISS) has brought attention to the critical importance of robust safety protocols in human spaceflight. The mission lasted nine months and highlighted NASA's behind-the-scenes efforts to ensure astronaut safety—physically and mentally.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Gaganyaan Human Spaceflight safety.

As India advances towards its maiden human space mission, Gaganyaan, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is meticulously putting similar protocols in place, drawing from both historical precedents and modern aerospace research.

Safety Protocols in Gaganyaan (Human Spaceflight Mission)

1. Crew Escape System:

Human-rated LVM3 (launch Vehicle Mark-3) is equipped with a Crew Escape System that acts like an emergency door — allowing the astronauts to rapidly detach and escape safely from the rocket, if anything goes wrong after the rocket has taken off.
It uses a tower-like structure on the top of the rocket containing solid fuel engines designed to ignite quickly and produce a tremendous amount of thrust in a short period of time, propelling the space capsule upwards and away from the rocket.
The Crew Escape System adjusts its response depending on how high the rocket is. It uses LEM for low altitudes and HEM for high altitudes, ensuring the astronauts can escape safely at any stage during launch.
- Low-altitude Escape Motor (LEM): Used in the initial seconds after takeoff. Produces enough thrust to quickly pull the crew module away from the rocket when it is still near the ground.
- High-altitude Escape Motor (HEM): Activates when the rocket is much higher in the sky. Provides enough pulling force to separate the crew module from the rocket safely, even at high speed and altitude.

2. Pad Abort System: Emergency Escape Right After Ignition:

Pad Abort refers to a life-threatening emergency that happens just moments after the rocket engines ignite, while the rocket is still on or very close to the launchpad.
In this scenario, both motors LEM and HEM of ISRO's Crew Escape System are activated. Together, they provide maximum thrust to quickly pull the entire crew module and escape system away from the rocket as fast as possible. After escaping, the crew module will splash down safely in the sea at a pre-decided location.

3. Safety in Orbit:

ISRO’s Gaganyaan crew capsule consists of a pair of interconnected modules:
- Crew module: serves as the living quarters for the crew and passengers)
- Service module: carries the fuel, engines, control systems, etc.
By the time the spacecraft reaches near its target orbit, the Crew Escape System is no longer needed and is discarded in space.
If an emergency arises before reaching full orbit, the service module’s propulsion system can change the flight path and bring the crew module down safely on a sub-orbital trajectory (meaning it will come back to Earth without completing an orbit).
If something goes wrong after the spacecraft is already in orbit, then both the service module’s engines, and the crew module’s small thrusters will work together to slow down the spacecraft and guide it back into Earth’s atmosphere for a safe return.

4. Returning to the Earth:

Once reentry has begun, atmospheric friction will heat the capsule’s outer heat shield to up to 1800º C. The crew in the crew module will be protected by the shield. Once the capsule has descended to a particular altitude, the crew will slow its descent using retrograde thrusters and deploy parachutes.

5. Final Descent Using Parachutes:

Gaganyaan crew capsule will decelerate throughout re-entry using a multi-stage parachute system (10-parachute system) to reduce speed in phases:
- Apex cover separation parachutes deploy at 15.3 km altitude from the ground and at 276 m/s speed.
- After that, drogue parachutes are deployed to stabilise and decelerate the capsule to 70 m/s up to a height of 3 km.
- Then the three primary canopies will be deployed, reducing the drop speed to 10-12 m/s.
Splashdown: Just before or after splashdown in the sea, the parachutes are disconnected using a pyrotechnic mechanism.

Also Read: Gaganyaan Mission

What is Digital Arrest?

Context: The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has launched Operation Chakra-V against Transnational Organised Cybercrime and Digital Arrests. Digital arrest is one of the many large-scale organised cybercrimes in India.

Relevance of The Topic: Prelims- Key facts about Digital Arrest.

Digital Arrest

A digital arrest is a type of cyber fraud in which scammers pose as law enforcement or government officials and use intimidation tactics to manipulate victims.
- They claim that the victim is under investigation for crimes such as money laundering or other legal issues.
- To make their threats more convincing, scammers may use fake video or phone calls, falsely stating the victim is "digitally arrested" or at risk of severe consequences unless they comply.
According to Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C), Indians are likely to lose over ₹1.2 lakh crore, roughly 0.7% of the GDP, over the next year due to cyber frauds.

What is GPS Spoofing?

Context: Indian Air Force’s transport aircraft carrying relief materials to earthquake-hit Myanmar faced “GPS spoofing”. India sent relief materials to Myanmar in a C-130J aircraft and its pilots reported that the plane's GPS signal was tampered with, when it was in Myanmar’s airspace.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to GPS Spoofing.

GPS Spoofing

GPS (global positioning system) spoofing is a form of cyberattack that includes generating false GPS signals to mislead an aircraft, ships and vehicles. The false signals result in misleading the navigation equipment, posing a significant risk to the aircraft, ships etc.

How does GPS Spoofing work?

GPS spoofing exploits the inherent vulnerabilities in the GPS infrastructure – the weak signal strength of GPS satellites. GPS systems function by sending signals from satellites to GPS receivers on Earth. These receivers then calculate their position based on the time it takes for these signals to arrive.
However, due to the weak signal strength of the GPS satellites, these signals can be easily overwhelmed by fake signals, resulting in inaccurate location data on the receiving device.
The act of GPS spoofing typically involves using a signal generator or other sophisticated equipment to transmit counterfeit GPS signals that are stronger than the genuine satellite signals. These false signals, when picked up by a GPS receiver, can cause it to calculate an incorrect position or time.

Some entities that may carry out GPS spoofing :

Governments/military: defence, sensitive facility protection, tactical warfare, espionage etc.
Criminals/hackers: illegal activities, transportation or communication systems disruption, cargo theft, victim tracking, stalking.
Private organisations: location manipulation, competitive advantage, fraud etc.

Measures to prevent GPS Spoofing:

As a response to the increasing prevalence of GPS spoofing, various countermeasures are being developed to secure GPS-based systems, including signal strength monitoring, time-of-arrival analysis, and cryptographic authentication.
Furthermore, experts suggest the use of multiple satellite navigation systems to cross-verify and validate positioning data, thus minimising the risk of spoofing attacks.

Also Read: How Global Positioning System (GPS) work?

Shahastra Shakti: Laser-Directed Energy Weapon system

Context: Defence Research and Development Organisation has successfully demonstrated a 30-kilowatt (kW) MKII Laser Directed Energy Weapon system (Sahastra Shakti). It masters the technology of disabling missiles, drones and smaller projectiles.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Laser-Directed Energy Weapon system.

Sahastra Shakti Laser Weapon System (MK-II)

Indigenously developed by: DRDO
The 30-kilowatt laser weapon system uses six 5 kW high-energy laser beams to damage or destroy enemy targets.
Designed to: counter aerial threats such as drones, swarm UAVs, and helicopters within a range of 5 kilometers. It can be used to destroy enemy surveillance sensors and antennae.
Effective Range: Up to 5 kilometres (under current test conditions)

Key Features

It is equipped with a 360-degree Electro-Optical/Infrared sensor enabling precision targeting of aerial threats.
It offers instantaneous engagement and low per-shot cost, making them ideal for neutralising low-Radar Cross Section threats (like drones and incoming munitions).
It features advanced electronic warfare capabilities, including jamming communication and satellite signals.
It can be adapted for both ground-based and shipborne applications.

Working of Sahastra Shakti Laser Weapon System

The Sahastra Shakti laser weapon system is mounted on two 4×4 vehicles.

The first vehicle carries a Command and Control unit (C2): It is equipped with an electro-optical (EO) targeting and tracking system which ensures real-time 360 degree tracking and targeting of airborne threats.
The second vehicle houses the Beam Control Unit: It directs the powerful laser beam toward the target based on the inputs from C2.

Significance:

The low-cost alternative reduces the reliance on expensive ammunition while also lowering the risk of collateral damage. It significantly enhances India’s counter-drone and air defence capabilities.
The success has put India in the exclusive club of nations (US, Russia and China) which have the high-power Laser-DEW system.

The advancement aligns with global trends emphasising high-power lasers for missile defense and counter-drone operations. It strengthens India's position in modern warfare.

rt-LAMP assay: Indigenous Molecular TB test

Context: Indian Researchers have developed and tested a novel, indigenous, cost-effective, real-time LAMP (rt-LAMP) assay for early diagnosis of Tuberculosis.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about rt-LAMP assay test.

What is rt-LAMP assay?

rt-LAMP (Real-time Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification) is a molecular test that allows rapid detection of DNA.
It utilises a one-step DNA amplification method that is able to detect TB DNA, even with as few as 10 copies per microliter in a sample.
The test has received approval from Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation, and is waiting for validation from Indian Council of Medical Research.

Key Features:

Low cost: Utilises inexpensive dyes (uses Syto 16, a fluorescent dye) and primers.
Sensitivity: Detects TB DNA with as few as 10 copies per microliter in a sample.
One-step amplification: rt-LAMP test works at a single temperature; in contrast RT-PCR requires three different temperature settings.
Time-Efficient: With a high rate of amplification, results of positive samples can be obtained in 10-20 minutes.
High Throughput: process up to 96 or 384 patient samples in a single run.
rt-LAMP assay kit is developed as an open platform system which allows existing RT-PCR machines to be reprogrammed for TB diagnosis.

Why is this significant?

As per the WHO Global TB report 2023: India is the highest TB burden accounting for nearly 27% of the global incidence.
The National Strategic Plan for TB Elimination (2017-2025) aims to end TB by 2025 and emphasises shift towards molecular diagnostics.

Limitations of smear microscopy for TB diagnosis:

Presently, India continues to over-rely on smear microscopy for TB diagnosis, despite:
- Low sensitivity, especially in cases with low bacterial load in a specimen.
- Inability to detect drug-resistant TB.

Other Molecular TB Diagnostic tests in India

GeneXpert: cartridge-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), the causative organism of TB. Accurate but expensive.
Truenat: chip-based real time PCR test for the semi-quantitative detection and diagnosis of MTB.

Centre approves deal to procure 26 Rafale-M jets from France

Context: India and France formally concluded an Inter-Governmental Agreement valued at nearly ₹64,000 crore to procure 26 Rafale-M fighter jets for the Indian Navy in April 2025. Deliveries are set to begin from mid-2028 and likely to be completed by 2030.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Rafale-M fighter jets.

Major Highlights of the deal

The deal includes 22 single-seater jets that can operate from aircraft carriers, and 4 twin-seater trainer jets which are not carrier-compatible.
The delivery of the jets will begin three-and-a-half years after the contract is signed and is expected to be completed in about six- and-a-half years.

Rafale-M Fighter Jet

Dassault Rafale is a French twin-engine, canard delta wing, multirole 4.5th generation fighter aircraft. Designed and built by: Dassault Aviation (France)
Omnirole aircraft, i.e., it can conduct both air-to-air and air-to-ground missions simultaneously.
Designed for: Maritime strike, air defence and reconnaissance missions. Capable of delivering nuclear weapons.
Combat Range: 780 kms - 1850 kms
Armed with:
- Exocet AM39 anti-ship missiles (70 km range)
- MICA air-to-air missiles (70 km range)
- Meteor air-to-air missiles (120-150 km strike range)
- Scalp air-to-ground cruise missile (>300 km range)

Note: Indian Air Force operates 36 Rafale jets, acquired under a ₹60,000-crore deal signed in September 2016. Due to modifications, the Rafale M is slightly heavier than the IAF Rafale.

Significance: 26 Rafale-M fighter jets will operate from INS Vikrant & INS Vikramaditya aircraft carriers and bolster Indian Navy’s capabilities. At present, the INS Vikramaditya and INS Vikrant operate with the Russian Mikoyan MiG-29K fighter aircraft.

Gaurav - Glide Bomb designed by DRDO

Context: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted the release trials of the Long-Range Glide Bomb ‘Gaurav’ from the Sukhoi aircraft. During the trials, Gaurav demonstrated its capabilities by hitting a target at a range close to 100 kms with pin-point accuracy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Gaurav - Long Range Glide Bomb.

About Gaurav

It is an air-launched one-thousand-kilogram class glide bomb capable of hitting targets at long distances.
After launch, the bomb navigates towards its target using a precise hybrid navigation system that combines Inertial Navigation System (INS) and GPS data.
It has been designed and developed indigenously by the Research Centre Imarat, Hyderabad.

About glide bomb

It is a stand-off bomb/weapon that uses aerodynamic surfaces to extend its range and accuracy compared to a conventional gravity bomb.
It's released from an aircraft at a distance from the target.
It has control surfaces, such as wings or fins, that allow them to glide and adjust their path, following a flatter trajectory than a traditional bomb, often guided by GPS, laser, or other targeting systems.
It allows aircraft to stay out of the range of enemy defences while still delivering a precision strike.

Facial Recognition Technology

Context: Delhi Police is planning a city-wide rollout of facial recognition technology (FRT) later this year in 2025. Experts warn that the increasing integration of such technology across platforms may come at a cost.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Facial recognition technology.

Facial Recognition Technology:

Facial recognition is a cutting-edge biometric technology that identifies or verifies an individual by analysing their facial features.
The algorithm-based technology creates a unique digital map of a person’s face by detecting and analysing facial features such as the distance between the eyes, shape of the jaw etc. This faceprint is then compared to a database of stored images for identity verification or identification.

Automated Facial Recognition System (AFRS)

AFRS uses a large database containing millions of facial images including those from CCTV footage, social media, and official records.
When an unidentified image is captured (E.g., from a surveillance camera), AFRS uses artificial intelligence to find a matching pattern in the database and identify the person.

There are two types of Matching:

1:1 Verification: Confirms if the face matches a single image (e.g., unlocking your phone).
1:N Identification: Compares the face to an entire database to identify an unknown individual (E.g., identifying suspects in law enforcement). Delhi Police usually use FRT for 1:N identification.

Limitations of FRT

Accuracy Issue: The system may wrongly identify someone (false positive) or fail to recognise the correct person (false negative). Accuracy drops with poor angles, low light, or occlusions like masks or sunglasses.
Limited Datasets: Studies have shown higher error rates for women, children, and people with darker skin tones, especially, when systems are trained on datasets lacking diversity. Delhi Police treat matches above 80% similarity as positive results, while matches below 80% as false positive results which require additional corroborative evidence.

Facial Recognition System in Delhi:

Since 2018, the Delhi Police has been using the Facial Recognition System (an Israeli software) to monitor high-security events in the Capital.
FRS vans are armed with cameras, computers, and automatic number plate readers (configured to scan faces instead of license plates) and stationed in different parts of the two districts every day, scanning faces and alerting them of potential hits.
Apart from fixed cameras, Prakhar vans with mobile cameras scan crowds and crime-prone areas.

Safe City Project

Delhi Police plans to expand FRS under the Safe City Project with 10,000 high-resolution CCTV cameras across the capital, whose LIVE feed will be beamed directly to a command centre at the police headquarters.
Implementation: Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.
CDAC will be responsible for setting up C41 (Integrated Command, Control, Communication & Computer Centre) where integrated video feeds will be beamed. These feeds will be analysed in real time, with AI models capable of identifying over 20 faces in a crowd, even under partial visibility or disguised appearances.

However, its use raises serious concerns about privacy and misuse. Without a clear legal framework, it has a chilling effect on civil liberties, there is a risk of misidentifying individuals, profiling, and violating fundamental rights.

De Extinction of Dire Wolf

Context: Colossal Biosciences, a US-based bioscience company, claimed that it had revived dire wolves as the world’s first successfully de-extinct animal.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Dire wolf and gene editing.

De-Extinction of Dire Wolf

Scientists extracted and sequenced DNA from two ancient dire wolf specimens — a 13,000-year-old tooth and a 72,000-year-old ear bone. This analysis identified 20 key genetic differences between dire wolves and their closest living species, grey wolves.
Using CRISPR technology, researchers edited the 14 genes in grey wolf DNA to incorporate 20 key genetic variants associated with dire wolf traits, such as larger size, broader heads and thicker fur.
The genetic material was inserted into an egg cell from a domestic dog. Once the embryos were developed, they were implanted into surrogate dogs. Consequently, the genetically engineered pups were born (named Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi).
Controversy: While Colossal Biosciences referred to these animals as “de-extincted” dire wolves, experts argue that they are genetically modified grey wolves rather than true representations of the extinct species.

Dire Wolf

Dire wolves were large canines that dominated southern Canada and the US before their extinction about 13,000 years ago.
Dire wolves resemble the grey wolves sharing 99.5% of their DNA. However, dire wolves are not the ancestors of grey wolves. The two species diverged millions of years ago and evolved separately.
Physical Appearance: Dire wolves are larger with white coats, more heavily built, thicker legs, broader heads and shoulders, and more pronounced snout. Dire wolves could be 3.5 feet tall, >6 feet in length, and weigh up to 68 kg.
Dire wolves hunted horses, bison, and possibly mammoths. One of the possible reasons behind their extinction is the extinction of its prey species.

Gene Editing

Gene editing is a scientific method where scientists modify DNA — the genetic code that determines how an organism looks, grows, and behaves. Think of DNA like a biological instruction manual made up of letters (A, T, C, G). With gene editing, scientists can add, delete, or replace parts of that manual to change how an organism develops.
CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is the most popular gene-editing technology that allows precise modification of DNA sequences.

Iron Opacity in the Sun and its Implications on Stellar Models

Context: Scientists have found a mismatch between the predicted opacity of iron inside the Sun and what experiments are now showing. This mismatch could affect solar models, and in our understanding of all stars, galaxies and even the universe's evolution.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Facts related to iron opacity in the Sun.

What is Opacity?

Opacity is the measure of how much light or radiation a material can absorb.
Higher opacity = More absorption of light = Less light transmission.
In the context of the Sun, opacity determines how energy generated in the core moves toward the surface.

Why does Iron Opacity matter in the Sun?

The Sun is used as a model to study and understand other stars and stellar evolution. Energy transport within the Sun depends on how much radiation is absorbed by elements like iron.
If opacity is underestimated, temperature profiles, element abundances, and other stellar properties in models become inaccurate.

Observations vs Models

Until the 2010s, studies showed: 30–50% less carbon, oxygen, nitrogen in the Sun than predicted. Solar models still predicted brightness and neutrino output correctly.
A 2015 study tested iron under Sun-like conditions and found its opacity was 30-400% higher than expected.
Full clarity will come with absolute opacity measurements – that is still in progress.

Implications for Astrophysics

Discrepancy in opacity affects understanding of Stellar internal temperatures; Elemental composition and transport; Nuclear fusion rates and energy generation
Larger implications: Inaccurate prediction of planetary habitability; Miscalculation of galactic evolution; Errors in modeling cosmic structures and interstellar chemistry.