Context: The central government managed to meet the fiscal deficit target of 4.8% of the GDP for 2024-25, according to the provisional data released by the Controller General of Accounts.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Fiscal Deficit- Concept and Key Trends.
What is Fiscal Deficit?
Fiscal deficit is the difference between the government's total expenditure and its total receipts excluding borrowing.
Fiscal deficit arises due to either increase in expenditure or shortfall in revenues.
Fiscal deficit can be financed through:
issuing new currency or printing money
borrowing from the central bank (RBI)
borrowing from domestic markets (via instruments like treasury bills and bonds).
borrowing from foreign sources.
Govt meets 4.8% Fiscal Deficit target for 2024-25
Fiscal Deficit target (FY 2024-25): Budget 2024-25 had a fiscaldeficit target at 4.4% of GDP. The revised estimates (RE) had a fiscaldeficit target at 4.8% of GDP.
The central government managed to meet the fiscal deficit target of 4.8% of the GDP. The fiscal deficit stood at Rs 15.77 lakh crore, or 100.5% of the revised annual target. The target was met due to:
High dividend from RBI (Rs 2.11 lakh crore in FY24)
Robust direct tax collection (witnessed a robust growth of ~15.6% )
Controlled revenue deficit
Expenditure management in subsidies and capital expenditure.
Context: The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has released the provisional estimates of economic growth for FY25. India’s GDP growth rate in FY25 hit a four-year low of 6.5%, slowing down sharply from the 9.2% growth recorded in FY24.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: GDP Growth- Trends, Components, Factors affecting GDP Growth rate.
How is Economic growth measured?
Economic growth is measured using two metrics.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is calculated by adding up all the expenditures made in the economy, including expenditures by Indians in their individual capacity, expenditures by governments, expenditures by private businesses, etc. This provides a picture of the demand side of the economy.
Gross Value Added (GVA) looks at the supply side. It effectively measures the contribution of each sector of the economy by calculating and summing the value added (or income) at each stage of production.
Both GDP and GVA are linked: they measure the same economic performance but through different routes. Their relationship can be spelled out using the following equation:
GDP = (GVA) + (taxes earned by government) - (subsidies provided by government)
MoSPI provides GDP and GVA data both in nominal terms (in present day prices) and real terms (after taking away the effect of inflation). Both nominal and real data have their own analytical significance.
For any financial year, GDP estimates go through several revisions. The provisional estimates will be revised over the next few years.
Understanding Gross Domestic Product (GDP):
Definition: GDP is the total market value of all goods and services produced within India's geographical boundaries in a specified period.
Real vs. Nominal GDP:
Nominal GDP: value of all the final goods and services at current market prices, without adjusting for inflation.
Real GDP: adjusts nominal GDP for inflation. It reflects the economy’s true growth by accounting for changes in price levels.
How is GDP Calculated in India?
GDP is calculated by adding up all the money spent in the economy. There are 4 engines of GDP Growth:
Private Final Consumption Expenditure: Total spending by individuals.
Government Final Consumption Expenditure: Spending by governments to meet daily expenditures such as salaries, etc.
Gross Fixed Capital Formation: Spending towards boosting the productive capacity of the economy. Includes investments by the government to build roads, companies building factories or buying office equipment, etc.
Net Exports: Resultant of Indians spending on imports and foreigners spending on Indian exports.
Key takeaways from the recently released data:
Nominal GDP & its growth: India’s nominal GDP grew to Rs 330.7 trillion (lakh crore) by the end of March 2025. When converted into US dollar terms, the size of India’s economy was $3.87 trillion.
Real GDP & its growth: India’s real GDP grew by 6.5% in FY25 to reach a level of Rs 188 trillion.
GVA & sectoral health of economy: For FY25, the real GVA grew by 6.4%.
The GVA data best captures the true momentum of the Indian economy as it provides insight into the health of the sectors of the Indian economy. It also excludes the effects of taxes and subsidies, which can distort GDP figures.
Three main sectors of the Indian economy: (a) Agriculture and allied activities (such as forestry, etc.) (b) Industry (including sub-sectors such as manufacturing, construction) (c) Services (including fields like financial services, trade and hotels)
Despite external challenges (like supply chain disruptions and energy market volatility), the Indian economy remains relatively healthy due to its limited reliance on global goods trade, recent tax cuts, controlled inflation and potentially softer interest rate environment.
India continues to benefit from strong service sector performance, a stable banking system, and improving manufacturing output under schemes like PLI.
Context: The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has launched the National Zero Measles-Rubella Elimination campaign 2025-26, marking a significant step towards India's goal of eliminating Measles and Rubella by 2026.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Measles, Rubella; Measles-Rubella Elimination campaign.
About Measles:
Measles is a highly contagious airborne disease caused by the measles virus virus. Measles virus is a single-stranded, negative-sense, enveloped RNA virus.
Transmission:
spreads easily from one person to the next through the coughs and sneezes of infected people.
spread through direct contact with mouth or nasal secretions.
Symptoms: High fever, cough, runny nose, red watery eyes and rash. Rashes usually appear near the hairline & cheeks, slowly moving to the chest and trunk area, and later on the limbs. Koplik spots (small white spots) may form inside the mouth. Measles can also lead to serious health issues, including- ear infections, diarrhea, pneumonia and death. Fatality rate: 5-10%
Measles Vaccine: The first effective measles vaccine was developed in 1963. In the last 50 years, it is estimated that measles vaccinations have prevented over 9 crore deaths worldwide. The vaccines reduce chances of developing measles 20-fold.
Key Facts: Most people do not get the disease more than once. Measles is not known to occur in other animals.
About Rubella
Rubella is caused by the rubella virus that invades the lymph nodes, eyes and skin. Rubella or German measles is milder than measles.
Transmission: Transmitted through droplets from the cough or sneeze of an infected individual. Transmitted through direct contact with fluids from the nose or mouth of an infected person.
Symptoms: Low-grade fever, rashes, sore throat. Rubella may not cause serious complications in healthy adults, it poses a great risk to pregnant women as it can result in Congenital Rubella Syndrome which affects the development of the baby.
Measles-Rubella Elimination Campaign 2025-26:
With the ‘ACT NOW’ policy, govt. aims to target the elimination of Measles-Rubella in the same way as Polio and Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus.
Aim: Achieve 100% immunisation coverage to children by administering them with the two doses of Measles and Rubella vaccine.
Key Facts:
Under the Universal Immunisation Programme, two doses of the Measles-Rubella vaccine are provided free of cost to all eligible children, at 9-12 months and 16-24 months of age, respectively.
Currently, India's MR vaccination coverage stands at 93.7% for the first dose (2024-25 HMIS data) and 92.2% for the second dose.
In 2024, India recorded a remarkable decline of 73% in Measles cases and a 17% reduction in Rubella cases in comparison with 2023.
Context: Operation Sindoor marks a turning point in India’s counter-terrorism strategy and military posture towards Pakistan. It reflects India’s new assertive doctrine of swift, escalated retaliation against cross-border terrorism.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India’s counter-terrorism strategy and military posture toward Pakistan.
Shifts in India’s Response post the Pahagam Terror Attack:
Shift from strategic restraint to Proactive Retaliation: In the past, India often exercised strategic restraint. India's current posture on cross-border terrorism is proactive retaliation, strategic assertiveness, and zero tolerance.
Expanded Military Engagement: The Kargil conflict of 1999 was limited to a small area in Jammu and Kashmir. During Operation Sindoor, India hit targets up to 100 km inside Pakistan and Pakistan occupied Kashmir (PoK).
Zero Tolerance Doctrine: India’s new posture treats both terrorist groups and their state sponsors as equal threats. Military action now targets infrastructure, command centers, and even state-protected assets.
Establishment of a New Normal: The Indian Prime Minister clearly stated that military action was “suspended, not ended.” India has lowered its threshold for initiating military action in response to terror.
International Message and Narrative Control: By linking Pakistan-based groups like the Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed to major terrorist attacks in the US and UK, India framed Operation Sindoor as India’s war on terrorism, similar to what NATO launched in Afghanistan after 9/11. The multi-political party outreach by the Indian government, travelling the world and explaining Pakistan's links to terrorism and India's 'zero-tolerance policy towards such aggression.
Escalation ladder- Controlled Response by India:
The progression of Operation Sindoor can be understood through the framework of the 44-step "escalation ladder" proposed by American military strategist Herman Kahn.
Kahn's step 1: Ostensible Crisis: The Pahalgam terror attack can be described as an ostensible crisis.
Kahn's Step 2: Political, Economic and Diplomatic Gestures: India’s decisions to keep the Indus Waters Treaty in abeyance, cancelling the visas of Pakistani nationals, stopping trade and postal services, closing India’s air space for Pakistan’s aircraft, etc.
Kahn’s Step 3: Solemn and Formal Declarations: India’s top leadership declared the intent to avenge the killings of the tourists at Pahalgam.
Kahn’s Step 4: Hardening of Positions Confrontation of Wills: India blamed Pakistan for not taking action against terrorist groups, while Islamabad asked for evidence of India’s accusation. It also said that India’s position on the IWT would be deemed as an “act of war”.
Kahn's Step 5: Show of Force: Indian Navy carried out multiple anti-ship missile firings, underlining its preparedness for long-range offensive strikes. Pakistan also test-fired Abdali, its surface-to-surface ballistic missile with a 450-km range.
Kahn's Step 6: Significant Mobilisation: Both sides moved military assets stealthily, preparing for confrontation.
The escalation quickly reached rungs 8 (Harassing Acts of Violence) and 9 (Dramatic Military Confrontations).
India did strike at nine terror locations in Pakistan and Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, and successfully thwarted Pakistani drone attacks along the western border. The conflict de-escalated with a ceasefire on May 10, halting the confrontation at Step 9.
Context: India and Germany celebrate 25 years of strategic partnership rooted in peace, prosperity, people-to-people ties, and sustainable development.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-Germany Strategic Partnership.
With the recent articulation of Germany’s- Focus on India strategy, new German Coalition Treaty, and reaffirmation through high-level political engagements, the partnership is poised to deepen further.
As the 3rd and 4th largest economies in the world respectively, Germany and India share robust economic and developmental partnership, essentially standing on four pillars- peace, prosperity, people and the future of our planet.
India-Germany Bilateral Relations:
Multilateral Cooperation:
Both countries exchange views in multilateral fora including G20 and in the UN on global issues such as Climate Change and Sustainable Development.
Germany and India support each other on UNSC expansion within the framework of the G4.
Germany is also a part of International Solar Alliance (ISA) and Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).
Bilateral exchanges: Since 2000, India and Germany have had a 'Strategic Partnership' which has been further strengthened with the launch of Intergovernmental Consultations (IGC) in 2011 at the level of Heads of Government.
Economic Partnership:
Germany is India’s largest trading partner in the EU, with bilateral trade crossing $25 billion (2022-23), showing strong economic interdependence.
Collaboration on Infrastructure projects like- Projects like theDelhi-Meerut RRTS, operated by Deutsche Bahn (German National Rail Company). Around 2,000 German companies are active in India, and they create more than 750,000 jobs for Indians.
In 2022, Under Indo-German Green and Sustainable Development Partnership (GSDP), Germany committed €10 billion in preferential loans and grants for India, over a span of 10 years.
India-EU Free Trade Agreement could further amplify the economic integration between two major global economies.
Energy Partnership: German technology and investment are supporting large-scale solar and wind energy projects, particularly in states like Gujarat. German private companies are contributing to India’s green infrastructure. E.g., producing rotor blades for wind turbines deployed in India.
Emerging technologies: Joint research in areas such as green hydrogen, AI, biotechnology, and climate tech. Cooperation in the renewable energy sector, biodiversity and smart city projects.
Defence cooperation: Bilateral Defence Cooperation Agreement provides the framework for bilateral defence ties. Joint military exercises like Tarang Shakti Exercise (2024). Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty between India and Germany ensures greater synergy in countering terror by sharing intelligence and coordinating joint operations.
People-to-People Ties: Over 50,000 Indian students study Germany, the largest group of foreign students in German universities.
Enhanced cooperation in the Indo-Pacific, green technologies, and skilled workforce mobility, alongside progress on the India-EU Free Trade Agreement will be critical to advancing the full strategic potential of this bilateral partnership.
Context: Boko Haram insurgency is witnessing a resurgence in Nigeria, Africa in 2025 with repeated attacks on military outposts, civilian settlements, and local militia groups.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Boko Haram; Location of Nigeria.
What is Boko Haram?
Boko Haram is a self proclaimed jihadist militant group mainly based in northeastern Nigeria.
Founded by Mohammed Yusuf in 2002, in Borno state, Nigeria.
Boko Haram translates to ‘Western Education is forbidden’.
They took up arms in 2009 to fight Western education, secular governance and modern institutions, and to impose a radical version of Islamic law.
The group is also active in Chad, Niger, northern Cameroon and Mali.
Boko Haram has split into two factions over the years:
Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP): Backed by the Islamic State group, it targets military positions and overrunning outposts across Nigeria’s northeast.
JAS (Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati wal-Jihad): resorted to attacking civilians and perceived collaborators, and thrives on robberies and abductions for ransom.
Boko Haram insurgency:
Despite earlier gains, Nigeria’s armed forces are struggling to maintain control, particularly in the crisis-ridden Borno state.
Over 2 million people have been displaced and 35,000 civilian deaths have occurred due to the insurgency.
Why is Nigeria losing ground again?
Many military posts are located in isolated areas with limited personnel, making them easy targets. Reinforcements often arrive too late.
ISWAP group uses a decentralised structure to carry out coordinated night attacks with drones and light weapons, making them harder to predict and counter.
Some former militants, despite claiming to have surrendered, continue to aid extremist groups by sharing intelligence and managing logistics.
At the height of its terror in 2013-14, Boko Haram controlled an area nearly the size of Belgium. Though Nigeria’s military reclaimed much of this territory over the past decade, the new wave of attacks has raised fears about a possible return to the gloomy past.
Context: A recent report by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) has sounded an alarm on climate change, warning that there is a 70% chance of global temperatures exceeding the 1.5°Celsius threshold above pre-industrial levels between 2025 and 2029.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends related to climate change; Paris Climate deal; India’s climate commitments.
Major Highlights of forecasts by WMO
Global mean near-surface temperature for each year between 2025 and 2029 will be between 1.2°C and 1.9°C above the pre-industrial average. There is a 70% chance that average warming will exceed 1.5°C, if the current warming trend continues.
In 2024, WMO estimated that the average global temperature was between 1.34°C and 1.41°C higher than pre-industrial levels (1850-1900).
WMO now projects the 20-year average warming for 2015-2034 to reach around 1.44°C above pre-industrial levels.
Average Arctic temperature over the next five winters (2025-2029) is expected to be 2.4°C warmer than the 1991-2020 average. Sea ice is expected to keep shrinking, particularly in the Barents, Bering, and Okhotsk Sea. This will contribute to rising sea levels and disrupted weather patterns worldwide.
About Paris Climate Agreement
Adopted in 2015 by 196 Parties during the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at Paris, France.
Aim: To limit global warming towell below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels.
Key Features of the Climate deal:
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each country sets its own emission reduction targets, with updates every five years to enhance ambition.
Global Stocktake: A periodic review of the progress on climate action at global level (not the national level) and identify overall gaps, conducted every five years.
Climate Finance: Developed countries pledged to mobilise $100 billion annually by 2020 to support climate action in developing nations, with plans for scaling this amount post-2025.
Adaptation and Resilience: Focuses on helping countries adapt to climate impacts and build resilience against future challenges.
Significance: First universal, legally binding, global climate deal. It emphasises global cooperation, fairness, and a commitment to sustainable development while recognising the individual capacities of nations.
India’s Panchamrit (nectar elements) of climate action:
The Government of India at the COP26 to the UNFCCC held in Glasgow, United Kingdom 2021 made the following commitments. The five elements of India’s climate action:
i. Reach 500 GW Non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
ii. Meet 50% of the total energy requirement from renewable energy by 2030.
iii. Reduction of total projected carbon emissions by one billion tons from now to 2030.
iv. Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels.
v. Achieve the target of net zero emissions by 2070.
Concerns: 180 of the 195 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) countries are yet to submit their next round of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) or climate plans for 2031-35 before the 30th Conference of the Parties (COP30). Climate plans are crucial to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C.
A growing number of climate scientists now hold the 1.5-degree target to be impossible to achieve due to the increasing levels of CO2 emissions.
Context: The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) approved continuation of the Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS) for 2025-26. The government will allow 7.7 crore farmers to get short-term credit at a subsidised rate of interest through the Kisan Credit Card.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Modified Interest Subvention Scheme; Kisan Credit Card.
Modified Interest Subvention Scheme
MISS is a Central sector scheme, under which farmers get short-term loans of up to ₹3 lakh through Kisan Credit Card at a subsidised interest rate of 7%, as the government covers 1.5% interest subvention to eligible lending institutions.
Additionally, farmers repaying loans in time are eligible for an additional 3% interest subsidy as prompt repayment incentive (PRI), effectively reducing their interest rate on KCC loans to 4%.
It also includes post-harvest loans against Negotiable Warehouse Receipts (NWRs) for small farmers with KCCs.
In the Budget 2025-26, the government announced to increase the loan limit under the MISS from Rs 3 lakh to Rs 5 lakh.
Implementation and Monitoring by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD).
The continuation of the support is critical in sustaining the flow of institutional credit to agriculture, which is vital for enhancing productivity and ensuring financial inclusion of small and marginal farmers.
Context: Recently, a Liberian container ship 'MSC ELSA 3' sank off the Kerala coast near Alappuzha with hazardous cargo on board. This has exaggerated the risk of oil spill, plastic pollution (due to nurdles/plastic pellets), and spread of hazardous chemicals.
The state government of Kerala has declared the wreckage as a state-specific disaster considering the potentially serious environmental, social and economic impact.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Oil spill remediation techniques; Legal avenues for India in Marine Spills.
Oil Spill
Oil spill is the accidental release of petroleum or its products into the sea or coastal waters.
Oil spills are dangerous as oil floats on water, forming a slick that spreads quickly with wind and currents. Some components can stay suspended causing long-term harm.
Impacts:
Severely damage marine ecosystems- result in death of fish and other organisms.
Destroy mangroves and coral reefs.
Oil can coat the feathers of birds- may lose their insulation abilities, leading to hypothermia and drowning.
Bioaccumulation of toxic substances in the food chain.
Affect livelihood of fishermen and disrupt local economy.
Methods used to clean up Oil Spills
Oil spreads quickly and rough seas and strong currents complicate cleanup efforts. Oils vary in properties, with some sinking or emulsifying with water and making separation tough. Some of the methods used for oil spill clean up are skimming, in situ burning and releasing chemical dispersants.
Skimming: It involves removing oil from the sea surface before it can reach sensitive areas along the coastline. E.g., Using pillows made of oleophilic (oil-attracting) materials which act like a sponge and absorb oil from the surface.
In situ burning: It means burning a particular patch of oil after it has concentrated in an area.
Releasing chemical dispersants: It helps break down oil into smaller droplets, making it easier for microbes to consume and further break it down into less harmful compounds.
The methods can have some drawbacks, such as- chemical dispersants can harm marine life. Additionally, manual cleanup is labour-intensive and often ineffective in remote areas.
Flags of Convenience:
Mediterranean Shipping Company (MSC) is one of the world’s largest container shipping companies, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
ELSA 3 is registered in Liberia, a flag state widely known for its lax regulatory oversight. This practice of registering vessels under so-called “Flags of Convenience” or “Open Registers” is common in the global shipping industry.
This allows shipowners to sidestep the stricter safety, labour, tax, and environmental regulations enforced by traditional maritime nations.
Legal avenues for India in Kerala Ship Spill:
1. MARPOL and SOLAS Conventions:
India is signatory to MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) and SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea).
MARPOL Annex III deals with pollution from harmful substances. The primary liability for pollution damage is with the shipowner and the flag state, which can extend to covering the cost of cleanup and other damages to the environment.
International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code under SOLAS requires strict controls for transportation of hazardous cargo like calcium carbide. Improper stowage or labelling of dangerous cargo may violate these rules.
Under theSOLAS, India is obligated to investigate whether the vessel met seaworthiness, stability, and hazardous cargo handling standards under the IMDG Code.
2.Merchant Shipping Act, 1958:
India’s Director General of Shipping (DGS) has the territorial jurisdiction to investigate the marine accident under provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
DGS can demand the records, vessel’s safety certificates and maintenance logs to inspect compliance about its structural integrity, maintenance and compliance with safety standards.
DGS can assess compliance with IMDG Code standards for hazardous cargo and verify the vessel’s seaworthiness certification.
3. Environment Protection Act 1986:
The ‘Polluter Pays’ principle upheld by the National Green Tribunal can be invoked to claim compensation for ecological harm.
India may also seek criminal liability under the Indian Penal Code and environmental laws, and claim additional costs for public health impacts and tourism losses.
India needs to respond swiftly to contain the pollution, investigate the causes of the accident and cooperate with international agencies for the strict enforcement of the liabilities of both the shipowner and the flag state.
Context: Quality Early Childhood Care and Education is the necessary propellant for the cognitive development of children. Various governmental and non-governmental surveys indicate that a large proportion of elementary students in India are lacking basic foundational literacy and numeracy skills.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Foundational Literacy and Numeracy: Concept & Challenges in Achievement.
Education is the most potent tool for socio-economic mobility and a key instrument for building an equitable and just society. India is a party to UN Sustainable Development Goals, whose SDG4 aims to deliver quality education for all.
Foundational Literacy and Numeracy
Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) refers to basic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. It is the ability to read and understand a basic text and perform simple mathematical calculations by the end of grade 3.
Significance: Strong literacy and numeracy help children to learn, experiment, reason and create, to be active and informed citizens, and to contribute socially, culturally and economically. National Education Policy (2020) accords the highest importance to the achievement of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy.
India Early Childhood Education (ECE) Impact Study found that:
Only 15% of pre-primary children could match basic objects, a skill essential for letter recognition in Class one.
Only 30% could identify larger and smaller numbers, which are foundational for arithmetic.
As a result, children often start formal schooling without the skills they need, with many bypassing essential ECE years entirely.
Challenges in the achievement of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy:
Lack of Early childcare and education: Over 85% of a child’s cumulative brain development occurs prior to the age of 6. Presently, quality ECCE is not available to crores of young children, particularly children from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds. Only 9% of pre-primary schools have a dedicated ECCE teacher.
Poor status of Anganwadis: The Anganwadi workers are overworked, with duties and responsibilities that centre around her being a teacher, a nurse and a social service provider. AWW is not equipped with the necessary tools to be able to engage children in learning experiences. AWW spends only 38 minutes per day on preschool instruction, which is far short of the scheduled 2 hours.
Nutritional deficiencies among children: The relationship between nutrition, health and learning is undeniably strong. As per GHI 2024, India has the highest child-wasting rate (18.7%) of all the countries, with a child stunting rate of 35.5%. This malnutrition adversely affects children’s cognitive development.
Inadequate budget: National Education Policy of 1968 recommended India should spend 6% of its GDP on education. However, as per the Economic Survey (2024-25), India spends just 2.7% of its GDP on education. The government spends only ₹1,263 a child annually on ECE compared to ₹37,000 a student on school education, largely on producing teaching-learning materials that are often underused.
Inadequate infrastructure: Though RTE Act (2009) mandated basic infrastructure in schools like toilets, safe drinking water, playground etc., the 2023-24 UDISE+ data shows that infrastructural deficit still persists, particularly in government schools.
Low pupil-to-teacher ratio: As per the Right to Education Act 2009, the desired Teacher Pupil ratio (TPR) in primary schools is 1:30 in primary and 1:35 in upper primary levels. But, TPR varies in India across different states and regions, indicating uneven distribution of teaching resources. As per the UDISE data, the proportion of single-teacher schools in India is as high as 14.7%.
Poor pedagogic skills: The medium of instruction is often different from the mother tongue of children. It negatively impacts the child’s motivation to engage in classroom processes.
Way Forward
Increase budget allocation, with focused investment in Foundational Literacy and Numeracy.
Provision of Primary education in the Mother tongue.
Alignment of synergies between the Ministry of Women and Child Development and Ministry of Education.
Since nutrition and education are both equally important and require significant time and effort, it may be worthwhile to consider having two Anganwadi workers per Anganwadi.
Ensure minimum instruction time in schools and learning at home. The Right to Education Act (2009) requires that children from grades I-V spend 200 days involving 800 instruction hours in school. Currently, different states are seen allocating different amounts of time for literacy instruction, which ranges from 35 min in some states to about 90 minutes in some others. There needs to be a standard block of time across all the states.
National Education Policy 2020 stipulates that Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) is critical for education and lifelong learning success. In this direction, the government has launched the NIPUN Bharat Mission (National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy) to ensure that every child in the country necessarily attains FLN by the end of Grade 3, by 2026-27.
Context: May 31st marks the birth anniversary of the 18th century Maratha queen Ahilya Bai Holkar who was a great administrator and visionary. In all her dealings with her subjects, Ahilya Bai was guided by her innate generosity and principles.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Ahilya Bai Holkar.
About Ahilyabai Holkar
Born in 1725, she was the Rani of Indore (Holkar dynasty) within the Maratha Confederacy.
She established Maheshwar (in Madhya Pradesh) as the seat of the Holkar Dynasty, south of Indore on the Narmada River.
After the demise of her husband (Khande Rao) she was trained in military affairs by Malhar Rao Holkar.
She came to power after the passing of her father-in-law Malhar Rao Holkar.
Contributions in Culture:
Ahilyabai funded the reconstruction of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi (1780) which had been destroyed in the past and subsequently converted into a mosque by Aurangzeb in 1669.
The current structure of Vishnupad Temple, Gaya, Bihar was built by Maharani Ahilya Bai Holkar in 1787.
Ahilya Bai resurrected the jyotirlingas across the country. Renovations in Somnath, Varanasi, Trambak, Gaya, Pushkar, Vrindavan, Nathdwara, Haridwar, Badrinath, Kedarnath and many other sacred sites were undertaken during her reign.
The Maheshwari Sari are also part of the queen’s legacy. She not only promoted the traditional weave but also paved the way for skilling women, thus empowering them. The production of these saris was not only a way to increase the revenue collection of the state, but provided a steady source of income to the weavers. Under her encouragement, the production of Maheswari saris gained momentum and popularity.
About Holkars of Maratha Confederacy:
The Holkars were Subedar (one of the designations of a governor of a Subah/province) under Peshwa Baji Rao I (Pune seat).
When the Maratha Empire began to weaken due to internal clashes, the Holkars declared themselves the rulers of Indore in Central India, existing as an autonomous member of the Maratha Empire until 1818. After this they were under the protectorate of the British Empire.
The dynasty was founded with Malhar Rao, who joined the service of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire in 1721, and quickly rose to the rank of Subedar.
In the 1720s, he led Maratha armies in Malwa region, and in 1733 was granted 9 parganas in the vicinity of Indore by the Peshwa.
By the time of his death, he ruled much of Malwa, and was acknowledged as one of the five virtually independent rulers of the Maratha Confederacy.
He was succeeded by Ahilyabai Holkar (his daughter-in-law).
Context: Dugongs once widespread along India’s coastline are now regionally endangered, with fewer than 200 individuals left.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Dugong.
About Dugong
Herbivorous mammal found in India’s marine ecosystems. Also known as sea cow, it resembles a cross between a seal and a whale.
Distributed through the Indo-Pacific region. It is found along the Indian coastline, primarily inhabiting warm waters around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, and the Gulf of Kutch.
Inhabits shallow coastal waters- primarily feeds on seagrass.
Key characteristics:
Dugong is able to live up to 70 years.
They rapidly regrow teeth in multiple iterations throughout their lives.
They are typically solitary or seen in small mother-calf pairs. They are shy and avoid interacting with humans.
They are air-breathing mammals that must surface regularly.
They reach reproductive maturity after nine or ten years, and give birth at intervals of three to five years.
Conservation status:
IUCN status: Vulnerable
CITES: Appendix I
Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I
In India, they are classified as regionally endangered. Once widespread in Indian waters, their numbers have dwindled to an estimated 200 individuals, with both their population size and geographic range continuing to decline.
Factors responsible for declining population of Dugong:
Habitat Degradation: Seagrass meadows are being lost at an alarming rate due to climate change, rising sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events like cyclones.
Marine Pollution: Pollution has led to accumulation of mercury and organochlorine compounds in their muscle tissues.
Illegal Hunting: Poaching, especially in the remote areas of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Government Efforts
India is a party to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
India is a signatory to the Convention’s Memorandum of Understanding on Dugong Conservation and Habitat Management across their range since 2008.
Govt. has announced the creation of the country’s first dugong conservation reserve. It spans 448.3 sq. km in the coastal waters of Palk Bay, Tamil Nadu.
Dugongs are gentle giants and act as gardeners of the sea, quietly shaping our oceans by nurturing seagrass meadows.
About Sea Grass
Seagrass is an underwater flowering plant, not to be confused with seaweed. It is classified as a wetland ecosystem.
Significance: Seagrass meadows stabilise the seafloor, support fisheries, capture carbon, and shelter marine life such as turtles and fish.
The National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management documented 516.59 sq. km of seagrass habitat in India (2022). This translates to a carbon dioxide sequestration potential of up to 434.9 tonnes per sq. km each year.
India’s most extensive seagrass meadows occur along- Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, off the coast of Tamil Nadu. It together supports more than 13 species of seagrass, the highest diversity in the Indian Ocean.
