Context: Among the latest set of revisions that the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has proposed in school textbooks are additions about findings from the DNA analysis of skeletal remains found at the archaeological site of Rakhigarhi in Haryana.
More information from the news:
- NCERT has stated that study of ancient DNA from archaeological sources in Rakhigarhi, Haryana suggests that the genetic roots of the Harappans go back to 10,000 BCE.
- The DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of the south Asian population appears to be their descendants.
- Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
- The continuity without any break in genetic history as well as cultural history rules out large-scale immigration of the so-called Aryans.
- The research indicated that the people coming from the bordering areas and distant regions were absorbed in the Indian society.
- At no stage, the genetic history of the Indians was either discontinued or broken.
- As the Harappans started moving towards Iran and Central Asia, their genes also gradually spread in those regions.
- The finding suggests that the reconstructed facial features of the Harappans, male and female, show remarkable similarity with the modern population of Haryana. This implies unbroken continuity for 5000 years in this region.
About Rakhigarhi
- It is one of the five biggest townships of Harappan Civilization, located in Rakhigarhi, Hisar in Haryana. According to archaeologists, it is the largest site in terms of area in the Indus Valley Civilisation Sites.
- Five interconnected mounds spread in a huge area to form the Rakhigarhi’s unique site.
- This site was excavated by Amarendra Nath of the Archaeological Survey of India.
- Rakhigarhi presents existence of civilisation from the early phase, mature phase and late phase of Indus Valley Civilisation.
- The site has both mudbrick as well as burnt-brick houses with a proper drainage system.
- The ceramic industry was represented by red ware, which included dish-on-stand, vase, jar, bowl, beaker, perforated jar, goblet and ‘handis’ (pans).
- Other antiquities included blades; terracotta and shell bangles; beads of semi precious stones, terracotta, shell and copper objects; animal figurines, toy cart frame and wheel of terracotta; bone points; inscribed steatite seals and sealings.
- Necropolis: The excavations have yielded a few extended burials, which certainly belong to a very late stage, may be the medieval times. A rare grave having double burial of a male and female has been found here.
- Ritual system: Animal sacrificial pit lined with mud brick and triangular and circular fire altars on the mud floor have also been excavated pointing to the ritual system of Harappans.
- A cylindrical seal with 5 Harappan characters on one side and a symbol of an alligator on the other side is an important find from this site.
- A site has been found which is believed to be a jewellery making unit.
Harappan Civilisation:
- The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is considered the beginning of Indian history.
- It can be divided into three phases:
- Early Harappan Phase from 3200 to 2600 BCE.
- Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
- Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1700 BCE.
- The early Harappan phase marked the transition towards the mature Harappan period.
- During this phase, farmers from the highlands gradually migrated between their mountain residences and the lowland river valleys.
- The earliest specimens of the Indus script date back to the third millennium BCE, and trade networks connected this civilization to other regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials.
- By this time, the villagers had successfully cultivated a diverse range of crops such as peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton. Additionally, they also domesticated animals like the water buffalo.
- By 2600 BCE, early Harappan villages had developed into major urban centres, signalling the beginning of the mature Harappan phase.
Societal Features:
- The society of the IVC displayed distinct urban characteristics, organized into three primary segments:
- an affluent elite residing in the fortified citadel region.
- a prosperous middle class consisting of merchants.
- a less privileged segment comprising laborers dwelling in the lower areas of the cities.
- This societal structure was underpinned by a complex division of labor, leading to a diversified and stratified community comprising scholars, artisans, traders, warriors.
- Evidence from archaeological findings suggests that the Indus Valley Civilization had a significant reverence for the feminine aspect of divinity, indicative of a matriarchal influence.
- Abundance of terracotta female figurines discovered across various sites, symbolizing the respect of the Great Mother Goddess.
- Garments within the IVC were crafted from diverse materials such as cotton, silk, and wool.
- Furthermore, the presence of woven cloth at the Great bath in Mohenjodaro suggests a sophisticated understanding of spinning and weaving among the inhabitants.
- The Civilization IVC relied predominantly on copper and bronze, with no knowledge of iron usage at the time.
- Copper was primarily sourced from the Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan, while tin likely originated from Afghanistan.
- Harappans possessed minimal armaments and weaponry. Instead, their focus lay on technological and cultural pursuits.
- The presence of massive brick structures across various sites indicates a specialized class of masons and underscores the significance of brick-laying as a vital craft in civilization.
- People engaged in a diverse area of crafts, including boat-making, bead-making, and seal-making.
- Excavations at sites such as Chanhudaro and Lothal have revealed workshops dedicated to bead-making.
- Seals, primarily crafted from steatite, were a prominent feature of IVC culture.
- While many seals were fashioned from steatite, others were crafted from materials such as gold, ivory, chert, and agate.
- Played a crucial role in trade activities, serving as markers of authenticity and authority in commercial transactions.
Polity:
- Conclusive evidence is lacking.
- Some scholars suggest that the absence of clear evidence implies a society where all individuals enjoyed equal status, without centralized rulership.
- Conversely, another perspective explains the presence of multiple rulers, each representing different urban centres, rather than a single overarching authority.
- However, the remarkable uniformity in tools, weapons, brickwork, seals, and urban architecture hints at the potential existence of a centralized political authority.
- The planning evident in street layouts, sophisticated drainage systems, and citadels suggests the presence of a robust central government overseeing urban planning and administration.
- This authority might have been wielded by a class of merchants, which is supported by the notable absence of temples in Indus Valley Civilization sites.
- However, it's essential to acknowledge that without any conclusive evidence, the precise nature of political organization in the Indus Valley Civilization is open to interpretation.
Economy:
- Agriculture thrived in the IVC due to favourable climatic conditions and fertile land.
- Cultivated: rice, wheat, cotton, barley, dates, melons, peas, lentils, mustard, linseed, sesamum, ragi, bajra, and jowar.
- Rainfed agriculture predominated, relying on seasonal rains for irrigation.
- Agricultural artifacts: wooden plough in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), the granary in Mohenjodaro (Pakistan), and evidence of barley cultivation in Banawali (Rajasthan) underscore the significance of agriculture in the civilization.
- The Indus people were pioneers in cotton cultivation and employed bulls and oxen for ploughing.
- The Harappans engaged in extensive trade involving stone, metals, and shells, both within and beyond their region.
- Trade routes facilitated both inter-regional and intra-regional commerce.
- Unlike metal currency, trade relied on a barter system.
- The IVC maintained maritime trade routes along the Arabian Sea coast, with a trading outpost established in northern Afghanistan, facilitating trade with Central Asia.
- Economic ties were also established with regions such as Tigris and Euphrates, Mesopotamia, and Persia, as evidenced by Mesopotamian records mentioning trade relations with 'Meluha' (the ancient name for the Indus region) and trading ports like 'Dilmun' and 'Makan'.
- Mesopotamians imported copper, ivory, pearls, and ebony from Meluha and exported garments, perfumes, leather goods, and silver to the IVC.