Context: India and Oman are currently negotiating a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) aimed at deepening bilateral trade, investment, and strategic engagement. ‘Omanisation’ is the last key issue in conclusion of India-Oman FTA talks.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key facts related to FTA, CEPA.
Mains: Significance of India-Oman FTA and challenges.
Major Highlights:
Initiated in November 2023, the CEPA was expected to be concluded by mid-2024. However, progress has been impeded by Oman’s ‘Omanisation’ policy.
Omanisation policy implemented by Oman aims to boost the employment of its citizens in the private sector. The policy mandates companies to meet specific quotas for hiring Omani nationals. These quotas vary by sector and are periodically revised.
India’s Response: India wants that the regulations on compulsory employment of Omanis in various sectors be frozen at the current level for India, and not increased after the India-Oman CEPA is signed.
India-Oman Trade Relations
Oman is India’s third largest trading partner in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). The bilateral trade was ~$9 billion in FY2024.
India’s key imports from Oman: petroleum products and urea account for over 70% of imports. Other important items- propylene and ethylene polymers, pet coke, gypsum, chemicals and iron and steel.
India’s main exports to Oman: petroleum products, iron and steel, rice (particularly basmati), processed minerals, ships, boats and floating structures, electrical machinery, machinery parts, tea, coffee, spices, fruits and meat products.
Potential Gains from CEPA
Boost to Indian Exports: Indian goods worth $3.7 billion like gasoline, iron & steel, electronics, machinery may benefit from removal of 5% import duty in Oman.
Services Sector Opportunity: India hopes to send more professionals to Oman, and hence does not want increased restrictions related to employment of expats.
Strategic Leverage in West Asia: India-Oman CEPA can widen India’s access to West Asia, fostering economic and strategic ties in a region of critical importance.Enhances India’s trade connectivity and access to critical maritime routes and markets in the Gulf.
India-Oman CEPA holds strategic and economic significance for India’s outreach to West Asia. Resolving the ‘Omanisation’ hurdle is key to unlocking trade potential, enhancing market access, and strengthening bilateral ties in a critical region.
Context: India should adopt a “lawfare strategy” - using international law and forums like the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to hold Pakistan accountable for sponsoring cross-border terrorism.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: SAARC Convention on Suppression of Terrorism, International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, Terrorist Bombing Convention, Jurisdiction of ICJ.
Mains: Lawfare Strategy as a strategic tool to combat Pakistan-sponsored terrorism.
Apart from military actions like Operation Sindoor and diplomatic measures, India should also adopt a "lawfare" strategy to hold Pakistan accountable for sponsoring terrorism.
Lawfare Strategy
Lawfare strategy means utilising laws, especially international laws and judicial platforms like the International Court of Justice (ICJ), as a tool to take action against countries that support terrorism.
International Legal Instruments supporting Lawfare Strategy:
India should identify specific provisions in international terrorism conventions that sanction terrorism, and highlight customary international laws that Pakistan is violating.
SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism: India and Pakistan are both parties to SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism (1987) and its Additional Protocol. Article 6 of the Additional Protocol mandates states to take all practical measures via domestic legislation to prevent, suppress and eradicate the financing of terrorism, and for effective international cooperation.
International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (ICSFT) is a United Nations treaty (1999) that defines terror financing as a criminal act. Article 2(1) of ICSFT states that any person by any means, directly or indirectly, unlawfully and wilfully, provides or collects funds with the intention that they should be used to carry out terrorist acts, commits an offense. Both India and Pakistan are parties to the convention which obligates them to prevent terror financing.
United Nations Security Council Resolutions: UNSC Resolution 1373 (2001) mandates the member states to undertake measures to deny safe haven to those who finance, plan, support, or commit terrorist attacks.
Using International Court of Justice (ICJ) as Strategic Forum: India can use ICJ as a legal forum to expose Pakistan’s support for terrorism. Many international terrorism treaties allow state parties to bring disputes to be resolved by the ICJ. For example:
Article 20(1) of the Terrorist Bombing Convention
Article 24(1) of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (ICSFT).
Ukraine used this clause to sue Russia at the ICJ for allegedly financing terrorism in the Donbas region. India can also use the compromissory clauses in these terrorism treaties to take Pakistan to the ICJ, just as it did in the Kulbhushan Jadhav case.
However, there are two significant Challenges:
Pakistan’s Reservation under ICSFT: ICSFT allows disputes to be taken to the ICJ but Pakistan has made a reservation, it has declared that it does not accept the ICJ’s jurisdiction under this treaty. This weakens India’s ability to force Pakistan to face trial under ICSFT. Nevertheless, India can still file a case with the ICJ to draw global attention to the issue.
India’s Reservation under Terrorist Bombing Convention: India has opted out of ICJ jurisdiction under this treaty, while Pakistan has accepted it which prevents India from taking Pakistan to the ICJ using that treaty. This obstacle can be overcome if India withdraws its reservation, allowing it to initiate proceedings against Pakistan at the ICJ.
India should utilise the legal proceedings in ICJ to assiduously promote a global narrative against Pakistan-sponsored terrorism. India should have fool-proof evidence and devise its legal strategy accordingly.
Context: The Ministry of Earth Sciences launched 'Bharat Forecast System'- the world's highest-resolution numerical weather model with a 6-kilometre grid.It will significantly enhance Indian Meteorological Department’s weather forecasting capabilities, especially with respect to extreme rainfall and cyclones.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Bharat Forecast System.
Bharat Forecast System
Bharat Forecast System (BFS) is India’s first indigenously built weather model.
Developed by: Pune-based Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM).
Spatial resolution: It offers a spatial resolution of 6km x 6 km, making it the world’s first weather model with such high resolution. Weather modellers have been working to fine-tune this resolution to 3km and 1km.
Current models like- Coupled Forecasting System (CFS) and Global Forecasting System (GFS) operate at lower resolution of 12 km x 12 km, missing out smaller, localised variations in weather patterns. They are unable to pick weather events occurring over smaller areas within this 144 sq km area unit.
BFS reduces this area to 36 sq km, allowing more granular and precise forecasts.
BFS uses supercomputer Arka (with a capacity of 11.77 petaflops and storage capacity of 33 petabytes).
Data from a network of 40 Doppler Weather Radars from across the country will be used to run the BFS model. Gradually, the number of Doppler radars will increase to 100 which would allow the weather office to issue nowcasts- weather forecasts for the next two hours across the country.
Significance
Improved spatial resolution will enable accurate forecasts for small-scale weather patterns, extreme rainfall, cyclones and disaster management.
It will also help agriculture and water resource management.
BFS is a deterministic model, i.e., it gives one clear and specific weather forecast based on the current data, rather than multiple possible forecasts.
BFS had been under experimental testing since 2022, and the data generated from it helped improve the accuracy of weather forecasts by 30-64%, depending on the event.
This development represents a leap in India’s weather forecasting technology with potential impact on disaster preparedness and climate resilience.
Context: The state government of Rajasthan has initiated the process for classifying the community-protected ‘Oran’ lands as forests in compliance with the Supreme Court’s direction. The sacred groves will subsequently be notified as community reserves under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
The SC recognised ‘Oran’ lands as forests under the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, in a landmark judgment in 2024. SC has also directed the Central Government to create a comprehensive policy for the management of sacred groves across the country.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Sacred Groves.
What are Sacred Groves?
UNESCO (1996) defined Sacred Groves as an area of natural vegetation preserved through local taboos and sanctions that entail spiritual and ecological values.
They are areas of natural vegetation resembling small forests protected by local communities for their religious and cultural significance.
These are important sites for worship and community gatherings. Logging and hunting are strictly prohibited in these territories.
Sacred groves are found all over India - especially in states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
There are around 14,000 sacred groves reported across India.
However, experts believe that the total number of sacred groves could be as high as 100,000.
They are known by different names in different parts of India like – Devban in Himachal, Devbhoomi in Uttarakhand, Gumpa forest in Arunanchal, Sarna in Jharkhand and Chattisgarh, Deorai/Devrai in Maharashtra, Kavu/Sarpa Kavu in Kerala, Devarakadu/ Devkad in Karnataka, Jahera/ Thakuramma in Odisha, etc.
Significance:
It acts as a repository for various Ayurvedic medicines. It is a source of replenishable resources like fruits and honey.
Sacred groves often contain plant and animal species that have become extinct in neighboring areas. They therefore harbor great genetic diversity.
They have become biodiversity hotspots, as various species seek refuge in the areas due to progressive habitat destruction and hunting elsewhere.
They are often associated with ponds and streams, and meet water requirements of local communities. They help in recharging aquifers as well.
Prohibition of cutting and chopping of trees helps reduce soil erosion and prevents desertification as in Rajasthan.
They act as lungs in urban landscapes, providing much needed vegetation cover.
Why is this directive significant?
The Centre has usually maintained that the management of wildlife and its habitat is primarily the responsibility of the States. The Centre had noted that the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, empowered States for declaration of any private or community land, as a community reserve, for protecting fauna, flora and traditional or cultural conservation values and practices.
The judgment aligned the preservation of sacred groves with the cultural and traditional rights of entire communities.
The court has asked the Ministry to develop a plan for a nationwide survey of sacred groves. The court said the survey must identify the area and extent of the groves. It said the boundaries of the groves have to be clearly marked but left flexible to accommodate future growth of the forests.
** The court cited the case study of Piplantri village to highlight how a community-driven initiative came to effectively address social, ecological and environmental challenges in a cohesive manner.
Piplantri village Rajasthan
A village in the Rajsamand district of Rajasthan, was once a victim to denuded land due to marble mining, exhausted foliage and gender inequality. From being a usual Indian village, Piplantri went on to gain international recognition for its unique model where the villagers plant 111 trees whenever a girl child is born. The girl’s parents and the villagers get together to raise a Fixed Deposit of ₹ 31,000 ($ 450) to support the girl child’s future endeavours.
The movement was spearheaded by the Padma Shri, Shyam Sundar Paliwal, who was devastated after he lost his 17 year old daughter to bouts of dehydration. He planted a tree in her memory and encouraged everyone in his village to do the same for their daughters. Soon the village was able to revive their land and even earn additional income through the forest produce. The village now has more than 350,000 trees, with various indigenous varieties, proving to be a boon to the Environment and Climate.
Context: In recent years, there has been a global transition to Electric Vehicles (EVs) largely driven by the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. However, recent research reveals negative impacts of the deployment of EVs.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Highlights of the recent study on EVs impact on environment.
Electric Vehicles
Electric Vehicles (EVs) are rapidly gaining popularity across the globe. While they make up only 2% of the total global vehicle stock, they accounted for about 20% of all new car sales in 2024, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA).
In India, around 2.5% of new cars sold in 2024 were electric, and the government plans to increase this to 30% by 2030. In China, EVs already account for nearly 50% of new car sales.
Key Highlights of the Study
Typically, an EV is at least 15-20% heavier than a comparable conventional vehicle majorly due to the weight of batteries. EVs on account of their greater weight experience higher wear and tear in their tyres compared to conventional vehicles. Thus, EVs release substantially larger numbers of small plastic particles in the atmosphere.
EVs are also able to accelerate more rapidly. This can lead to additional stress on the tyres due to increased friction and heat generation. Primary fragmentation (from potholes, braking) produces smaller airborne particles while Sequential fragmentation (gradual wear) produces larger particles.
The tyres of heavier and faster-moving vehicles produce a higher proportion of smaller particles (about 1-10 micrometres). Unlike the larger particles that settle on the ground due to gravity, smaller particles remain suspended in the air, adding to the concentration of air pollutants.
Way Forward
Expand air quality regulations: Current air quality regulations focus on PM2.5 and PM10, but with the rise of EVs and increased emission of even smaller tyre fragments, these standards need to be expanded to cover ultra-fine particulate pollution.
Incorporate Non-Exhaust Emissions: Emissions standards would probably need to account for non-exhaust emissions from vehicles.
Research & Development in tyres: Tyre manufacturers would need to invest in research and development to produce sturdier tyres that are better suited to heavier EVs.
Improve road infrastructure: Better roads reduce tyre damage and pollution.
Context: India must balance food security with ecological sustainability by adopting climate-smart rice practices, and promoting pulses and oilseeds cultivation.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Rice Production in India and its ecological costs.
Rice Production in India
India is emerging as the top rice producer in the world with over 140 million tonnes of annual production.
With a buffer stock of 55-65 million tonnes and food security schemes reaching over 80 crore people, rice cultivation has played a vital role in alleviating extreme poverty (now estimated at 2.3% as per World Bank estimates based on HCES data).
Ecological Costs of cultivating Rice
However, this comes with a price: the ecological costs of cultivating paddy.
Excessive Water Use: Rice is a water intensive crop. Producing 1 kg of rice requires over 3,500 litres of water. It depletes groundwater reserves, especially in Punjab, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
Virtual Water Export: India exported nearly 20 million tonnes of rice in FY25 (14 million non-basmati). This amounted to an export of large quantities of water (virtual water export) worsening India’s water stress.
Energy-Water Paradox: Use of rice for making ethanol amounts to the ironical use of energy (pumping water out of the ground) and water to produce energy.
Sustainable Alternatives:
Gene-edited Rice varieties: Gene-edited rice varieties are expected to produce 10 million tonnes more paddy on 5 million less hectares than at present. They use less water, mature early, and are drought-resistant. However, these seed varieties should be priced at affordable rates to small farmers.
Indigenous Rice varieties: Indigenous varieties must be revived for their resilience to weather extremes as well as their nutritional value.
Methods like Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) and System of Rice Intensification (SRI):
Direct Seeded Rice eliminates the practice of transplanting seedlings from nurseries to fields. Instead, the seeds are sown directly in the field using drills or machines. They save up to 25% water, fewer greenhouse gas emissions and reduce dependency on labour.
System of Rice Intensification is a method of rice cultivation for increasing rice yield with reduced seed and water demand. SRI involves cultivating rice with as much organic manure as possible, starting with young seedlings planted singly at wider spacing in a square pattern; and with intermittent irrigation that keeps the soil moist but not inundated, and frequent inter-cultivation with a weeder that actively aerates the soil.
Promote Crop Diversification: Entrenched status quo of systemic support for rice and wheat, at the expense of other crops must be disrupted. Increases in minimum support prices have proved ineffective to this end, in the absence of timely procurement of other crops. Oilseeds and pulses must be given top priority.
ICAR must shift its focus from traditional Green Revolution methods to actively promoting climate-resilient, water-efficient rice varieties. Although some such strains have been developed, old varieties like Sona Masuri still dominate, highlighting the need for stronger institutional push.
Rice production in India needs an ecological and policy reset. With mounting environmental costs, India must embrace technological innovations, crop diversification, and institutional reforms to ensure climate-smart sustainable agriculture.
Context: The central board of directors of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) reviewed the Economic Capital Framework (ECF). ECF is a financial governance tool that guides RBI to determine risk provisioning and surplus transfers to the government.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Contingency Risk Buffer; Economic Capital Framework.
How does the RBI transfer surplus to the Central government?
Based on the Economic Capital Framework (ECF), RBI transfers dividends to the government every year.
After setting aside the Contingency Risk Buffer and other operational expenditures (salaries etc.) from the earnings of RBI, the surplus is transferred to the central government in the form of dividends. Surplus transfer from RBI is an important component of non-tax revenues to the central government.
Bimal Jalan Expert Committee (2019):
The expert committee led by the former RBI Governor recommended that the ECF framework be periodically reviewed every five years.
It suggested that the Contingency Risk Buffer should be 5.5-6.5% of the RBI's balance sheet to ensure adequate risk provisioning.
The surplus RBI transfers to the government depends on how much risk buffer it wants to maintain. A higher risk buffer would mean a lower amount of transferable surplus and vice versa.
Note:
RBI will transfer ₹2,68,590 crore surplus to the Union government as dividend for the accounting year 2024-25. This is 27% more than the dividend paid in the previous year.
Based on revised Economic Capital Framework (ECF) and taking into consideration the macroeconomic assessment, the RBI board has decided to further increase the Contingent Risk Buffer (CRB) to 7.50%.
It is estimated that the RBI may transfer Rs 2.5 lakh crore to Rs 3 lakh crore as surplus to the government for the accounting year 2024-25. In 2023-24, the RBI had transferred the highest-ever surplus transfer of Rs 2.11 lakh crore.
In FY25, the RBI’s earnings were robust, driven by sale of dollars to curb volatility in the rupee; sharp rise in gold prices; appreciation in prices of government securities held by the RBI.
Key Concepts
Source of Earnings for RBI:
Interest on Government securities held
Interests on loans and advances made
Interest earned on Liquid Adjustment Facility operations
Interest income from foreign currency assets held
Earnings from forex swaps
Seigniorage (difference between cost of printing currency note and its face value)
Valuation gains from Gold
Contingency Risk Buffer:
CRB is the reserved fund within the Economic Capital Framework (ECF) that is maintained by RBI to address potential financial disruptions or crises.
It is the country’s savings for a ‘rainy day’ (financial stability crisis) which the central bank consciously maintains in view of its role as Lender of Last Resort.
Significance:
Higher dividend payout by the RBI will help the government in managing the fiscal deficit.
Higher surplus transfer is likely to improve liquidity conditions in the system.
Context: Inaugurating the Rising Northeast Summit, the Prime Minister of India said that the northeastern region would emerge as a gateway for trade with Southeast Asia over the next decade. Pitching for investments in the eight States, he described Northeast as the powerhouse of energy and ‘Ashta Lakshmis’ or the eight forms of Goddess Lakshmi.
It was a counter to recent remarks by Bangladeshi Chief Adviser Muhammad Yunus who referred to the northeastern region as a “landlocked” territory that could be an “extension” of the Chinese market.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Importance of Northeast Region in India's foreign policy paradigm.
India’s Foreign Policy and the Northeast Region:
India’s North-East Indian region borders five countries and plays a crucial role in India’s regional diplomacy. It is pivotal to several flagship foreign policy frameworks:
Neighbourhood First Policy: Encourages deeper political and economic engagement with immediate neighbours like Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Myanmar — all of which share borders with the northeast.
Act East Policy: Envisions enhanced connectivity with ASEAN through the northeast, positioning it as a strategic interface. The trade volume between India and ASEAN is nearly $1.25 billion. This trade volume will cross $200 billion in the coming years.
BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) : The northeast connects key BIMSTEC countries, offering a corridor for sub-regional cooperation.
Infrastructure as a Strategic Tool:
Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project (KMTTP): Aims to connect Mizoram with Myanmar’s Sittwe Port via road, river, and sea.
India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway: Seeks to provide seamless overland connectivity to ASEAN, bolstering economic and strategic integration.
Act East Roadmap & BBIN Corridor: Strengthen logistical links for trade and transit.
These projects are not only about physical connectivity but also about asserting India’s strategic autonomy and reducing dependency on routes vulnerable to China’s influence.
Key destination for two strategic sectors: Semiconductors and Energy:
1. Semiconductor Sector
2024: Tata Group commenced construction of a semiconductor unit in Assam, with a total investment of Rs 27,000 crore. The semiconductor plant has opened doors of opportunity for the semiconductor sector and other cutting edge-technology in the region.
The country will soon get the first ‘Made in India’ chip produced at the semiconductor plant in the Northeast region.
2. Energy Sector:
Beyond power generation, NE presents new avenues in the manufacturing of solar modules, cells, energy storage systems, and research and development.
The government is making large investments in areas of hydro or solar power in every state of Northeast, and projects worth crores have already been distributed.
Important Schemes for development of North-East India
Bio-economy, bamboo, tea production, petroleum, sports and eco-tourism as some of the areas where the region is an emerging hub.
1. PM-DevINE Scheme:
Prime Minister’s Development Initiative for North Eastern Region (PM-DevINE) is a Central Sector scheme (100% Central funding) announced in 2022.
Objectives of PM-DevINE scheme:
Fund infrastructure convergently in the spirit of PM GatiShakti.
Support social development projects based on felt needs of NER.
Enable livelihood activities for youth and women.
Fill the development gaps in various sectors.
Outlay: Rs. 6600 crore for 4 year period (FY23 to FY26)
Implemented by: Ministry of Development of North-East Region.
2. 'Purvodaya': Vision for Eastern Development:
The Government of India’s ‘Purvodaya’ initiative aims at unlocking the economic potential of eastern India, including the northeast.
It involves large-scale investment in infrastructure, industry, and connectivity. This complements India's multi-vector diplomacy by fostering regional integration and inclusive development.
It is aimed at extending support to the industries for enhancing regional infrastructure, creating employment opportunities, and promoting resilience and prosperity in the region.
Under the UNNATI Scheme, the following specific incentives are provided to the industrial Units:
Capital Investment Incentive
Capital Interest Subvention
Manufacturing & Services Linked Incentive
It is mandatory for all the non-exempt Union Ministries/Departments to earmark at least 10% of their annual Gross Budgetary Allocation towards the development of NER.
Harnessing Soft Power Potential of North-East Region:
India also seeks to harness the soft power potential of the northeast. During the 2023 G-20 meetings, several events were held in northeastern cities, showcasing local culture, biodiversity, and heritage. This aligns with India’s goal of building cultural diplomacy and regional identity.
India’s northeast is no longer a peripheral outpost but a fulcrum for regional connectivity, economic diplomacy, and strategic engagement. By promoting connectivity diplomacy, sub-regional integration, and transnational infrastructure, India is asserting its vision of a multipolar Asia rooted in cooperation, connectivity, and mutual growth.
As Mr. Jaishankar rightly put it, the northeast is not landlocked — it is land-linked.
Context: The Supreme Court has stayed the investigation conducted by the Directorate of Enforcement (ED) into government-run liquor retailer Tamil Nadu State Marketing Corporation (TASMAC) offices. The SC has criticised the ED for “crossing all limits” and “violating the federal structure”.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key facts about the Enforcement Directorate (ED).
Mains: Enforcement Directorate (ED): Powers and Criticism.
About Enforcement Directorate (ED)
ED is a multi-disciplinary organisation mandated with investigation of economic crimes and violations of foreign exchange laws.
It operates under the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance.
Its primary mandate is to enforce two key laws: the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA) and the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA).
Additionally, it is tasked with implementing the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 (FEOA).
The agency investigates cases of money laundering, violations of foreign exchange laws, and works to attach and confiscate assets derived from criminal activities.
Headquarters: New Delhi
Powers granted to Enforcement Directorate under different Laws
1. Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA):
Search and Seizure: ED has the power to search and seizure records or property if the suspect is believed to be involved in money laundering.
Power to Arrest: An authorised officer may arrest a person if has reason to believe that any person has committed an offence punishable under the PMLA Act, based on the material in his possession. He shall inform him of the grounds for the arrest as soon as possible.
Summoning powers: ED has the power to summon any person to give evidence or to produce any records during the course of any investigation or proceeding under the Act.
Attachment of property: The Director or an authorised officer (not below the rank of Deputy Director) can attach property of persons accused of money laundering. He may issue a written order to provisionally attach such property for a period not exceeding 180 days.
2. Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA):
ED has the powers to-
conduct investigation into suspected contraventions of foreign exchange laws and regulations.
adjudicate and impose penalties on those adjudged to have contravened the law (violation of FEMA).
3. Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 (FEOA):
ED has the power to attach the properties of the fugitive economic offenders who have escaped from India warranting arrest, and provide for the confiscation of their properties to the Central Government.
Issues with the functioning of Enforcement Directorate
These powers along with functional issues in ED have scope for political misuse.
Low conviction rate: ED has registered 5,422 cases under PMLA till March 2022, but only 23 persons have been convicted- less than 0.5%.
Self-Incrimination: ED can force an accused to self-incriminate during interrogation and such statements can be used as evidence in court. This raises concerns about the violation of Article 20 of Indian Constitution, which protects individuals from self-incrimination.
No checks and balances in search/seizure: Under PMLA, ED officials can carry out search operations even without prior FIR in predicate offence.
Autonomy: The Centre government’s authority to extend the tenure of ED officials, including the Director, raises concerns about ED’s autonomy. The Act of extension can be an incentive for displaying regime loyalty in discharging duties, and gives scope for the deployment of ED for political vendetta.
Accountability: ED has policing powers without accountability imposed on regular police. E.g., Case information report is not provided to the person concerned at the time of arrest.
Hence, it is necessary to ensure functional autonomy of ED by giving it power to appoint its own cadre and ensure accountability by strengthening PMLA appellate tribunals.
Context: As per the findings of the Asiatic Lion Census 2025, the population of Asiatic lions in Gujarat has witnessed a significant increase reaching an estimated 891 individuals.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Asiatic lions; Project Lion; Big Cat Alliance; CDV.
Asiatic Lion Census 2025
16th edition of the Lion Census. The last such census was conducted in 2020, which recorded 674 Asiatic lions in Gujarat.
Estimated lion population: 891 in Gujarat. Gir forest in Gujarat is the only remaining natural habitat of Asiatic lions.
Methodology: The census used advanced methodologies such as direct beat verification (high accuracy and minimal margin of error), supported by modern tools including high-resolution cameras, camera traps and GPS-enabled radio collars.
Concerns: ~57% of the 891 individuals have been recorded in areas outside protected forest areas. This poses an increased threat of man-wildlife conflict.
Asiatic Lions
The Asiatic lion is a big cat of the subspecies Panthera leo.
Range: Gir forest, a dry deciduous forest ecosystem in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat, is the abode of the last surviving population.
Conservation Status:
IUCN Status: Endangered
CITES: Appendix I
Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I
Concerns: Lions remain geographically isolated in Gir. This risks the spread of epidemic or disease; risk due to decline in prey or natural disasters. E.g., In 2018, 27 lions in Gir died due to canine distemper virus (CDV)
Canine Distemper Virus:
Highlycontagious viral disease caused by a single-stranded RNA virus. Affects wide range of carnivores
Impacts several body systems, including the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, the spinal cord, and the brain.
Symptoms: Dullness, lacrimation, cough, diarrhea, and seizures. It has a high mortality rate.
Conservation Initiatives
Project Lion (2020): Infrastructure development for protection and security of Indian lions, especially health infrastructure. Focus on conflict mitigation, habitat improvement, radio-collar monitoring, and camera traps, and addressing human-wildlife conflict.
International Big Cats Alliance (2023): Foster international cooperation among 97 range countries for conservation of big cats.
This growing presence underscores the continued success of conservation efforts and the need for expanded management strategies to support their increasing numbers.
Context: Protests broke out at the Upper Siang district in Arunachal Pradesh as Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) is gearing up to carry out a pre-feasibility study for the proposed 11,000 MW Siang Upper Multipurpose Project. Locals are protesting citing concerns over its environmental and social impacts.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Siang Hydropower Project; Siang River; Adi Tribes
Siang Upper Multipurpose Project:
Proposed 11,000 MW Multipurpose Project in the Siang river.
Handle possible threats from the 60,000 MW power project (the world’s biggest hydropower dam) being constructed by China in the upper reaches of Yarlung Tsangpo river in Tibet (called Siang in Arunachal Pradesh). China is not a signatory to the International Water Conventions. It intends to divert the water from the multiple water reservoirs to dry regions of Tibet and elsewhere in the country.
Siang Upper Multipurpose Project aims to maintain natural flow of water in the Siang river throughout the year, and flood modulation in case of sudden water release by China.
Concerns:
Displacement: The project is estimated to affect at least 100,000 local residents (in the upper Siang district) who could be displaced.
Environmental concerns: There are also concerns about the environmental impact of the project involving construction activities on the Siang River.
About Siang River
The Tsangpo – Yarlung Zangbo, as it is known in China – enters Arunachal Pradesh, where it is known as the Dihang (or Siang) River.
It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the towering Namcha Barwa peak, and enters Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang (orDihang).
It turns towards the south and enters Assam, where it is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit and the Dibang, and thereafter it is known as the Brahmaputra.
River Teesta joins Jumna (Brahmaputra in Bangladesh) as a right bank tributary.
Jumna moves further and joins Padma which then joins Meghna. Meghna flows into the Bay of Bengal.
The sub-basin lies in the States of Arunachal Pradesh (Subansiri, Kameng, and Bhareli rivers) , Assam (Manas, Kopili, Sankosh, and Dikhow rivers), Nagaland {Doyang (flows into Dhansiri)}, Meghalaya (Umngot and Kynshi rivers), West Bengal and Sikkim (Teesta)
It meanders through the heartland of Arunachal Pradesh, inhabited by the Adis.
Context: Urban forests are essential for sustainable and healthy city living, but face serious threats from unplanned urbanisation requiring legal, civic, and policy safeguards. The recent Kancha Gachibowli incident in Telangana highlighted the vulnerability of urban forests and environmentally insensitive models of urban development.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to initiatives to protect urban forests.Mains: Importance of urban forests.
Why do Urban Forests matter?
Urban forests such as Kancha Gachibowli in Hyderabad, Aarey in Mumbai, Turahalli in Bengaluru, Neela Hauz and the Ridge in Delhi, and Dol Ka Baadh in Jaipur, are significant for healthy urban living. Urban forests help:
mitigate climate change, sequester carbon and absorb pollutants.
control stormwater runoff, erosion, and flooding.
reduce the urban heat island effect
coping with emissions from automobile vehicles (PM 2.5 and PM 10 pollutants)
green spaces help the survival of endangered species.
A study by the US Department of Agriculture Forest Service showed that one hectare of trees can remove around one ton of air pollutants. However, diminishing urban forests in India’s metropolitan cities spell severe consequences. E.g., air quality index (AQI) in Delhi at 494.
Legal and Policy Framework for Protection of Urban Forests:
Constitutional Safeguards:
Article 21 (Right to Life): includes the Right to a healthy environment.
Article 48A: Duty of the State to protect and improve the environment.
Article 51A(g): Fundamental duty of citizens to protect the environment.
Government Schemes and Policies:
National Forest Policy of 1988 and the National Mission for Green India of 2014 underlined the imperative of increasing afforestation and social forestry.
Smart Cities Mission and Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation, launched in 2015 integrated smart urban designs with ecological and social development.
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) of the Government of India had rolled out the Nagar Van Yojana (urban forest scheme) in 2020 to promote and grow forest spaces in urban areas.
Nagar Van Yojana:
Launched in 2020 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) of the Government of India.
Objective: To promote and grow forest spaces in urban areas.
Target: To develop 1000 Nagar Vans by 2027 with the financial support of National Fund of National Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA).
Significance: Help in protecting forest land within and around urban centers from degradation and encroachment. According to the India State of Forest Report 2023, the scheme has resulted in an increase of 1445.81 km of tree and forest cover.
Judicial Interventions:
The landmarkGodavarman case in 1996 broadened the definition of forests to enhance the protection of urban greenery.
In 2015, the Delhi High Court directed the Delhi government to notify and protect the Delhi Ridge, also known as the Aravalli leopard wildlife corridor.
Similarly, the SC issued a stay order on the tree felling in Aarey in Mumbai in 2020 in response to the petitions by the citizens who conducted the Save Aarey Forest movement.
Threat to urban forests is a challenge to our biomedical, social, and cultural well-being. Urban forests are not just patches of greenery but life-sustaining ecosystems which need sustained preservation.
